Fluent Essays

see attachment  Review of Ethics In this discussion, you will look at the action research proposal you selected in Week 2 and discuss ethical considerations of the research. Initial Posting:Post an initial response that addresses the following areas: · Post the full 6th edition APA reference entry from your Week 1 Topic Selection discussion. · Next, in one paragraph, discuss any ethical considerations and concerns presented in the research either explicitly or not explicitly stated (writing “There were none” is not an option). Guided Response: Respond to at least two peers. In your responses, ask a question about the ethical implications they found in their study. Compare it to your own post and offer input as to how the considerations in light of the Belmont Report should be taken into account. Though two replies is the basic expectation, for deeper engagement and learning, you are encouraged to provide responses to any comments or questions others have given to you, including the instructor. Responding to the replies given to you will further the conversation and provide additional opportunities for you to demonstrate your content expertise, critical thinking, and real-world experiences with this topic. MY WEEK ONE :      The topic of interest is emotional/behavioral disturbance. https://www.education.com/reference/article/emotional-behavioraldisorders-defined/ (Links to an external site.) https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00224669040380030101 (Links to an external site.)             The most conspicuous thing from the resource is that emotional and behavioral disturbance is usually mainly among male students. The behavior of male students is considered incompliant and aggressive, thus making teachers have a negative feeling towards them, thus resulting in learning issues. Another thing is that emotional or behavioral disorders can be categorized into three major groups of externalizing, internalizing, and low incidence disorders.             The reason for selecting the two resources is their ability to explain the range of EBP problems. These resources discuss ways that the disorder may influence students' academic capabilities and health factors as covered in the individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997. They discuss the various forms of EBP and their effects on individuals diagnosed with the condition.             The EBP topic supports both the present and the future professional career as a teacher. Essentially, it enlightens my knowledge on how the condition may influence the learning abilities of students. Besides, it enhances my knowledge on how best to help learners understand the disorder and promote their ability to manage the same for effective classroom learning.   References Conscious Educating (2009, November 7). Action research in the classroom part 2[Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZHvpgU7pc8 Mertler, C. A. (2017). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (5th ed.) [Electronic version]. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/ WEEK TWO Action Research Article School-Based Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children with Emotional Disturbance APA Reference Reddy, L. A., De Thomas, C. A., Newman, E., & Chun, V. (2009). School‐based prevention and intervention programs for children with emotional disturbance: A review of treatment components and methodology. Psychology in the Schools, 46(2), 132-153. Reason for the Selection Mental health is very common among children. Emotional and behavior disturbance among children and adolescents are among the most common issues that affect their learning abilities. Therefore, it is necessary to develop strategies and effective means to enable children to overcome emotional disorders and enhance effective learning.             Studying this topic on emotional and behavioral disorders allows me to understand and develop the necessary skills for dealing with different behavioral disorders. As a teacher, it is necessary to understand the different types of behavioral issues caused by different factors. In children, behavioral disorders include autisms, depression, disruption, pervasive, and anxiety.             Understanding the emotional and behavioral disorders among school children helps in enhancing my role and skills as a teacher. Essentially, it allows me to explore different types of emotional and behavioral disorders and understand the various causes and triggering factors. Besides, it will also give insight into the appropriate interventions and strategies to manage and minimize the impact of these issues on students' learning abilities. The knowledge will enhance my ability to provide effective and equal learning opportunities for students. It is easy to identify when a student develops a behavioral disorder and take the right action with this knowledge. The knowledge will ensure that all students are provided with the necessary support and resources that promote effective learning despite their learning abilities. The aim is to ensure that I can freely interact with my students with emotional or behavioral disturbances issues. Reference:  Reddy, L. A., De Thomas, C. A., Newman, E., & Chun, V. (2009). School‐based prevention and intervention programs for children with emotional disturbance: A review of treatment components and methodology. Psychology in the Schools, 46(2), 132-153.   WEEK 3 INSTRUCTOR GUIDANCE Welcome to Week Three of EDU 694: Capstone 1: Educational Research. Please be sure to review the Week 3 homepage for this course to see: · The specific learning outcomes for the week · The schedule overview · The required and recommended resources · The introduction to the week · A listing of the assessments Next, be sure to read this entire Instructor Guidance page. Overview Knowledge gained in Weeks 1 and 2 prompted you to consider how Action Research can be used in the education profession and the beginning work of your final assignment by selecting a topic and Action Research proposal. This week, you will learn about the practice and principles of ethics in research and the creation of  professional learning communities (PLC) to further enhance the work of Action Research. This is an activity packed week while you work in groups with class peers in a mock PLC group so lets get started Intellectual Elaboration Professional Learning Communities A PLC might consist of a group of teachers, administrators, and other school stakeholders working together on a particular initiative related to the school. The function of a PLC may vary, but universally a PLC consists of a small number of people, usually 5-15 (DuFour & Eaker, 2010). Typically, a PLC meets over a long period of time, normally a year, and everyone works together helping each member reach a goal of learning or completing an initiative.  For more information, view this less than three-minute video from SolutionTree (2009) (Links to an external site.)  about PLCs in a school setting. While watching this video, think about how you could create a PLC in a school setting to help with Action Research. If you already have PLCs in place working on Action Research, consider sharing your thoughts on the video as part of your discussions responses this week or start a conversation in the Global Campus Café! Though the concept of a PLC may be generally understood by most, the impact a PLC makes in the staff community is sometimes easily overlooked. According to Stoll, Bolam, McMahon, Wallace, and Thomas (2006) and Williams, Brien, Sprague, and Sullivan (2008), when PLCs are incorporated into a school’s culture, the following experiences are observed:  · There is a reduction of teachers who work in isolation.  · An increased commitment to the mission and goals of the school that increase school vigor in working with students.  · Teachers feel a “…shared responsibility for the total development of students and collective responsibility for students' success” (Stoll et al., p.27). · There is a tendency for an increased meaning and understanding of the content that teachers teach and the roles they play in helping all students achieve expectations.  · There is a higher likelihood that teachers will be well informed, professionally renewed, and inspired to inspire students. For students, the results might include: · A decreased dropout rate and fewer classes "skipped" (Williams et al,. p. 31). · Greater total academic gains than in traditional schools that do not have PLC’s.  ·  “…smaller achievement gaps between students from diverse backgrounds” (Williams et al., p.32).  If results such as those noted above are linked to teachers working in PLCs, it is imperative that every school creates a PLC to foster such strong teacher and academic success. It has been argued that that the only legitimate use of teachers' time in the United States is standing in front of the class, working directly with students. However, as Burnette (2002, p. 48) noted: “… comparing how teachers around the globe spend their time, it is clear that in countries such as Japan, teachers teach fewer classes and use a greater portion of their time to plan, confer with colleagues, work with students individually, visit other classrooms, and engage in other professional development activities… which is why they have such higher academic gains than any other country.” Ethics in Research Expertise has become suspect in our Post-Modern age. We no longer have the level of trust that we once had for expertise.  The presence of the internet, of course, contributes to this.  On the internet, “expertise” can be cheaply manufactured and displayed. As David Weinberger (2011, p. xii) has colorfully noted, “Everyone with any stupid idea has a megaphone as big as that of educated, trained people.” While internet claims of expertise can be often easily dismissed, it is more challenging to do so in the scientific world.  After all, scientists and other formal researchers are the ‘educated, trained people’ Weinberger was referring to. We have a high level of trust in their work—or we used to.  Lapses in research ethics contribute to this erosion. There are, sadly, many different ways to commit ethical lapses in research, and there are several very famous cases of these ethical lapses.  View the Belmont Report, Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research   download.  Then watch the following videos*: *WARNING: The following videos contain strong or potentially offensive language. 1. Obedience to Authority_Stanley Milgram Experiment (Links to an external site.) 2. Feature Film – The Stanford Prison Experiment (Documentary) (Links to an external site.) 3. Apology to survivors of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment  (Links to an external site.) These videos contain information about three of the most egregious instances of misuse of ethics. This week you will be diving deep into the reasons why ethics in research are important and why a creation of an Institutional Review Board (IRB) at each institution of high education is paramount.  Lets take a moment however to think about other ethical lapses that may happen in research: 1. Misuse of statistical data; 2. The rush to publish; and 3. Creating panic.  Each aspect offers a challenge to researchers who want to “get it right.” Protecting Human Research Participants When conducting research with sensitive populations, the use of IRB and specific training in working with human research participants is vital to the protection of all those involved in the research process. The National Institute of Health (2011) offers a training and certificate on Protecting Human Research Participants (Links to an external site.) . It is recommended that you complete this free online training module* and save your certificate for your records and curriculum vitae (CV). Simply register for access (Links to an external site.)  to the training: · Fill in your email, select a password · Indicate your name · Select “No” for NIH employee · For your institutional affiliation, select College/University · For your role, select Student · Select your highest degree earned · For discipline, select Other to indicate Educational or Action Research · Indicate your State and Country · Do not select the Participate in CME option, as this is for Continuing Medical Education credits Once registered, complete the seven training modules* offered. While some examples* are not directly related to human research participants in educational settings, the research practices and principles of research are very applicable and should be taken into account. In order to access your certificate of completion, you must take the four quizzes associated with the modules. This training will take approximately 20-30 minutes of your time. You can leave and come back to where you left off. *WARNING: Some of the case studies contain strong or potentially sensitive topics. Protecting human research participants and understanding the IRB process are key components in setting up ethical, reliable, and valid research opportunities to benefit the participants and the field. Misuse of Statistical Data Statistics, of course, are widely viewed as highly trustworthy—the folk wisdom that “The numbers don’t lie” is often heard in connection with discussions about numbers and what they mean. While the numbers may not lie, they can certainly be manipulated.  Darryl Huff wrote the humorous, even “pleasantly subversive,” (in the words of the Atlantic Monthly), How to Lie with Statistics (1954, 1993) that is a classic of its kind. Huff noted that “There is terror in numbers,” (p.62), then set out to demonstrate it. While many of his examples are aimed at Madison Avenue and Wall Street, Huff does remind us that while statistics may not lie, in the hands of a less-than-ethical practitioner, they are surely subject to manipulation and falsehood.  Sometimes those less-than-ethical practitioners are, sadly professional researchers who clearly should know better (Links to an external site.) :  “In June, a survey of 3,427 scientists by the University of Minnesota and the HealthPartners Research Foundation reported that up to a third of the respondents had engaged in ethically questionable practices, from ignoring contradictory facts to falsifying data.”  (New York Times, December 20, 2005, para 11).   This manipulation and falsehood can occur in many forms—sampling techniques that drive survey research to a particular conclusion, or accepting some statistical analysis while rejecting other, less favorable analysis, or, as in this famous case, even outright fabrication of research data (Links to an external site.) —terror, indeed. These types of ethical lapses erode public confidence. The Rush to Publish A second type of ethical lapse is the rush to publish.  The scientific research world is largely supported by grant funding. For example, in the US in 2011 there were over $400 billion in public and private Research and Development funding up for grabs (battelle.org, December, 2011, p. 2)—a powerful incentive for doing research. But this ocean of funding does have limits, and so competition for grant funding is highly competitive.  And this makes results, particularly if they are potentially “game-changing,” highly sought after.   A famous example can be found in the case of cold fusion.  In essence, cold fusion is a theory of energy generation that would theoretically produce virtually unlimited energy. The advantages of this are obvious, as are the resultant fame and fortune that would occur with the discovery of a viable cold fusion process.   In 1989, chemists Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann of the University of Utah announced with great fanfare that they had achieved viable cold fusion.  They had done so, however, by ignoring several key science tenets in rushing to publish—they were aware of a rival researcher at a nearby university, and were in a hurry to publish their results in advance of their rival.  Their announcement, naturally enough, led other scientists to attempt to replicate their results. They could not, leading to plenty of scientific controversy. This excellent case study tells the story (Links to an external site.) —What happened, why it happened and how it impacted the worlds of science and research.   Creating Panic Turning to our last example of scientific/research misconduct, there are few conditions that have caused more fear in recent years than autism. Autism is a largely mysterious condition, and the numbers of identified cases are growing (Links to an external site.) . No one can identify a cause for this, and rumor and speculation abounds.  Therefore, when a widely respected scientific journal reports that there is a connection between childhood vaccinations (specifically for Measles, Mumps, and Rubella—MMR) and autism, people take notice. This was the case in 1998. The highly respected British medical journal Lancet carried a study that demonstrated this linkage between MMR vaccines and autism.  The problem here was that the science was deeply flawed. The lead scientist Andrew Wakefield, as an example, had served as a paid consultant to a law firm that intended to sue vaccine manufacturers.  Moreover, Wakefield (nor any other scientist) could not replicate his results (Miller, February 4, 2010). Lancet later retracted the study in 2010 (Links to an external site.) . Closing Remarks Educators assume collective responsibility for student outcomes. At the heart is the belief that a team of teachers working together can achieve more than one teacher working alone. So, rather than expecting a single classroom teacher to know everything that’s necessary to respond to every student’s needs, teachers work together to identify the needs and determine the response. Research is a human enterprise, and as such is subject to the same flaws as all other human enterprises. As in these human enterprises, most of us act in a responsible manner, and try to do the right thing. However, as is illustrated by both this week’s videos and the examples here, ethical lapses do occur. When these lapses become public, they further erode confidence in science and in research.   We can do our part in combating this. When we conduct research, we need to make sure that we are conducting the research project ethically and ‘by the book’. This ensures that our work can be viewed with confidence.   Assessment Guidance This section includes additional specific assistance for excelling in the discussions and assignment for Week 3 beyond what is given with the instructions for the assessments. If you have questions about what is expected on any assessment for Week 3, contact your instructor before the due date. Discussion 1: Working Together To Support Collaboration In this discussion, your instructor will assign and post your mock PLC group of approximately two-to-three peers. Once your group has been identified, begin collaborating with the group in this discussion and in the Ethics in Research, Discussion 2. Discussion 2: Ethics in Research In this discussion, work with your mock PLC group to come up with a supported argument based on personal experiences and scholarly literature in which you denote the importance of creating an IRB board at a local university.  Assignment: Review of Ethics For this assignment you will look at the Action Research proposal you selected in Week 2 and discuss ethical considerations of the research. The value of this assignment is two-fold; first, by understanding ethics as it relates to our own Action Research ensures we follow ethical guidelines when conducting research now or in the future. Moreover, by understanding ethical concerns in research we are able to review others research and determine if ethical considerations were taken into account. References Advantage Business Media. (2011, December). 2012 Global R&D funding forecast (Links to an external site.) . Battelle. Retrieved from http://battelle.org/docs/default-document-library/2012_global_forecast.pdf AnotherBoringWeek. (2013, January 4).  Feature film – The Stanford prison experiment (documentary) (Links to an external site.)  [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_LKzEqlPto Aylesworth, G. (2005, September 30). Postmodernism (Links to an external site.) . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2013/entries/postmodernism/ Broad, W. (1983, June 14). Notorious Darsee case shakes assumptions about science (Links to an external site.) . New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1983/06/14/science/notorious-darsee-case-shakes-assumptions-about-science.html Burnette, B. (2002). How we formed our community. Journal of Staff Development, 23(1), 51-54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) (Links to an external site.) . Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html Clinton Presidential Library [clintonlibrary42].  (2014, May 27).  Apology to survivors of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment  (Links to an external site.) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8Kr-0ZE1XY DuFour, R., & Eaker, R. (2010). Professional learning communities at work. Bloomington, IA. Huff, D. and Geis, I. (1993). How to lie with statistics. New York: W.W. Norton The Lancet. (1998). RETRACTED: Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children (Links to an external site.) . Retrieved from http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2897%2911096-0/abstract National Institute of Health Office of Extramural Research. (2011). Protecting human research participants (Links to an external site.) . National Institute of Health. Retrieved from  https://phrp.nihtraining.com/index.php The New York Times. (2005, December 20). Global trend: More science, more fraud (Links to an external site.) . Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/20/science/20rese.html?pagewant    ed=1&_r=2&ei=5070&en=99ae85a0f20ed40f&ex=1175572800 Miller, T. (2010, Feb. 4). Journal retracts study backing vaccine - Autism link (Links to an external site.) . PBS Newshour. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/europe/jan-june10/lancet_0204.html Socialontology. (n.d.).  Obedience to authority_Stanley Milgram experiment (Links to an external site.)  [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xb8dmu SolutionTree (2009, October 9). The power of PLC’s at work [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEgmHHeCl4U  Stoll, L., Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Wallace, M., & Thomas, S. (2006). Professional learning communities. Journal of Educational Change, 7(4), 258-261. Understanding Science Team. (n.d.). Cold fusion: A case study for scientific behavior (Links to an external site.) . Understanding Science. Retrieved from http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/cold_fusion_01 Weinberger, D. (2011). Too big to know. Rethinking knowledge now that the facts aren't the facts, experts are everywhere, and the smartest person in the room is the room. New York: Basic Books Williams, R., Brien, K., Sprague, C., & Sullivan, G. (2008). Professional learning communities: Developing a school-level readiness instrument. Journal of Educational Change, 7(4), 221-258. Required Resources Text Mertler, C. A. (2017).  Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators  (5th ed.). Sage Publications. · Chapter 4: Developing a Research Plan Articles DuFour, R. (2004, May).  What is a professional learning community? (Links to an external site.)  Schools as Learning Communities, 61(8), 6-11. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/may04/vol61/num08/What-Is-a-Professional-Learning-Community%C2%A2.aspx · In this article, DuFour discusses what professional learning communities are and how we can incorporate them into our schools to ensure students learn, create a school culture of collaboration, and a focus on results. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussions this week (i.e., Working Together to Support Collaboration, Ethics in Research, and Review of Ethics). Accessibility Statement does not exist. Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.) U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (1979, April 18).  Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research (Links to an external site.) . The Belmont Report. Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html · This article provides a historical report and information about ethical principles and guidelines for human research participants. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussions this week (i.e., Working Together to Support Collaboration, Ethics in Research, and Review of Ethics). Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.) Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)   Recommended Resources Students will be assigned one of the following studies to inform their Week 3 Ethics in Research discussion response. Articles Connelly, L. M. (2014).  Ethical considerations in research studies . MedSurg Nursing, 23(1). 54-55. · Cross-disciplinary article that supports your evaluation of the goals, origins, and application of action research which will be used in Week 3 Ethics in Research discussion response. Daley, T., Singhal, N., & Krishnamurthy, V. (2013).  Ethical Considerations in Conducting Research on Autism Spectrum Disorders in Low and Middle Income Countries . Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 43(9), 2002-2014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1750-2 · Journal article that supports your evaluation of the goals, origins, and application of action research in the field of special education which will be used in Week 3 Ethics in Research discussion response. Dalton, A. J., & McVilly, K. R. (2004).  Ethics guidelines for international, multicenter research involving people with intellectual disabilities . Journal of Policy & Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 1(2), 57–70. · Cross-disciplinary article that supports your evaluation of the goals, origins, and application of action research which will be used in Week 3 Ethics in Research discussion response. Irvine, A. (2010).  Conducting qualitative research with individuals with developmental disabilities: Methodological and ethical considerations . Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 38(1-2), 21-34. · Journal article that supports your evaluation of the goals, origins, and application of action research in the field of special education which will be used in Week 3 Ethics in Research discussion response. Kanner, S., Langerman, S., & Grey, M. (2004).  Ethical considerations for a child’s participation in research . Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 9(1), 15-23. · Journal article that supports your evaluation of the goals, origins, and application of action research in the field of special education which will be used in Week 3 Ethics in Research discussion response. Keteian, S. (2015).  Ethical considerations in research: Focus on vulnerable groups . Investigación y Educación en Enfermería, 33(1), 164-172. · Journal article that supports your evaluation of the goals, origins, and application of action research for student populations which will be used in Week 3 Ethics in Research discussion response. Go to top of page Action Research Improving Schools and Empowering Educators Fifth Edition Craig A. Mertler Arizona State University FOR INFORMATION: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: [email protected] SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London, EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Copyright © 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Names: Mertler, Craig A., author. Title: Action research : improving schools and empowering educators / Craig A. Mertler. Description: Fifth edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016007234 | ISBN 978-1-4833-8905-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Action research in education. Classification: LCC LB1028.24 .M47 2016 | DDC 370.72—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016007234 978-1-5063-8745-1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Acquisitions Editor: Terri Accomazzo Development Editor: Jessica Miller eLearning Editor: Robert Higgins Editorial Assistant: Erik Helton Production Editor: Olivia Weber-Stenis Copy Editor: Erin Livingston Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Proofreader: Ellen Brink Indexer: Jean Casalegno Cover Designer: Gail Buschman Marketing Manager: Ashlee Blunk Preface Purpose of the Text Most, if not all, graduate students in education—and, in particular, in-service teachers seeking graduate degrees—are required to complete a course in educational research methods. The majority of these methods courses provide a broad overview of educational research methods, designs, and techniques. However, I would argue that graduate-level research methods courses taught to in-service teachers could be more suitable provided the appropriate instructional materials were available to instructors and students, such that they focus on a classroom-based approach to research. Most research methods courses—and, therefore, their appropriate textbooks—follow the description that I offer above, in that they are “survey” courses (i.e., those that provide an overview of a variety of research methods). There are numerous texts on the market that meet this description. In contrast, there are relatively few books that focus specifically on action research as a methodology, and there are even fewer that do so with the target audience of practicing educators in mind. The purpose of this book is to introduce educators to the process of conducting their own classroom-based or school-based action research. Detailed but practical information describing each step of the cyclical, iterative process is presented in a sequential manner. Educators are provided with an overview of traditional educational research prior to examining action research as a mechanism for designing and conducting their own applied research projects. The focus is not on the theoretical aspects of educational research but rather on the practical facets of conducting applied classroom and/or school research. As presented in this textbook, action research is not simply a means of conducting applied research. It is also a mechanism for engaging educators in reflective practice and customizing professional development opportunities in order to capitalize on the unique interests of individual educators or teams of educators. The reason behind my desire to write a textbook on this topic is fairly straightforward. I have taught educational research methods for more than 20 years. The vast majority of the students enrolled in this course are in-service teachers seeking master’s degrees in various fields, including curriculum, teaching, administration, and counseling. This course is intended to serve as an overview of research methods used to conduct research in the broad field of education, focusing primarily on quantitative methods. The focus is on very formal methodological approaches, such as descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative, experimental, and quasiexperimental research methods. The educators enrolled in a research methods course—especially those who intend on remaining in the K–12 setting—typically experience substantial difficulty in being able to see the application of these formal methodological approaches in their educational settings. The bottom line is that they do not really need to understand the application of these approaches to conducting research, since the majority will likely never design or conduct such formal methodological procedures. It is my belief that this is the case for many graduate programs in education across the country. On the other hand, when we reach the topic of action research, the discussion typically piques student interest. The students can actually see how this methodological approach could be used in their schools, in their classrooms, with their students, and so on. Since action research is conducted by practitioners—yet still incorporates a good degree of rigor—students begin to see themselves designing and carrying out action research studies. By focusing our attention on a broad overview of research methods, I feel that we are doing an injustice to these practicing educators. We are not providing them with the tools necessary to design and conduct research studies that provide meaningful and immediate solutions to local-level problems. In other words, we are not adequately preparing them to investigate problems and seek solutions in their local settings and in a professional manner. The practical nature of the book stems from the fact that it focuses on research methods and procedures that teachers, administrators, counselors, intervention specialists, and so forth, can use in conjunction with their everyday instructional practices and activities in schools and classrooms. Educators are shown how to design and conduct school-based research in order to make their instructional practices more effective. The numerous examples—many of which are supplied by me, while others come from published action research studies—of the principles, procedures, and techniques discussed in the narrative make it easy for students to understand the material in this book. Theoretical aspects of research as well as highly technical concepts and procedures, which are unlikely to be used by practicing educators, are de-emphasized—producing a textbook that provides comprehensive coverage of action research methods for practicing educational professionals without being unnecessarily technical; that is, it is a practical book for educators. This book provides them with the knowledge and skills necessary to design research studies that seek solutions to local-level problems, conduct those studies, and communicate the results to local stakeholders and other interested parties. Although it is based on the research literature, the book takes a very practical approach, never losing sight of its intended audience—the practicing educator. Text Targets Graduate Students, Educators This book was written with graduate students as the primary target audience. Specifically, this audience includes but of course is not limited to K–12 classroom teachers, administrators, counselors, special educators, and intervention specialists. In all likelihood, this text would be used as the primary book for a graduate course in action research, although it could also serve as a supplemental text for other graduate-level courses not focusing on research methods (e.g., courses in curriculum, supervision). The book is appropriate for educators in all areas of education (e.g., elementary and secondary mathematics, science, social studies, languages, music, art, physical education, special education, administration, counseling, and special education); examples as well as sample articles throughout the book come from a variety of settings and situations. Text Organized Sequentially, Like an Action Research Study The main topics covered in the book pertain most closely to designing and conducting classroom-based applied research. These general topic areas—and the chapters where they are addressed in the book—include the following: · An overview of educational research (Chapter 1) · An overview of action research (Chapter 1) · The characteristics of action research (Chapter 1) · The action research process (Chapter 2) · Identifying an area of focus for action research (Chapter 3) · Reviewing related literature (Chapter 3) · Designing an action research study (Chapter 4) · Collecting and analyzing data (Chapters 5 and 6) · Developing an action plan (Chapter 7) · Writing an action research report (Chapter 8) · Sharing the results of an action research study (Chapter 9) · Reflecting on the process of action research (Chapter 9) The book is arranged in this manner because it presents, in sequential order, the process of designing and conducting an action research study—beginning with the development of the topic to be investigated, reviewing related research, designing the study, actually carrying out the procedures, developing an action plan, and ultimately sharing the results and reflecting on the process. It is, however, important to note that action research proceeds through this process in a cyclical manner. Pedagogical Features and Benefits to Students (as Well as Instructors) When compared with other action research books currently on the market, this book provides similar coverage of content. There are, however, several aspects that distinguish it from similar works. These aspects include the following: · Since the book takes an extremely applied approach, it includes numerous examples—not simple discussions or descriptions—of such things as data collection instruments (e.g., checklists, attitude surveys, interview protocols, and journal prompts) and presentation of research results (e.g., tables and graphs resulting from the analysis of quantitative data; summary tables resulting from the analysis of qualitative data; actual reports of action research). · In addition to the various narrative examples that appear throughout the book, two detailed case studies of action research, called “Action Research Portraits,” are developed in Chapter 1 and are extended in each subsequent chapter throughout the book. In each chapter, the case study discussions continue from the previous chapter, highlighting the application of content from the particular chapter as integrated into two practically based action research studies, one of which is conducted by an individual teacher (at the elementary level) and the other by a pair of teachers (at the high school level). In addition, a third “Action Research Portrait” appears on the book’s accompanying website (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e). · Numerous online resources are available for teachers to use in order to learn more about action research, address questions that they may have about the process, or promote dissemination of their action research results. A section titled “Related Websites” is included near the end of each of the nine chapters. · Special sections, titled “Writing Up Action Research,” are also included in Chapters 3 through 7 and Chapter 9. These sections provide annotated excerpts from published or otherwise disseminated action research reports, highlighting specific concepts presented in each particular chapter. · On the first page of each chapter is a visual organizer for the main contents of that chapter. · Three appendices follow Chapter 9. The first two include complete written reports of teacher-conducted action research projects. We have also included additional complete written reports of teacher-conducted action research projects on the website (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e). The third appendix contains developmental templates to guide the novice action researcher. These templates are also included on the website. · Each chapter includes a bulleted “Summary” of the main points included in the chapter. · Each chapter also includes a final section titled “Questions and Activities” that can be used to extend student knowledge, understanding, and application. · The text also includes a complete glossary of terms related to action research, a list of references used to compile the book, and a comprehensive subject and author index. Video Clip of Dr. Mertler discussing the new features of the 5th edition. New Features in the Fifth Edition There are several new features in the fifth edition of Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators: · The discussion of rigor in Chapter 1 has been enhanced. · Social justice advocacy has been added as an important application of action research. · The discussions of ethics in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 have been enhanced. · The “Writing Up Action Research” sections that appear in Chapter 3 to 7 and Chapter 9 have been supplemented with call-out boxes highlighting the important aspects of each excerpt. · Substantially enhanced presentations of establishing the quality of both qualitative and quantitative data have been added to Chapter 5. · A discussion of the inclusion of abstracts has been incorporated into Chapter 8. · The developmental templates shown in Appendix C—in addition to being provided in an interactive, electronic format on the Student Study Site (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e)—are now also available at TeachersPayTeachers.com, called the Action Research Mentor Portfolio. · Finally, two new complete action research reports have been added as Appendix A and Appendix B. Both reports are new to this edition. The complete written reports of teacher-conducted action research projects from all previous editions are available on the website that accompanies this book (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e). Ancillary Material on the Web Open-Access Student Study Site:  edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e This web-based Student Study Site provides a variety of additional resources to enhance students’ understanding of the book’s content and take their learning one step further. The site includes the following: · Interactive PDF Action Research Developmental Templates are provided to assist and guide the novice action researcher through many of the steps and decisions in the process of designing and conducting original action research. · Video vignettes of the author and several practitioner-researchers discussing various aspects of conducting action research. These vignettes are integrated with specific chapter content throughout the book. · Web quizzes allow students to independently assess their progress in learning course material. · eFlashcards are study tools to reinforce student understanding and learning of key terms and concepts that are outlined in the chapters. · Chapter-specific PowerPoint presentations offer assistance by highlighting essential content, features, and artwork from the book. · A  Learning From SAGE Journal Articles  feature provides access to recent, relevant full-text articles from SAGE’s leading research journals. Each article supports and expands on the concepts presented in the chapter. · Carefully selected, web-based video resources feature relevant content for use in independent and classroom-based exploration of key topics. · Links to relevant web resources direct students to additional tools for further research on important chapter topics. · Sample Action Research Reports  are also included. A Note About Action Research Projects One concern that both instructors and students face is how to fit into one semester both the content coverage of the book and the completion of a student-conducted action research project. My advice is first to reinforce with students who are just learning about action research that the important aspect of an action research project as a course assignment is to become familiar with the process of designing and conducting action research and that they should worry less about the final product of their study. If they can become familiar and comfortable with the process as a whole, they will later be able to design and conduct larger-scale research projects that may require more time. For a typical 15-week academic term, I might suggest the following week-by-week activities, for both content coverage of the book and the associated action research project: For a typical 10-week academic term, I might suggest the following week-by-week activities: A Final Note for Students of Action Research I enjoy and value classroom-based/school-based action research because it has the potential to empower educators, to engage them directly in the process of educational improvement, and to provide a mechanism for customizing professional development. I will not mislead you into thinking that this is necessarily an easy road to travel. Learning how to conduct action research studies that will enhance your professional practice does, in fact, take time and practice. However, by gaining familiarity and experience with designing and conducting action research projects, you will, I trust, realize the substantial and positive professional, reflective outcomes of action research discussed repeatedly throughout this book. I sincerely wish you the best of luck in your action research endeavors! In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there are several icons that reference links (videos, journal articles) to additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not live, all content referenced may be accessed at edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e . This URL is referenced at several points throughout your electronic edition. Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge the contributions of several individuals to this project. I would like to recognize and sincerely thank my editorial team at Sage Publications—namely, Terri Accomazzo (acquisitions editor). I’ve worked with Terri for many years on several projects and she amazes me with each successive endeavor. I would also like to thank Jessica Miller (associate editor) and Georgia McLaughlin (editorial assistant) for their support and timely responses to all of my questions. I would like to thank Olivia Weber-Stenis (production editor) and Erin Livingston (copy editor) for their assistance in working with me on the drafts and on the final appearance of the book. Thanks also to Robert Higgins (eLearning editor) for his assistance on the student study site ancillaries. Finally, I would like to thank Ashlee Blunk (marketing manager) and her staff for their continued support of the book. I offer my sincere thanks to those individuals who served as reviewers for this revised edition—their comments and feedback were greatly appreciated and extremely helpful: · Ronald Beebe, University of Houston–Downtown · Tyrone Bynoe, University of the Cumberlands · Stacy Hill, Whitworth University · Kimberly Livengood, Angelo State University · Gene Schwarting, Fontbonne University · Michelle Szpara, Cabrini College · Gay Ward, University of Wisconsin–River Falls Also, I would like to recognize and thank those individuals who provided helpful feedback on previous editions: · Katherine Egan Cunningham, Manhattanville College · Elizabeth Dore, Radford University · Gabrielle Kowalski, Cardinal Stritch University · Yoon-Joo Lee, CUNY System Office–New York · Ida Malian, Arizona State University · Darcy Miller, Washington State University · Barbara Taylor, Western New Mexico University · Robert Wolffe, Bradley University · Maryann Byrnes, University of Massachusetts Boston · John Huss, Northern Kentucky University · Terrence Stange, Marshall University · Tamara Walser, University of North Carolina at Wilmington · Eugene Bartoo, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga · Kevin Carr, George Fox University · Dana Fredebaugh, Nova Southeastern University · Terrance Jakubowski, California State University, Northridge · Maja Miskovic, National Louis University · Phillip Mutisya, North Carolina Central University · Cynthia Williams Resor, Eastern Kentucky University · Gail Ritchie, George Mason University · Margaret Waterman, Southeast Missouri State University · Lois McFadyen Christensen, University of Alabama at Birmingham · Christopher J. Della Pietra, Southeastern Louisiana University · Michael P. Grady, Saint Louis University · K. Fritz Leifeste, Angelo State University · Marilyn Lichtman, Virginia Tech · Jeanne M. McGlinn, University of North Carolina at Asheville · Jill C. Miels, Ball State University · Cathy Mogharreban, Southern Illinois University Carbondale · Ted J. Singletary, Boise State University · Shelley H. Xu, California State University, Long Beach As always, I would like to thank my wife, Kate, for her continued support of my extensive writing projects and for her feedback on numerous aspects of the book, from a classroom teacher’s perspective, and our son, Addison, for providing the invaluable student’s perspective. My books begin to take on a different level of meaning now that Addison is studying to become a professional educator himself. About the Author Craig A. Mertler has been an educator for 30 years, 20 of those in higher education. He is currently an Associate Professor and Director of the EdD Program in Leadership and Innovation at Arizona State University. He teaches doctoral courses focused on the application of action research to promote educator empowerment, school improvement, and job-embedded professional development and also teaches quantitative research methods, introductory statistical analysis, multivariate statistical analysis, and educational assessment methods. He is the author of 20 books, 4 invited book chapters, 18 refereed journal articles, two instructors’ manuals, and numerous nonrefereed articles and manuscripts. He has also presented more than 35 research papers at professional meetings around the country as well as internationally. He conducts workshops for in-service educational professionals (at all levels) on classroom-based action research and on the broad topic of classroom assessment. His primary research and consulting interests include classroom-based action research, data-driven educational decision making, professional learning communities, and classroom teachers’ assessment literacy. Before teaching and researching at the university level, he taught high school biology and earth science and also coached track and volleyball. In his leisure time, he enjoys traveling with his family and playing golf. Dr. Mertler can be reached at [email protected] or [email protected] for consulting, professional development, and speaking engagements. CHAPTER 4 Developing a Research Plan Chapter 4 Organizer · Research Questions · Basic Research Designs · Qualitative Research Designs · Quantitative Research Designs · Mixed-Methods Research Designs · Ethical Considerations in Your Research · Getting Organized for Your Research · Related Websites: Research Questions and Research Designs · Summary · ➤  Questions and Activities · ➤  Key Terms · ➤  Student Study Site 4.1 Research Questions Before actually framing research questions, it is important to decide whether you intend to use qualitative or quantitative research methodologies in your action research study. There is also a third option—mixed-methods designs—that allows you to capitalize on the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative methods. Formally stating your research questions can help you make this determination regarding research approach. On the other hand, however, it is best to know which approach you intend to use prior to formally stating the questions. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) provide a dichotomous decision-making table, of sorts. Table 4.1 offers an adaptation of their table. The table is designed to help you determine which approach is most appropriate based on several factors, including your beliefs, the nature of your research topic and study, and various types of skills you possess. Of course, one of the benefits of action research is that it lends itself nicely to either approach as well as to using a mixed-methods approach, combining aspects of both qualitative and quantitative research. Before examining each type, it is important to understand that qualitative research approaches are directed only by research questions, whereas quantitative research approaches may be guided by either research questions or hypotheses. A research question is defined as the fundamental question inherent in the research topic under investigation (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Its purpose is to guide the research study, for the goal is to be able to answer the research question at the end of the study. These guiding research questions do not offer any speculative answers, as opposed to hypotheses, which, as you will discover shortly, do (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Research questions are appropriate for studies that use qualitative approaches as well as any that use quantitative approaches to research. Generally speaking, qualitative research questions tend to be more open-ended and holistic in nature than quantitative research questions. The reason for this is to allow for possibilities that the researcher has not imagined or anticipated (Hubbard & Power, 2003). Qualitative research questions are often posed in such a way that they can be answered by detailed description and observations. Keywords that often appear in qualitative research questions include how and what, which provide the practitioner-researcher with the opportunity to thoroughly describe the processes and any changes as they occur (Hubbard & Power, 2003). Often, researchers using qualitative methods do not state research questions at the beginning of the study. Rather, they wait until they begin to collect data in order to have a better sense of what it is they are really looking for (Schwalbach, 2003). Even then, they may continue to revise their questions throughout the period of data collection. Quantitative research questions are stated up front and seldom change during the course of a study. Video Clip 4.1 View a clip of Dr. Mertler discussing the importance of carefully stating a research question. When attempting to convert your research topic into a research question, it is important to keep several characteristics of research questions in mind (Schwalbach, 2003). These characteristics are listed below; each will be discussed subsequently. · Qualitative research questions should be stated in more open-ended fashion; quantitative research questions should be more focused. · Research questions should not be stated in a manner that assumes an answer even before data have been collected. · Research questions should not be too broad or too specific in scope, especially when conducting quantitative action research. · Research questions should be based in the body of literature that encompasses the topic. · Research questions must be able to be answered by collecting available data. · Research questions must be ethical. · Research questions should be both important and feasible to answer. First, qualitative research questions should be stated in more open-ended fashion; quantitative research questions should be more focused. In either case, one should try to avoid questions that require a simple yes or no answer. For example, consider the following research question: Is there a relationship between students’ academic performance and the number of hours spent studying? The simple answer to this question—in probably every case—would be yes, since some sort of relationship is always likely to exist. However, that is likely not what a researcher would really want to know. Contemplate the following revised version of the question: What is the nature of the relationship between students’ academic performance and the number of hours spent studying? Notice that this revised version, while still focused on the specific variables of performance and time spent studying, allows the researcher to discover much more about the relationship, other than whether or not one simply exists. Second, research questions should not be stated in a manner that assumes an answer even before data have been collected, as in the following example: To what extent will the integration of technology into the writing process improve students’ writing skills? In this example, the researcher has already assumed that the integration of new technologies into the process of teaching students to write will have a positive (because of the use of the word improve) effect on their actual writing samples. This research question might be restated more objectively as the following: To what extent will the integration of technology into the writing process affect students’ writing skills? It is important to remember that the merit and potential value of any research study does not hinge on finding positive results. If results of a study are negative or not what you expected to find, you have still discovered something important (i.e., a technique or approach that does not work), answered your research question, and added something beneficial to the body of literature. Third, it is important to ensure that the research question not be too broad or too specific in scope, especially when conducting quantitative action research. The following question is entirely too broad: What will improve students’ critical-thinking skills? A practitioner-researcher probably would not even know where or how to begin collecting data to answer this question. In addition, it does not suggest any methods or techniques for improving those thinking skills. In contrast, an alternative version provides more structure and focuses on a particular technique: To what degree will problem-based instruction impact students’ critical-thinking skills? Fourth, research questions should be based in the body of literature that encompasses the topic. Recall that one of the purposes of conducting a review of related literature is to inform the development of research questions. A research question should not consist of a query that you simply develop off the top of your head. It should be well informed by the literature and related information that you have reviewed. Fifth, a research question must be able to be answered by collecting available data. Consider the following “research” question: Does God exist? I honestly have no idea what kind of data to collect and analyze in order to be able to answer this question—it is virtually impossible. There are, of course, numerous variations of this question that could be answered by readily accessible data. Look at the following example: To what extent do people believe that God exists? Video Clips 4.2 & 4.3 View clips of practitioner-researchers discussing the importance of a carefully stated research question. I can collect data—for example, by surveying or interviewing individuals—that would allow me to answer this question. Sixth, you must make sure that your research question is ethical. Recall from the previous chapter that you cannot ethically do anything to participants in a research study that exposes them to risks of any kind. This includes risks that are physical, emotional, and psychological in nature. Be especially careful of a research study that would necessitate placing any sort of derogatory labels on students. Finally, examine your research question to ensure that it is both important and feasible to answer. We have previously discussed these two characteristics in relation to research topics in Chapter 3. Remember, the results of your action research study should make some sort of difference in some aspect of education. Also, it must be feasible to answer the research question in light of the difficulty level of the study and available resources (e.g., time and money). Recall that in Chapter 3 (see Table 3.1), we looked at several sample research topics and narrowed their focus into more researchable topics. Those same examples of research topics and their associated research questions are presented in Table 4.2. You will undoubtedly notice that the research questions characteristically consist of the research topic simply restated in the form of a question. As a final point, it is important to make sure that your research question truly reflects your topic. In other words, it must clearly represent either the problem or issue you are interested in learning more about or the desired change you are trying to make in your teaching. If this match does not exist, you will end up with not entirely meaningful results of your action research study. In contrast to research questions, hypotheses are tentative but intelligent and informed guesses about the findings of a study, made of course before the study begins. They usually make predictions about future events, existing differences between groups, or existing relationships between variables (Mertler & Charles, 2011). They are used only in quantitative research studies but are not appropriate for all types of quantitative research. Hypotheses are appropriate only when the design calls for the use of inferential statistics (you will read more about inferential statistics in Chapter 6), although their use is becoming much less commonplace. For this reason, I will only briefly introduce them here. There are three types of hypotheses: null hypotheses, nondirectional research hypotheses, and directional research hypotheses. A null hypothesis states that no effect will occur in the study or that no differences between groups or no relationship between variables will be found. Typically, this is not what the researcher expects to find; if it were, most studies would never be conducted. A second type of hypothesis is a nondirectional research hypothesis, which essentially states that there will be some sort of effect (or difference or relationship) discovered in the results of the research study, although we cannot comfortably predict the nature or direction of that effect (or difference or relationship). This is probably due, at least in part, to the fact that our review of the literature did not provide us with any overwhelming or compelling evidence to inform us of the specific nature of the effect. The third and final type of hypothesis statement is a directional research hypothesis, which not only states that an effect (or difference or relationship) will be found but also specifies the direction or nature of that effect. In all likelihood, we would want to state this type of research hypothesis only if we found overwhelming evidence to support it from our review of literature. 4.2 Basic Research Designs It is imperative to conceptualize the design of a given action research study prior to its initiation (McLean, 1995). Practitioner-researchers must carefully consider all aspects of the study to be conducted. These design aspects include not only how data will be collected and analyzed but also primarily how the study will be planned. In other words, a research design is the formal plan for conducting the action research study—it is the “blueprint” that specifies exactly how the study will be carried out. We will examine basic designs for both qualitative and quantitative approaches to conducting action research. Qualitative Research Designs The concept of a “qualitative research design” is somewhat of a misnomer, because throughout the literature, the term research design has historically, in my opinion, referred almost exclusively to quantitative research studies. That being said, however, practitioner-researchers still need to have a plan of attack for conducting a study in which they wish to use qualitative methods. This plan for conducting a qualitatively based study simply tends to be less structured, when compared with quantitative studies. By no means am I implying that it is less valuable or somehow easier to accomplish. Actually, studies using qualitative approaches tend to be more difficult for most people—of course, depending on your natural research skills—since they tend to be broad, holistic, and in-depth studies that are carried out over an extended period. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) have summarized this approach to research by stating, “To answer some research questions . . . we must dig deep to get a complete understanding of the phenomenon we are studying” (p. 133). Because qualitative research questions tend to be more open-ended, practitioner-researchers sometimes have difficulty identifying ahead of time the exact methods they will use (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Often, they may select some “preliminary” methods of data collection (usually observations and interviews), and as they learn more about their topic, their plan can become more focused on the specifics (e.g., the who, the what, and the where) of the observations and interviews. As they become more focused on what they really want to learn from their action research study, they have a better idea of exactly whom to interview, what to observe, and where those observations should occur. It is largely for this reason that qualitative approaches to conducting research studies are said to have “emergent” research questions and methodologies. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) provide an overview of several approaches to qualitative research, including case studies, ethnographies, and phenomenological studies. In case studies, a particular individual, program, or event is studied in-depth for a defined period, usually relying on a variety of sources of data, including observations, interviews, and reviews of existing documents. Ethnographies involve in-depth study of an entire group, usually focusing on the culture of that group. Site-based observations and interviews are key methods of data collection in this type of qualitative study. Finally, phenomenological studies attempt to understand people’s perceptions of a particular situation, usually relying heavily on lengthy interviews. For more additional and more specific information related to these and other qualitative research designs, the reader is referred to Leedy and Ormrod (2005) and Schwalbach (2003). Case Studies A case study is formally defined as a detailed examination of a single setting, a single subject, or a particular event (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Case studies can vary in terms of their complexity, depth, and breadth. Focusing on a single subject is the best way to begin working with case study designs (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). After experiencing success with single subjects, settings, or events, action researchers may move on to multisite or multisubject case studies. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) describe the general design of a case study as a funnel. The beginning of the study is located at the wide, or open, end of the funnel. The practitioner-researcher looks for possible people or places that might serve well as the sources of data for investigating the chosen topic. Once this has been determined, the researcher begins to collect data while concurrently exploring, analyzing, and reviewing those data in order to make decisions about the future direction or next steps for the study. During this process, practitioner-researchers may discard old ideas and plans for the study and develop new, more appropriate ones, based on the nature of the data collected to that point in time. The research design and data collection procedures are continually modified and specified (i.e., as in the narrowing of the funnel) as they learn more about their chosen topic of interest. As time progresses, the practitioner-researcher makes specific determinations about the focus of the study. Decisions are made about which of the particular aspects of the setting, subject, or data source will serve as the true focus of the study. At this point, specific research questions are formulated, and data collection activities begin to constrict to very precise characteristics or features of the individual site or person. Observational Case Studies Observational case studies are perhaps the most common type of case study. They involve the study of a particular organization or some aspect of the organization (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The focus of observational case studies might be a particular physical location in the organization (e.g., a classroom, the teachers’ lounge, the main office, or the cafeteria), a specific group of people (e.g., teachers in a particular academic department, the cafeteria staff, or the central office staff), or a particular activity within the school (e.g., faculty meetings, assemblies, or the end-of-day dismissal). It is important to realize that a requirement of observational case studies is to select a focus within the school setting. However, once a focus has been identified for detailed study, it becomes somewhat artificial and no longer authentic (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The specific aspect on which the practitioner-researcher decides to focus is naturally integrated with other activities throughout the school. For example, a teacher might want to look at the nature of events that take place during faculty meetings. The process of isolating that particular aspect will likely “distort” it. Events, teachers’ behaviors, and the nature of discussions that occur at faculty meetings are, out of necessity, influenced by other events, both internal and external to the school. Through the use of data, collected primarily in the form of observations and interviews, the practitioner-researcher must take into account the relationship of the focus of the study to the school as a whole. For this reason, it is often best to select an aspect that can be seen as a naturally existing unit. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) also warn that care must be taken when selecting or identifying groups of people for observational case studies. They caution that the smaller the number of participants or subjects in the group being studied, the more likely you are—as an observer of their behavior—to alter that behavior, simply by your presence. It is important to try to select a setting or a group that is large enough so that you are less obtrusive but small enough so that you are not overwhelmed by the task of data collection across so many individuals. Observational Studies Observational studies are similar to observational case studies in that the researcher becomes an integral part of the setting of the study. The primary difference is that the focus may not be on an aspect of the organization of a school. The focus of observational studies may be much broader. However, the practitioner-researcher must still acquire the status of a “trusted person” in the particular setting (Glesne, 2006). Otherwise, the participants in the study will be unlikely to open up to the researcher in order to share honest feelings, perceptions, or opinions. The act of becoming a trusted person in the setting actually makes the researcher a participant in that setting or group, as well. Participant observation—observing as a researcher but also participating in the group or setting as an equal, active member of that group or setting—enables the researcher to learn firsthand how the actions of the participants correspond with their words, to see patterns of behavior, to experience that which was unexpected, and to develop a deeper quality of trust that motivates the participants to share with you what they otherwise might not want to or feel comfortable doing (Glesne, 2006). Participant observation is something that typically occurs throughout data collection in observational studies but is most important during the early stages of that data collection in order to establish this type of trusted relationship. In observational studies, there are varying levels of researcher participation. As shown in Figure 4.1, levels of researcher participation range from mostly participant on one end to mostly observer on the other end (Glesne, 2006). Participant observation can serve as the sole means of data collection, although it is typically supplemented with individual or small-group interviews. Your participation may fall at any point on this continuum; often, you will find yourself at different points along the continuum during different stages in the data collection process of the study. At the left end of Figure 4.1, the practitioner-researcher acts completely as an observer. In this role, the researcher has little to no interaction with the participants being studied (Glesne, 2006). For example, the practitioner-researcher may observe elementary students through a one-way glass. This is a not uncommon method of observing preservice teachers so that they do not know they are being observed. At this end of the continuum, those individuals being observed typically do not know they are being observed. The next defined point on the continuum is observer as participant. In this role, the practitioner-researcher remains primarily an observer but has some level of interaction with the participants (Glesne, 2006). At a minimum, the participants know that they are being observed, so there may be some nonverbal communications occurring between the participants and the observer. Typically, in this role the researcher is seated in the back of a classroom, for example, simply observing and taking notes. The researcher does not teach, offer advice, provide assistance, speak, answer questions, or participate in any other way. A participant as observer actually takes on a much more active role within the context of the particular setting. The researcher continues to observe and take notes on what is observed but also has the opportunity to interact with the participants in the study. Glesne (2006) notes an interesting paradox that can occur when in this role. The more you function as a participant in the world that you are actively researching, the more you risk losing your “eye of objectivity” (p. 44). However, at the same time, the more you participate, the greater your opportunity to learn firsthand what goes on in that setting. Finally, at the right end of the continuum, a full participant is simultaneously a fully functioning member of the “community” as well as a researcher (Glesne, 2006). In this role, the researcher is first and foremost part of the group—as opposed to being an “outsider”—who also happens to be collecting data on the group. Glesne (2006) is quick to point out that the location of a researcher on this continuum is not necessarily a conscious decision. It usually depends on the nature of the research questions you are investigating, the context of your study, and the nature of the group of participants you are studying (in other words, how feasible would it be for you to “join” them as a participant?). In most cases, if you are conducting classroom-based action research, you are more likely to be a full participant than if you are conducting more traditional forms of qualitative research (Glesne, 2006). Figure 4.1 The Participant-Observer Continuum Constant Comparative Method A final type of qualitative research design that we will discuss is the constant comparative method. In most types of qualitative studies, especially case studies (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007), emerging themes guide the data collection, but formal analysis of data does not occur until after the data collection is near completion. The constant comparative method is a research design for studies involving multiple data sources, where data analysis begins early in the study and is nearly completed by the end of data collection (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). In actuality, data collection typically begins prior to a specific topic or focus of study being identified. According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), the steps involved in implementing the constant comparative method include the following: 1. Begin collecting data. 2. Examine data for key issues, recurring events, or activities that may become the focus of the study and the basis for categorizing the data. 3. Continue to collect data that provide incidents of the categories of focus. 4. Begin writing about the categories being explored, attempting to describe and explain all the incidents included in the data while at the same time searching for new incidents. 5. Continue to work with the data and the emerging “model” in order to discover the basic social processes and relationships among and between the individuals in the group being studied. 6. Engage in summarizing, coding, and writing as the analysis focuses on the most meaningful categories. It is important to note that although this process has been described as a series of seemingly linear steps, all the steps actually occur simultaneously in a completely integrated manner. The data collection and analysis continue to double back and revisit more data collection and analysis (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). In this sense, the constant comparative method epitomizes classroom-based action research with its apparent cyclical nature. Quantitative Research Designs When considering a quantitative approach for your research, there are four categories of research designs appropriate for teacher-led action research: descriptive designs, correlational designs, group comparisons, and single-subject designs. These categories and any specific designs are described below. Descriptive Designs The purpose of descriptive research is to describe and make interpretations about the current status of individuals, objects, settings, conditions, or events (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Descriptive research simply examines the phenomenon as it exists; there is no attempt to artificially manipulate any conditions or situations. Two common descriptive research designs are observational research and survey research. In observational research, as a quantitative design, the focus is on a specific aspect of behavior, perhaps a single particular variable (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). It is important at this point not to confuse this design with its qualitative counterpart. Qualitative observations, as you will recall, are usually recorded in great detail that attempts to capture a holistic portrait of human behavior. Those observation notes are then analyzed, based on their content, and summarized in narrative form. In contrast, quantitative observational research focuses on a single variable on which observations are made. The striking difference is that the observations are then quantified (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). In other words, each instance of the targeted behavior is tallied or otherwise recorded and then is simply counted in order to determine its overall frequency of occurrence. In other situations, instead of the behavior simply being counted for the number of times it occurred, the behavior might be rated for accuracy, quality, proficiency, or some other dimension. The design itself simply requires that a specific schedule of observations be established and some sort of tally sheet be developed. As an example of a descriptive observational research study, consider the practitioner-researcher with a student who often exhibits disruptive behavior in class, but the behavior is not constant. It seems to occur sporadically throughout the day. The practitioner-researcher develops a brief tally sheet that allows her to indicate points in time during the day when the disruptive behaviors occur. In addition, she speculates that the disruptive behaviors may be associated with other students in the classroom. She builds into the tally sheet a section that allows her to indicate with whom the student is interacting when any type of disruptive behavior occurs. At the end of a predetermined period of time, she counts the various tally marks in order to better understand the student’s disruptive behavior. The second type of descriptive research design is survey research. Survey research involves acquiring information from individuals representing one or more groups— perhaps about their opinions, attitudes, or characteristics—by specifically asking them questions and then tabulating their responses (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn more about the current status of a reasonably large population either by surveying a subset (known as a sample) from the population or by surveying the entire population, if it is not too large. Although it can be complex, survey research is typically a relatively simple, straightforward design. The researcher poses a series of questions, usually in written form, to participants who are willing to complete the survey. Once the questions have been answered, the responses are aggregated across all the participants or, perhaps, subgroups of participants. The analysis of data usually involves the calculation of frequency counts or percentages of response. Applications of school-based survey research would include a school principal who wants to know what students like and dislike about various aspects of the school. Surveys are given to each student in the building. Upon completion, the data are aggregated and percentages of response are calculated. The principal may even wish to aggregate and report responses for various subgroups of the school population (e.g., boys and girls, different ethnic groups). It is important to remember that survey research simply takes a “snapshot” of the phenomenon under investigation. Through the administration of the survey, the researcher captures opinions and such during a fleeting moment in time. The results should not be taken as a constant for the group surveyed—actions, perceptions, opinions, and even characteristics can change from one moment to the next. Correlational Designs A second category of quantitative research designs is correlational research. In a correlational study, the action researcher examines whether and to what degree a statistical relationship exists between two or more variables. It is typically used to measure or describe an existing condition or something that has happened in the past (Johnson, 2008). The basic design for correlational research involves a single group of people who are measured on two things or characteristics (i.e., variables) that have already happened to them. For example, suppose we wanted to know if there was a relationship and how strong that relationship was between the numbers of hours that students study independently and their scores on a unit test. Realize that at the time that we might collect data, the two “things” (i.e., hours spent studying and the administration of the unit test) have already occurred. Furthermore, the variables studied in a correlational study generally occur naturally. In our example, students would ordinarily study and would ordinarily, or at least likely, take a test upon completion of an instructional unit. When a correlational design is used, there is no manipulation of either of the conditions being measured. Relationships between variables are measured statistically by calculating a correlation coefficient. Correlation coefficients report two aspects of the relationship between given variables: the direction of the relationship and the strength of the relationship. There are numerous correlation coefficients that can be used to describe the nature of the relationship between two variables, the most common of which is the Pearson correlation coefficient, symbolized by r. The coefficient itself is reported on a scale that ranges from –1.00 to +1.00. The direction is indicated as either a positive or a negative value on the scale. A positive correlation indicates that as the scores or values on one variable increase, the values on the other variable also increase. Similarly, as the values on one decrease, the values on the other also decrease (in other words, the values on the two variables tend to move in the same direction). In contrast, a negative correlation means that as the values on one variable increase, the values on the other variable decrease. The relationship between outdoor temperature and sales of lemonade would be an example of a positive correlation (as the temperature increases, lemonade sales also increase); the relationship between outdoor temperature and sales of coffee would be an example of a negative correlation (as the temperature decreases, coffee sales increase). You will learn more about the calculation and interpretation of correlation coefficients in Chapter 6. The strength of the relationship is indicated by the magnitude of the numerical value of the coefficient. The largest coefficient possible would be equal to 1.00, in either the positive or the negative direction. A correlation coefficient equal to +1.00 indicates a perfect positive correlation. However, it is important to note that in educational settings, a perfect correlation of either type rarely, if ever, occurs between variables. It is not uncommon to obtain strong correlations (e.g., correlations that exceed ±0.80) but not perfect ones. The smallest coefficient possible would be equal to 0.00, which means that there is absolutely no relationship between the two variables. Like perfect correlations, rarely, if ever, will you see a correlation equal to 0.00. Again, it is common to find weak correlations (e.g., correlations between –0.20 and 0.00 and those between +0.20 and 0.00) but not the complete absence of any relationship. It is important that the results of a correlational study not be misinterpreted. Correlational research only allows the action researcher to conclude that a relationship of a certain magnitude and direction exists between two variables. There is a common misconception that correlational research can also imply causation between the two variables. This could not be further from the truth. It is critical to remember the following: Simply because two variables are related, a researcher cannot conclude that one causes the other. Additional variables could likely account for the causal influences but have not been included in the study at hand. For example, recall our example of the relationship between hours spent studying and performance on a unit test. Suppose we discover that there is a strong positive relationship (say, the coefficient is equal to +0.85) between the two variables. It would be inaccurate to conclude that simply studying for a longer period of time (i.e., increase in hours) will cause improved test performance (i.e., increased score)—although students themselves have tried to “prove” this true for years! Many other things could influence test performance, such as the quality of studying that occurred or the level of conceptual understanding of the test material. Although we cannot use the results of a correlational study to explain causation, we can use them for purposes of future predictions. Based on the nature of the relationship as measured by the correlation coefficient, it is possible to predict future scores on one variable if the value on the other variable is known. If we know that the correlation between hours spent studying and test score is +0.85, and if we know the number of hours a certain individual student spent studying, we can predict the test score that student will receive. Only in situations where the relationship is a perfect one (i.e., the coefficient is equal to −1.00 or +1.00) can you predict the value on the second variable with 100% accuracy, and we have already discussed how these perfect relationships seldom occur in education. The degree of predictive accuracy is determined by the magnitude of the correlation coefficient. The higher the correlation (i.e., the closer it is to −1.00 or to +1.00), the more accurately the value on one variable can be predicted from the other; the lower the correlation (i.e., the closer it is to 0.00), the less accurate the predicted value will be. Keep in mind that this is not a prediction of causation but rather only a prediction of association. Group Comparison Designs Group comparison designs attempt to do what correlational designs cannot—investigate cause-and-effect relationships. The general idea behind group comparison designs is that two or more groups, which differ on some characteristic or have somehow been exposed to different conditions, are compared on a single, common measure in order to see if the differing characteristic or condition may have resulted in different performance. Whenever researchers investigate cause and effect, they examine the extent to which one variable (the cause) influences another variable (the effect). The variable that is considered to be the cause of something else is called an independent variable. In some instances, this variable may be directly manipulated or controlled by the researcher. The variable that is assumed to be influenced by the other variable is called the dependent variable, since its value or score at least in part depends on the independent variable. For illustrative purposes, consider a pair of history teachers who want to know whether it is more effective for U.S. history to be taught forward (i.e., beginning with the Revolutionary War and progressing to the present) or backward (i.e., beginning with the present and regressing to the Revolutionary War). One teacher volunteers to teach the year using the backward approach, while the other will teach using the standard forward method. Near the end of the year, students of both teachers will take an advanced placement test in U.S. history. Their test scores will be statistically compared to determine if the students taught using one method outperform those taught using the other method. In this example, the independent variable is “approach to teaching U.S. history” (forward versus backward), and the dependent variable is “advanced placement test score.” If there is a difference in the test scores for students in the two groups, that difference will depend on which type of instruction they received. When attempting to investigate cause and effect, there really is only one methodology that will definitively show whether one variable causes another. This definitive methodology is experimental research. True experimental designs require that a great deal of rigor and control be integrated into the research study. As an example, one of these levels of control is the random assignment of students to treatment groups. This level of rigor and control is simply not attainable or even realistic in classroom settings; therefore, experimental designs are typically not appropriate for action research studies. There are, however, three subcategories of group comparison designs that are appropriate for action research in classrooms and schools. These three subgroups are causal-comparative, preexperimental, and quasiexperimental designs. Causal-Comparative Designs. Causal-comparative research is used to explore reasons behind existing differences between two or more groups. In this sense, it is quite similar to correlational research in that it investigates conditions that have already occurred and collects data in an attempt to determine why one group is different from the other (Johnson, 2008). Causal-comparative designs are also known as ex post facto designs. The term ex post facto literally translates to mean “after the fact.” The investigation begins by noticing a difference that exists within a group of people, for example, and then looks back in time in an attempt to determine the conditions that might have resulted in this observed difference. In other words, the action researcher is looking for a cause “after the fact,” since the conditions and their resulting differences have already occurred. Groups are compared in order to find a cause for differences in some measure or score (Johnson, 2008). The most common situation for the implementation of causal-comparative designs occurs when the presumed cause or independent variable has already occurred. Since it has already occurred, it is not feasible for the researcher to manipulate that particular variable. The conditions that determine group membership of the independent variable, in many cases, are naturally occurring or have occurred as part of some process external to the research study. For example, imagine that a principal has observed a wide range in scores obtained on the annual standardized math test. If she wanted to explore possible causes for these differences—perhaps differences due to gender—she could employ a causal-comparative design. She would begin by collecting the test scores (the effect, also known as the dependent variable) for all students in her school. Then she would need to record for each score the gender (the preexisting and naturally occurring potential cause, also known as the independent variable) of the corresponding student. Males and females would then be grouped together and an average score computed for each respective group. Finally, the group averages would be statistically compared in order to determine if the two groups were different. If so, the principal may conclude that the preexisting condition of gender has influenced math test scores. As another example, suppose that a guidance counselor wanted to know how effectively a new self-esteem program, which is being pilot tested in half of the district’s elementary schools, is working. A causal-comparative design could help the guidance counselor make an informed decision about the future of the program. A self-esteem inventory could be administered to students in schools throughout the district, some of which were pilot testing the program and others of which were not. The students’ scores on the inventory would then be compared and analyzed statistically. Again, in this example, the independent variable is the condition that determines group membership—schools with the self-esteem program and schools without the self-esteem program. Realize that this is a preexisting condition—the program was already being implemented in some schools and not in others. That determination was not an aspect of the causal-comparative research design. The dependent variable would be the scores students received on the self-esteem inventory. If the inventory scores for those students who had been exposed to the new program were substantially higher than those for students who had not participated in the program, the guidance counselor would conclude that the new program is effective. On the other hand, if the inventory scores were lower for the students exposed to the new program, or if there was no difference in the scores between the two groups, the counselor would conclude that the new program was detrimental or, at least, ineffective. Preexperimental Designs. Preexperimental designs are called such because they are “preliminary” experimental designs. They incorporate several aspects of experimental studies but exclude others of substantial importance. For example, in preexperimental designs, the independent “variable” does not vary, largely because of the fact that there is only one group—since all participants in the study belong to the same group, there can be no “group” comparisons. Because of these exclusions, it is not possible to demonstrate in definitive fashion cause-and-effect relationships in preexperimental designs. As we examine both preexperimental and quasiexperimental designs, note the graphical representations of the designs. The following abbreviations and symbols are used in these diagrams: The treatment condition defines the independent variable. Typically, some participants are exposed to the treatment, and others are not. These “levels” of the independent variable are the determining factor for group membership (i.e., experimental group vs. control group). The dependent variable consists of the observation or other measure. We will consider two common preexperimental designs. The first of these designs is known as the one-shot case study. The one-shot case study is a very primitive type of experimental design (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). In this design, some sort of experimental treatment is introduced, and following the passage of time, a measurement or observation—probably a posttest of some sort—is administered in order to determine the effects of the treatment. This design is depicted diagrammatically as follows: For example, a science teacher wants to know if a new lab kit will improve the students’ performance in science. The teacher uses the kit with all of her science classes and then administers a practical examination. Exam scores are high, so she concludes that the new lab kits are effective in helping her students learn more. The weakness of this particular design is that so many variables unaccounted for in the study could have influenced the scores on the posttest, when it may be assumed that the treatment caused the desired performance. In our example, perhaps the students would have performed well with another set of lab materials or even without any lab materials, because they were naturally bright or because they had experienced an enhanced-lab setting in last year’s science class. In either case, their performance would have been high regardless of the new kits. The second preexperimental design is known as a one-group pretest-posttest design. In this design, we see a good deal of improvement over the previous design. Although there still is no “other” group for comparison purposes, a pretest has been added prior to the introduction of the treatment. This design is illustrated as follows: Returning to our previous example, the science teacher administers a pretest practical examination to her students and records the scores. She then implements the lab, using the new lab kits. Upon completion of the lab, she administers a posttest to her students and compares those scores with the scores the students received on the pretest. This design represents an improvement over the one-shot case study because the teacher will, at a minimum, know if some sort of change has taken place (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). However, she still cannot rule out other possible explanations for the change that she did not consider and incorporate into the study. Quasiexperimental Designs. Quasiexperimental designs come the closest to true experiments; however, there still is no random assignment of participants to groups (Johnson, 2008). The notion of random assignment ensures that the groups you are comparing are relatively similar. This is the reason that quasiexperimental designs are quite appropriate for classroom research. In most schools and classrooms, randomly assigning students to different treatments (which might necessitate that they change classrooms, teachers, or even school buildings) is simply not feasible. There are two other methods for ensuring that groups being compared are relatively similar: pretests and matching. When using pretests to establish group similarity, a pretest on the variable you are looking to examine is administered prior to the investigation (Johnson, 2008). The groups are then statistically compared on their pretest scores; if they are similar, you can continue with the research. A significant difference between the two groups, however, indicates that the two groups are not comparable. In that case, there are three options: (1) Find another group to compare, (2) rearrange your existing groups so that they are more similar, or (3) take the dissimilarity of the groups into account when describing findings and drawing conclusions (Johnson, 2008). Matching is another technique used to create similar groups of participants. Again, a pretest is given to all participants, but it serves a slightly different purpose. Based on the results of the pretest, each participant is matched with another participant who has a relatively similar pretest score. Groups are then created by putting each person in the pair into separate groups (i.e., one into the experimental group and one into the control group) (Johnson, 2008). The end result is two groups that are relatively similar on the variable of interest. Johnson (2008) is keen to point out that quasiexperimental research requires some intrusion into the educational setting, as you read in the descriptions above. Therefore, quasiexperimental designs should be used with caution in action research settings. In these situations, what you are observing is not an authentic classroom environment but rather one that has been altered in order to be able to examine a particular variable. In this way, quasiexperimental research is also what Johnson refers to as “quasi-action research.” It is important to keep in mind that action research does not set out to prove or to disprove any hypothesis, nor is it meant to provide results that can be generalized to larger populations. Quasiexperimental research designs should be used only to provide a description of what is happening in a particular setting or situation. Although there are numerous quasiexperimental designs, we will examine only one that has practical classroom applications—the pretest-posttest control group design. This is very similar to the one-group pretest-posttest design we examined earlier in the section on preexperimental designs. The important difference—as well as improvement—is the addition of a control group, which is not exposed to the treatment condition, for comparison purposes. This design is depicted as follows: The control group allows the researcher to make several comparisons. First, the researcher can compare the experimental group’s pretest and posttest scores in order to determine if the treatment had any effect. Second, the pretest and posttest scores from the control group can also be compared in order to see if they are different. If there is a difference between the control group’s two test scores, it could not be due to the treatment, since those students did not receive any treatment. If an improvement in scores is found for this group, it may be due to the passage of time and natural maturation. Third, the groups can be compared based on both final posttest scores and gain scores (i.e., not only if scores improved from pretest to posttest but by how much) from pretest to posttest. The science teacher from our earlier examples could divide her classes into two groups so that one group (perhaps composed of three class periods) was permitted to use the new lab kits and the other group (composed of three different class periods) did not use the kits. Mixed-Methods Research Designs While choosing between qualitative and quantitative research designs provides numerous options, many action research studies tend to “align” better with mixed-methods research designs. The reason for this is that most educators, when investigating their own classroom practices, see the benefit in collecting some data that are qualitative (e.g., student perceptions or preferences) and some data that are quantitative (e.g., student scores on assessments). As we know, quantitative data provide information that can be analyzed statistically and can offer useful information, especially if one needs to describe a larger group of people. Alternatively, qualitative data provide opportunities for individuals to express their own opinions and perspectives on the topic of interest. The true benefit lies in the fact that the consideration of both types of data may provide a better understanding of the research problem than either type of data alone (Creswell, 2005). Another situation that may be appropriate for mixed-methods research designs occurs when an action researcher wants to extend one phase of research to a next phase. For example, one might want to first collect qualitative data in order to guide the development of a quantitative survey instrument. Similarly, the focus of a study might be to follow up quantitative data collection with a qualitative data collection in order to collect more detailed information in order to support or extend explanations that were drawn from the results of statistical analyses (Creswell, 2005). Figure 4.2 Depiction of the Three Types of Mixed-Methods Research Designs (Adapted From Creswell, 2005) Source: Creswell, 2005. There are three basic mixed-methods designs—explanatory, exploratory, and triangulation designs—that will be discussed (Creswell, 2005). These three mixed-methods research designs are collectively depicted in Figure 4.2. It is important to note that the distinguishing factors among the three designs are the relative weights given to each type of data and when each type is used during the study (McMillan, 2004). A Developing a Research Plan template appears in Appendix C and can also be found as an interactive PDF on the Student Study Site. Explanatory Mixed-Methods Designs In an explanatory mixed-methods design, the practitioner-researcher first collects quantitative data and then gathers additional qualitative data in order to help support, explain, or elaborate on the quantitative results (Creswell, 2005). The collection of the two types of data can be done sequentially—with no clear “break” between them—or in two distinct phases. When using this approach, the quantitative data and analysis provide the main focus for the overall study results; the qualitative data are used to elaborate on, refine, or further explain the quantitative findings. The emphasis is clearly on the quantitative data; qualitative data are typically used only to provide a closer look at outliers or extreme cases. McMillan (2004) has argued that explanatory mixed-methods designs are the most common type used. Exploratory Mixed-Methods Designs However, the practitioner-researcher may want to begin by first collecting qualitative data and then collecting quantitative data, either sequentially or in a two-phase approach (as we discussed previously). In this design—known as an exploratory mixed-methods design—qualitative data are collected first in order to initially explore the topic of interest. Quantitative data are then gathered in order to further explain any relationships discovered in the qualitative data. A common application of this design involves the exploration of a phenomenon and the identification of themes (i.e., qualitative data), which informs and is followed by the development of an instrument subsequently used to collect additional information (i.e., quantitative data) (Creswell, 2005; McMillan, 2004). This process ultimately lends credibility to the instrument because its actual items stem from what participants thought and shared about the phenomenon and not from what the researchers believed (in advance) (McMillan, 2004). Triangulation Mixed-Methods Designs The third and final type of design is the triangulation mixed-methods design, in which both quantitative and qualitative data are collected at about the same time and are given equal emphasis. This allows the researcher to equally combine the strengths of each form of data. This is an appropriate design in situations where the practitioner-researcher values both types of data equally and treats them as such, so that the two can be “merged” and that the results of all analyses are used simultaneously in order to understand the research problem (Creswell, 2005). Quantitative and qualitative results are then informally “compared” in order to see if they have yielded similar results. This, then, leads to greater credibility in the overall findings to the extent that the two sets of data have converged and indicated the same or similar results. 4.3 Ethical Considerations in Your Research Making sure that action research adheres to ethical standards is a primary responsibility of the practitioner-researcher. As with other aspects of the job of being a professional educator, ethical treatment of students and colleagues—as well as their respective data—must be a key component of designing your action research study. Most universities and school districts have some sort of review process for ensuring that a proposed research study is conducted in such a manner as to protect the rights of any human subjects involved. These are typically known as Human Subjects Review Boards (HSRBs) or Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). These boards function by reviewing proposed research studies in order to safeguard and protect human subjects involved in a research study. An HSRB or IRB application usually requires the researcher to provide a summary of the proposed study, focusing primarily on the methods that will be used to collect data from participants. One mechanism for helping prepare one to appropriately address issues related to the ethical treatment of participants in an action research study is an online, self-paced training module provided by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Extramural Research. This course can be found at http://phrp.nihtraining.com; both registration and the course itself are free. Although some of the course focuses on medical-type research, it provides an extremely thorough history and overview of aspects of the ethical treatment of human research participants. It is important to note that many universities and schools require this or a similar training before beginning any research study involving human beings as participants. The main log-in page for the course is shown in Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3 Log-In Page for the NIH Training Course “Protecting Human Research Participants” The entire NIH course, titled “Protecting Human Research Participants,” takes roughly 90 minutes to complete and is divided into seven sections (four of which require passage of a brief multiple-choice assessment). These sections include an introduction, history, codes and regulations,* respect for persons,* beneficence,* justice,* and a conclusion (the sections with asterisks indicate that they are followed by an assessment). Once you successfully complete the entire course, you are provided with an electronic certificate of completion (see Figure 4.4). Many institutions around the country also use the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) at the University of Miami (https://www.citiprogram.org/). CITI is a leading provider of research education content for learners at academic institutions, government agencies, and commercial organizations in the United States and around the world. The main page for CITI is shown in Figure 4.5. It offers a wide variety of courses, but educational practitioner-researchers would likely be most interested in the following: · Human subjects research (https://www.citiprogram.org/index.cfm?pageID=88) and · Responsible conduct of research (https://www.citiprogram.org/index.cfm?pageID=265). Figure 4.4 Sample Certificate of Completion for the NIH Training Course “Protecting Human Research Participants” Figure 4.5 Main Page for the CITI Training Materials Once you select a research design and begin to draft your research plan, one thing you must remember to factor in is that you will need to get permission from your students and their parents for the data—including audiotapes, videotapes, samples of student work, test scores, and observations in a teaching log—that you will collect. It is important to get permission from individuals because participation in any research study should be strictly voluntary. No one—adults or children—should ever feel coerced or compelled to participate. In determining whether or not you need to get formal permission, Hubbard and Power (2003) suggest that you let your intended audience serve as your guide. If you and other teachers in your school will be the sole audience for your action research work, you may not need to get formal permission for any of the data you will ultimately collect. In this case, the data simply provide diagnostic information about a student, several students, or an entire school community. This is information that you and your fellow teachers routinely collect and use to help you make decisions related to teaching. However, if you intend to share your action research with a larger audience than yourself and the other educators in your school, you must get permission to use samples of student work, quotes from transcripts of audiotapes or videotapes, or observation notes that you plan to share with others. These “larger audiences” include not only journals where you might try to publish your action research or professional conferences where you might make a presentation but also such activities as presentations for other teachers in your district, to your school board, or to parents and other members of the community or a project for a college course (Hubbard & Power, 2003). The basic idea of getting permission for conducting action research and collecting data on students is to protect the privacy of both students and their families (Hubbard & Power, 2003). This is typically accomplished by having participants sign an informed consent form. An informed consent form describes the nature of the research study as well as the level of involvement of the participants (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). In other words, it describes what the study is about and what it is you will be asking participants to do for you, in terms of activities and duration of those activities. This is known as the principle of accurate disclosure. One should note the key word “accurate” in the name of this principle. This implies that intentionally deceiving your participants should be avoided at all cost; there is no place for deception in action research (Mills, 2011). At a minimum, an informed consent letter should contain the following: · A description of the research topic and research study · A description of what participation will involve · An indication that participation is voluntary and that it can be terminated at any time without penalty · A guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity · An offer to provide a summary of the findings to participants · A place for the participant to sign and date the form (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005) When adults give you their informed consent by signing the form, they are in essence saying that they understand (a) the nature of the study, (b) what will be asked of them, and (c) that they can opt out of the study at any time without penalty. Furthermore, by signing the form, they are agreeing to participate in the study. A sample informed consent form is presented in Figure 4.6. In the case of minors (i.e., individuals under the age of 18 in most states), two forms of permission must be obtained. First, since children are not of legal age to give their consent to participate in research studies, permission must be obtained from their parents or legal guardians. They are typically asked to sign a parental consent form. An example of a parental consent form is shown in Figure 4.7. Secondly, individuals who do not have the authority to consent to participate in research must still provide their assent. Assent is the term given to a child’s agreement to participate in research. Assent from a minor must be obtained in a language that is understandable to him or her and requires use of an age-appropriate form (either verbal or written), as opposed to a consent form used to obtain permission from the minor’s parents(s) or guardian(s). An example of a child’s assent form is presented in Figure 4.8. The issues of confidentiality and anonymity were mentioned in the requirements for an informed consent letter. There are a couple of ways that maintaining these essential characteristics of action research studies can be accomplished. First, your research plan might call only for the reporting of aggregate data. If you report the average test scores for two groups, for example, neither the names of individual students nor their corresponding test scores will be reported anywhere. Second, another common way to maintain confidentiality and anonymity in cases where data are not aggregated across students is to use fictitious names for individual students. If your research will be presented only locally—for example, within your school building or to a group of community members or the school board—it is necessary to change only the names of individual students. However, if your research will be shared with people throughout the state, region, or nation—in a journal or at a conference—you might also want to change the names of your school building, your school district, or even your town (Hubbard & Power, 2003). This is simply an additional level of protection of your participants. Figure 4.6 Example of an Informed Consent Form Figure 4.7 Example of a Parental Consent Form Figure 4.8 Example of an Assent Form In addition to the principle of accurate disclosure as well as respecting the rights of and protecting your research participants, there are a couple of other ethical issues to consider when planning for action research (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The principle of beneficence states that research should be done in order to acquire knowledge about human beings and the educational process; in other words, it should benefit someone or some group of people. It should never be conducted as a means of doing harm to individuals or groups or to denigrate, find fault, or suppress academic progress. A second principle is the principle of honesty. The principle of honesty is absolutely essential when conducting research and should not even seem necessary to mention. Honesty must be exhibited in all aspects of a research study—from the specification of the purpose of the research study to the collection and analysis of data and the ultimate conclusions drawn upon its completion. Action researchers must be honest with participants about the purpose of the study. They must also be honest about what data they collect and how they collect those data. Once collected, data must not be tampered with, altered, or suppressed in any way. If these stipulations cannot be adhered to, the research study should be stopped, and at a minimum, replanned. Finally, the principle of importance, similar to the principle of beneficence, indicates that the findings of research should somehow be likely to contribute to human knowledge or be useful elsewhere in the field of education. The potential value of the findings of research should be worth the time, effort, and energy expended, on the part of both the researcher and the participants. 4.4 Getting Organized for Your Research Teachers often feel a bit overwhelmed once plans are in place for conducting an action research study. Narrowing the focus into a manageable topic, formulating research questions, deciding on an appropriate research design, getting permission from participants, collecting data, analyzing data, and writing up a final report may besiege even the most energetic of teachers. Rightfully so, because conducting these kinds of projects admittedly is not the easiest of tasks—if it were, more teachers would do classroom-based action research, not just those dedicated, reflective teachers like yourself! An important issue and concern for teachers is how to find the time to actually plan and conduct an action research study. One realistic suggestion is that any given action research project should be integrated within the context of what you typically do in your classroom. It should not be some sort of stand-alone endeavor that you have a difficult time relating to your instructional practices or simply finding the time to do. For example, consider our teacher from Action Research Portrait 1. Recall that the topic was to examine the extent to which improving teachers’ assessments would improve student achievement. Notice that in this example, the teacher decided to focus efforts on something that’s done all the time, something that is integrated throughout the instruction—developing and administering teacher-made classroom assessments. This action research idea involved taking something that the teacher already does in the form of developing assessments (e.g., written tests, performance assessments), working on improving the quality of those assessments, and determining if doing so has an impact on student achievement. As a good, conscientious teacher, this is something she would likely do as part of her classroom practice; she is simply choosing to focus her efforts in this area. Another important piece of advice that I can offer is to develop a research schedule. I construct one of these every time I begin to design a research study or undertake a large-scale project (including writing a textbook) of any kind—in my mind, these schedules are indispensable. I have seen too many researchers and teachers alike fail to complete a study or to maintain a reasonable time frame because they simply are not organized. A schedule helps keep me focused, provides an overview of everything that needs to be done, breaks down big tasks into smaller manageable ones, and provides me with an opportunity to pat myself on the back when I complete a given task. You may not adhere to your schedule precisely; even if you do not, it will still provide you with much-needed structure. An example of a research planning schedule sheet (adapted from Leedy & Ormrod, 2005) is shown in Figure 4.9. Notice that included in the right-hand column is a series of check boxes—an opportunity for you to reward yourself when you complete a task. Figure 4.9 Sample Research Planning Schedule Sheet Source: Adapted from Leedy and Ormrod, 2005. Finally, it is important to note that just because you have developed a schedule, you should not be fearful of revising it whenever necessary. Sometimes, practitioner-researchers find that, even though they have clearly spelled out their research topic and investigative questions, they become interested in different aspects of the topic as they proceed through the study. They may find something that is more problematic, more interesting, or more relevant (Mills, 2011). Action researchers should not feel that they are prohibited from pursuing these new lines of inquiry simply because they did not constitute the original topic. Mills (2011) states: That is the very nature of action research; it is intimate, open-ended, and often serendipitous. Being clear about a problem is critical in the beginning, but once practitioner-researchers begin to systematically collect their data, the area of focus will become even clearer. (p. 93) Do not hesitate to alter and refocus your research topic even if you are well into the data collection phase (Mills, 2011). Remember that when you as a teacher engage in classroom-based action research, you are doing it in order to benefit you and your students in your classroom. If your discoveries begin to lead you in a different direction, do not become anxious at the thought of going there. If you unintentionally stumble upon a new idea, a new question, or a different method or technique, simply adjust your research plan and schedule and continue your action research investigation. Ultimately, you and your students will be the beneficiaries of those alterations. Writing Up Action Research: The Research Plan Source: Weldon, 1995. Source: DuBois, 1995. Action Research Portrait 1: Improving Reading Comprehension in a Title I Program Developing a Research Plan for the Study Recall Kathleen is a Title I reading specialist in a small, suburban elementary school and that the purpose of this action research study is to improve students’ reading comprehension skills within a Title I context. Kathleen wanted to improve the reading comprehension skills of her fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade Title I students. She decided she would teach reading comprehension skills as she typically had in the past but would assess her students differently. She decided to design her in-class assessments such that the format mirrors that of a reading comprehension achievement test that is only administered in the spring in her district; she could not rely on that as a dependent measure, especially if she wanted to compare those scores with some sort of “pretest” measure. Although she administers diagnostic tests throughout the year, they differ in format and purpose from the standardized achievement test given annually. She decided to use a pretest-posttest design, where her pretest and posttest measures would consist of repeated administrations of the same diagnostic test, one occurring in September and the other in May. In addition, based on the reading she had completed, she tentatively believed that this intervention treatment condition would improve her students’ reading comprehension skills. Therefore, she decided not to withhold the intervention from any of her students; in other words, she would not have a comparison group. She would implement a one-group pretest-posttest design. Although Kathleen was happy with the plan for her action research study, she was not convinced that the test scores would tell her everything she needed to know about the extent to which her students’ comprehension skills had improved. She decided to integrate some qualitative design aspects into the existing plan for her study, thus using more of a mixed-methods research design. She decided to make observational notes regarding what she saw on a daily basis regarding comprehension skills. She wanted to look at the degree to which students were able to correctly answer her oral and written questions immediately following the reading of a passage. In addition, she planned to periodically interview her students, asking them what they thought about their own progress in the comprehension of reading material. She stated two research questions, one to be addressed with her quantitative data and one to be addressed by her qualitative data. Her research questions were as follows: Research Question #1: Is there a difference in students’ reading comprehension skills following experience with teacher-developed comprehension items, whose formats mirror items on standardized tests, based on pretest and posttest diagnostic test scores? If so, what is the nature of the difference? Research Question #2: What are the perceptions held by students and their teacher regarding the students’ reading comprehension skills, especially following experience with teacher-developed comprehension items? Action Research Portrait 2: Conceptual Understanding of Mitosis and Meiosis Developing a Research Plan for the Study Recall that the purpose of this action research study is to improve students’ understanding of the processes of mitosis and meiosis. After Sarah and Tom had spent substantial time closely examining the online resources Sarah had found, they began working on the design of their study. They knew immediately that this would require a complete revision of the unit on mitosis and meiosis. They would continue to teach the material essentially as they had in the past but would integrate the online simulations, activities, and assessments throughout the unit. They believed that this would be the best way to reinforce the vocabulary and concepts for their students. However, at this point, the two teachers were left with the question of how best to determine if these new resources were having a positive impact on students’ learning. At first, they planned to compare the performance of this year’s students on the unit test with the performance of students of the past couple of years. Sarah and Tom discussed this plan with a fellow science teacher, Paul, who reminded them that this might not be the most appropriate idea. These were different groups of students, who had been taught over the course of several years, he argued. He suggested that, since Sarah and Tom each teach six sections of biology throughout the day, each could randomly split their course loads in half, with three of the classes receiving the new supplemental resources and three of the classes receiving only the more traditional instruction. Initially, Sarah did not like this idea. If she truly believed that these instructional revisions would help her students learn better, why should she intentionally keep the resources from some of her classes? Tom and Sarah discussed this issue at length. Finally, they decided that, although they thought the resources would help their students, they did not really know that for sure. (Of course, that is why Sarah and Tom decided to do this action project anyway!) They decided that until they knew for sure what sort of impact the resources had, the teachers were really not putting any of their students at a disadvantage. Based on the preliminary design, Sarah and Tom stated their main research question (as they had both learned to do in their action research course): Research Question #1: Is there a difference in students’ conceptual understanding of mitosis and meiosis between classes taught using a traditional approach and classes taught using the traditional approach supplemented with web-based simulations and activities, as measured by the unit test? While both Sarah and Tom were very interested in their students’ performance on the unit test, they did not necessarily see the test scores as a “bottom line.” They were also interested in students’ abilities to explain the processes and their importance to living organisms. Therefore, the teachers also decided to collect data directly from the students in the form of informal large-group and individual student discussions as well as through the use of reflective classroom blogs (online Web logs or journals). In order to address this aspect of their action research study, Sarah and Tom stated a second research question: Research Question #2: How well do students verbally explain their conceptual understanding of mitosis and meiosis? Are there any noticeable differences between students who were taught using a traditional approach and those who were taught using the traditional approach supplemented with web-based simulations and activities? Action Research Checklist 4 Developing a Research Plan for Conducting Action Research · □ Using Table 4.1 as a guide, determine whether a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods design would be more appropriate for your action research study. · □ Develop one or two research questions to guide your study. · □ Depending on your selection of a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods design, weigh the advantages and limitations of specific research designs. · □ Determine the most appropriate design for conducting your action research study. · □ Evaluate and address any potential ethical issues in your study. · □ If appropriate, develop consent and assent forms. · □ Develop a reasonable timeline for conducting your study. · Three related websites are featured in this chapter. The first two address issues related to developing research questions and provide several actual examples. The third site provides a thorough overview of various research designs, their notations, and their applications. · Guidelines for Developing a Question: https://staffdevweb.madison.k12.wi.us/node/241 This page on the Madison (Wisconsin) Metropolitan School District website offers a list of 12 simple guidelines for taking your research topic and developing from it a research question. Examples of the district’s guidelines include “one that hasn’t already been answered,” “something do-able (in the context of your work),” and “keep it close to your own practice; the further away you go, the more work it is.” · Practitioner Research as Staff Development: Research Questions: http://www.valrc.org/resources/research/meetings/s5.html The Virginia Adult Learning Resource Center at Virginia Commonwealth University has created a facilitator’s guide to conducting practitioner research to help “participants systematically conduct inquiry about their work and their students’ learning, reflect on their findings, and make informed decisions about implementing.” The page referenced above provides a process for developing good practitioner research questions, along with examples of research questions. The entire guide helps with all aspects of the action research process; the overview can be found here: http://www.valrc.org/resources/research/introduction.html. · Research Designs: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/design.htm William Trochim’s Research Methods Knowledge Base is a complete electronic research methods textbook. On this particular page, Dr. Trochim provides an overview discussion of various types of research designs; however, much more detailed information is provided on linked pages. In Introduction to Design (http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/desintro.htm), he introduces the idea of research design and explains the various notational symbols. In Types of Designs (http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/destypes.htm), he discusses the basic differences between experimental, quasiexperimental, and nonexperimental research designs. Finally, in Designing Designs for Research (http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/desdes.htm), Dr. Trochim discusses several issues related to the implementation of studies that focus on cause-and-effect relationships. He also discusses what he believes to be the four basic design elements of any research design and includes several very helpful sample notational illustrations. Summary · A research question is the fundamental question inherent in any research topic under investigation. · Qualitative research questions are typically open-ended, providing for a holistic view; quantitative research questions are more focused, usually on only a few variables. · Research questions should not be stated in a manner that assumes an answer before data have been collected. · Research questions should be based in the body of literature related to the topic. · Research questions must be able to be answered by collecting available data. · Research questions must be ethical and feasible to answer. · Hypotheses are tentative but intelligent, informed predictions about the findings of a study. · Three types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis, the nondirectional research hypothesis, and the directional research hypothesis. · The null hypothesis states that no effect, difference, or relationship will be found between variables. · The nondirectional research hypothesis states that an effect, a difference, or a relationship will be found but does not specify the direction of the effect, the difference, or the relationship. · The directional research hypothesis also states that an effect, a difference, or a relationship will be found and specifically indicates the direction of the effect, the difference, or the relationship. · A research design is the basic blueprint for conducting an action research study. · Qualitative research designs are less structured and more holistic in their approach to conducting a study than are quantitative designs. · A case study focuses on the detailed examination of a single setting, a single subject, or a particular event. · In observational studies, the researcher may participate as an observer, an observer as participant, a participant as observer, or a full participant. · The constant comparative method is a qualitative research design for studies involving multiple data sources, where data analysis begins early in the study and is nearly completed by the end of data collection. · Quantitative research designs fall into four categories: descriptive designs, correlational designs, group comparisons, and single-subject designs. · Descriptive designs include observational research and survey research and simply attempt to describe the current status of the phenomenon of interest. · Correlational designs investigate the extent to which a relationship exists between two or more variables. · Group comparison designs involve a manipulated independent variable and a dependent variable measured across all groups. · Group comparison designs include causal-comparative designs (which explore the cause of an effect after the fact), preexperimental designs (which typically involve one group simply being “compared” with itself), and quasiexperimental designs (which involve two groups being compared with each other on a common dependent variable). · Mixed-methods research designs involve the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. · In an explanatory mixed-methods design, the practitioner-researcher first collects quantitative data and then gathers additional qualitative data in order to help support, explain, or elaborate on the quantitative results; the focus is on the quantitative data. · In an exploratory mixed-methods design, qualitative data are collected first, followed by quantitative data, in order to further explain any relationships discovered in the qualitative data; emphasis is placed on the qualitative data. · In a triangulation mixed-methods design, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected at about the same time and are given equal emphasis. QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 1. How would you describe the relationship between a research topic, a research question, and a set of hypotheses? 2. Think of a topic of interest to you and appropriate for an action research study. State the topic, a research question, and all three types of hypotheses for your topic. 3. Think of another research topic of interest to you. Develop a research question for investigating the topic using a qualitative approach and another for using a quantitative approach. Are your questions different? Could they be identical? Explain your answers. 4. Correlational research is a commonly used quantitative research design. The mass media, such as newspapers and television news, often summarize the results of correlational studies. Find and discuss an example of correlational research that has appeared in newspapers or on the news. Are there any misconceptions or misinterpretations evident? 5. For the two research questions you listed in Number 3 above, briefly describe an appropriate research design for each. Remember that one question will necessitate a qualitative research design, while the other will require a quantitative research design. 6. Based on one of the research questions and designs you listed in Number 5 above, draft an informed consent letter for parents or students. Make sure your letter includes all essential components as discussed in the chapter. Key Terms · assent form 111 · assent 111 · causal-comparative research 101 · constant comparative method 97 · correlation coefficients 99 · correlational study 99 · directional research hypothesis 93 · explanatory mixed-methods design 107 · exploratory mixed-methods design 107 · full participant 96 · group comparison designs 100 · Human Subjects Review Boards (HSRBs) 108 · informed consent form 111 · Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) 108 · negative correlation 99 · nondirectional research hypothesis 92 · null hypothesis 92 · observational case studies 94 · observational research 98 · observational studies 95 · observer as participant 96 · one-group pretest-posttest design 104 · one-shot case study 103 · parental consent form 111 · participant as observer 96 · participant observation 95 · Pearson correlation coefficient 99 · positive correlation 99 · preexperimental designs 102 · pretest-posttest control group design 105 · principle of accurate disclosure 111 · principle of beneficence 115 · principle of honesty 115 · principle of importance 115 · qualitative research methodologies 87 · quantitative research methodologies 87 · quasiexperimental designs 104 · survey research 98 · triangulation mixed-methods design 107 Review → Practice → Improve Get the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. Access the videos listed in the margins of this chapter, practice quizzes, eFlashcards and more at  edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e