Paragraphs needed to add to Chapter 3 proposal - Education
Please justify the research method and design.
Add to Chapter 3:
Rationale for a Qualitative Methodology
Please talk about quantitative method and state why it is not suitable for my study; APA style required for citations;
Rationale for Research Design
Please talk about all other kinds of research designs( for example case study), and explain why they are not suitable for my study; APA style required for all citations
83
The Influence of Cross-cultural Experience on Student Leadership Capacity Development and Academic Achievement
Submitted by
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
(or) Doctor of Philosophy
(or) Doctor of Business Administration
Grand Canyon University
Phoenix, Arizona
[07/150/2021]
QUAL GCU Dissertation Template V9.0 Final 08-10-20_cnb 7 am
QUALITATIVE GCU Dissertation Template V9.0 08-10-2020
© by Your Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic Credentials), 20xx
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
QUALITATIVE GCU Dissertation Template V9.0 08-10-2020
The Influence of Cross-cultural Experience on Student Leadership Capacity Development and Academic Achievement
By
Insert Learner Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic Credentials)
Successfully Defended and Approved by All Dissertation Committee Members
[Insert Date]
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE APPROVAL:
The following committee members certify they have read and approve this dissertation and deem it fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of XXX.
Full Legal Name, EdD, DBA, or PhD, Dissertation Chair
Full Legal Name, EdD, DBA, or PhD, Committee Member
Full Legal Name, EdD, DBA, or PhD, Committee Member
ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:
________________________________________ ____________________
Michael R. Berger, EdD Date
Dean, College of Doctoral Studies
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
The Dissertation Title Appears in Title Case and is Centered
I verify that my dissertation represents original research, is not falsified or plagiarized, and that I accurately reported, cited, and referenced all sources within this manuscript in strict compliance with APA and Grand Canyon University (GCU) guidelines. I also verify my dissertation complies with the approval(s) granted for this research investigation by GCU Institutional Review Board (IRB).
[Wet Signature Required]
_____________________________________________ ______________________
[Type Doctoral Learner Name Beneath Signature line] Date
Abstract
The abstract is the most important component of your dissertation! It is required for the dissertation manuscript only. The abstract is typically the last item written and should be updated based on final acceptance of manuscript by the dissertation committee members and reviewer(s). The abstract is intended as a precise, non-evaluative, summary of the entire dissertation presenting the major elements and findings of the study in a highly condensed format. Although few people typically read the full dissertation, the abstract will be read by many scholars and researchers. Consequently, great care must be taken in writing this page of the dissertation. The content of the abstract should mirror the structure of the entire dissertation, covering the research problem purpose of the study to solve the problem, theoretical foundation, research questions stated in narrative format, sample, location, methodology, design, data sources, data analysis approach, major findings or trends based on the analysis. The most important finding(s) should state the themes that support the conclusion(s). The abstract should close with a conclusion statement of the study implications and contributions to the field. The abstract does not appear in the table of contents and has no page number. The abstract is double-spaced, fully justified with no indentations or citations, and no longer than one page. Refer to the APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition, for additional guidelines for the development of the dissertation abstract. Make sure to add the keywords at the bottom of the abstract to assist future researchers.
Keywords: Abstract, one-page, vital information
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
ABSTRACT
(Dissertation Only—Not Required for the Proposal)
(one page)
The abstract provides a succinct summary of the study and MUST include: the purpose of the study, theoretical foundation, research questions stated in narrative format, sample, location, methodology, design, data sources, data analysis, results, and a valid conclusion of the research. Note: The most important finding(s) should be stated with actual codes and resulting themes data/numbers (qualitative).
0
The abstract is written in APA format, one paragraph fully justified with no indentations, double-spaced with no citations, one page, and includes key search words. Keywords are on a new line and indented.
0
The abstract is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
0
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Dedication
An optional dedication may be included here. While a dissertation is an objective, scientific document, this is the place to use the first person and to be subjective. The dedication page is numbered with a Roman numeral, but the page number does not appear in the Table of Contents. It is only included in the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal. If this page is not to be included, delete the heading, the body text, and the page break below.
Acknowledgments
An optional acknowledgements page can be included here. This is another place to use the first person. If applicable, acknowledge and identify grants and other means of financial support. Also acknowledge supportive colleagues who rendered assistance. The acknowledgments page is numbered with a Roman numeral, but the page number does not appear in the table of contents. This page provides a formal opportunity to thank family, friends, and faculty members who have been helpful and supportive. The acknowledgements page is only included in the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal. If this page is not to be included, delete the heading, the body text, and the page break below.
Table of
Contents
List of Tables 12
List of Figures 13
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study 1
Introduction 1
Background of the Study 3
Definition of Terms 10
Anticipated Limitations 12
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study 13
Chapter 2: Literature Review 20
Identification of the Problem Space 23
Theoretical Foundations 28
Progressive Competency 30
Attributes of Cultural Competence 31
Impact of Cultural Competence on Students' Performance 34
Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) and Cultural Competence 35
Criticisms against Cultural Competency 36
Cultural Competencies Models 37
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity 37
Cultural Proficiency Model 41
Cross-Cultural Efficiency and Meta-Cultural Competency Models 47
Intercultural Development Inventory and Intercultural Sensitivity Scale….. 48
Teachers Awareness of Cultural Competence 49
Ethical Attitude 55
Teacher Efficacy and Perceptions 56
Behavior and Cultural Competence 57
Problem Statement 67
Summary 70
Chapter 3: Methodology 72
Introduction 72
Purpose of the Study 74
Research Questions 77
Rationale for a Qualitative Methodology 80
Rationale for Research Design 83
Population and Sample Selection 86
Qualitative Sample Size 86
Recruiting and Sampling Strategy 86
Sources of Data 90
Research Data 90
Additional Data 91
Trustworthiness 95
Credibility 96
Dependability 97
Transferability 97
Confirmability 98
Data Collection and Management 101
Data Analysis Procedures 104
Ethical Considerations 107
Assumptions, and Delimitations 112
Assumptions 112
Delimitations 112
Summary 114
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results 116
Introduction 116
Preparation of Raw Data for Analysis and Descriptive Data 118
Preparation of Raw Data for Analysis 118
Descriptive Data 119
Data Analysis Procedures 124
Reflexivity Protocol 124
Data Analysis Steps 124
Results 127
Presenting the Results 127
Limitations 134
Summary 136
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 138
Introduction and Summary of Study 138
Summary of Findings and Conclusion 139
Overall Organization 139
Reflection on the Dissertation Process 140
Implications 142
Practical Implications 143
Future Implications 143
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study 143
Recommendations 145
Recommendations for Future Research 145
Recommendations for Future Practice 146
Holistic reflection on the Problem Space 148
References 150
Appendix A. Ten Strategic Points 157
Appendix B. Site Authorization 159
Appendix C. IRB Approval Letter 160
Appendix D. Informed Consent 161
Appendix E. Copy of Instrument(s) and Permission Letters to Use the Instrument(s) 162
Appendix F. Codebook 163
Appendix G. Transcripts 164
Appendix H. Feasibility and Benefits Checklist 165
Appendix I. Strategies to Establish Trustworthiness 170
Appendix J. Developing Qualitative Interview Questions Systematically 171
Appendix K. Sample Frames, Interview Duration, Transcript Expectations 177
Appendix L. Additional Appendices 178
List of Tables
Table 1. Correct Formatting for a Multiple Line Table Title is Single Spaced and Should Look Like this Example xii
Table 2. Alignment Table 15
Table 3. Description of Building Blocks for the Theoretical Foundations Section 25
Table 4. Steps for the Theoretical Foundations Section 26
Table 5. Qualitative Core Designs and Descriptions 43
Table 6. Example of a Clean, Easy-to-Read Table 75
Table 7. Example of Clean, Easy-to-Read Table for Focus Group Data 75
Table 8. Example of Case Unit Profiling (in Narrative) 76
Table 9. Initial Codes 83
Table F10. Sample Codebook 113
To update the List of Tables: [Place cursor on the page number or title 🡪Right click 🡪 Update Field 🡪 Update Entire Table], and the table title and subtitle will show up with the in-text formatting. Below is a sample table:
Table 1.
Correct Formatting for a Multiple Line Table Title is Single Spaced and Should Look Like this
Example
Participant
Gender
Role
Location
Susan
F
Principal
School A
Mary
F
Teacher
School A
Joseph
M
Principal
School B
Note. Adapted from: I.M. Researcher (2010). Sampling and recruitment in studies of doctoral students. Journal of Perspicuity, 25, p. 100. Reprinted with permission.
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Relationship of Things xiii
Figure 2. Incorporating Theories and Models of Research 24
Figure 3. IRB Alert 64
Figure 4. Diagram of a Blank Sociogram 84
To update the List of Figures: [Place curser on page number or title 🡪Right click 🡪 Update Field 🡪 Update Entire Table], and the figure title and subtitle will show up with the in-text formatting. Below is a sample figure:
Figure 1.
The Relationship of Things
13
QUALITATIVE GCU Dissertation Template V9.0 08-10-2020
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
This section introduces a background study on the impact of cultural competence on student’s academic performance and leadership development. Communities are becoming culturally diverse and soon the increase in immigrant numbers will result in the minority groups in the United States. In learning institutions, students of color will account for a bigger percentage of the United States' total student population in the near future. These changes in demography have already happened in some areas in the United States. Currently, minority students constitute the biggest percentage of learners in the southern part of the country
Hence, it is important to explore the impact of cultural competence on student’s academic performance and leadership development. Studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between cultural competence and academic performance. Templeton (2011) found that there were significant academic performance differences between the culturally competent learners are their counterparts who were culturally incompetent. Van den Berg et al. (2010) found that ethnic minority students are at higher risk for academic failure and heightened sustainability to negative educator expectancy effects.
This study will advance the importance of cultural competence in learning environment. According to Seeberg and Minick (2012), cultural competence is an accepted framework for harmonious co-existence with people from different cultural backgrounds. The term refers to the awareness, knowledge, and processes required by people, professions, and organizations, as well as systems to operate effectively in a culturally diverse environment. The purpose of this study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence student leadership capacity development and academic achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida. The study’s results will supplement various findings on the impact of cultural competence and leadership capacity development among students. Educators and policy makers can use the study’s findings to incorporate cultural competence lessons in classroom activities.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Introduction
(Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
The learner introduces the dissertation topic supported by prior research as defined by the problem space (see Chapter 2 for more information regarding problem space).
2
1
The learner states the purpose statement.
2
0
The learner overviews how the study advances knowledge and practice.
2
1
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
1
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments: 7 31 21 make sure you follow the highlighted directions
Background of the Study
From the beginning, the United States education system was not developed for all races; African Americans were initially alienated from formal education. When they were finally allowed to access formal education, it was through segregated and inadequate means. Indian Natives and other minorities also experienced such segregation in education. Early in the United States history, women could only access basic education and were discouraged to seek advanced education unless it focused on domestic arts, music, and dancing. Even this was applicable to those of upper-class members of the society. When the government finally decided to offer education to Native Americans, formal education meant transporting learners to boarding institutions to erase their cultural beliefs and practices (Urban, Wagoner & Gaither, 2019).
The government forcibly removed children from their families and forced them to abandon their native language. White learners also experienced discrimination in the country's education system. For instance, in the early 19th century, the government established common schools for all students irrespective of social class. This universality of common learning institutions excluded African Americans and white children who believed in strange religious beliefs including Irish Catholics. With time, the purpose of the American education system was to socialize immigrants into the country's 'superior' culture. While inequality could be less overt in the current educational system, it still exists in many learning institutions. African American students still lag behind their White colleagues on all standard measures of success or achievement. They are more likely to drop out of and be suspended from schools compared to their White counterparts. Apart from African Americans, other minority groups also experience such inequality in learning institutions (Urban, Wagoner & Gaither, 2019). According to Jackson and Addison (2018), students in high-poverty learning institutions had lower achievement in math compared to those in low-poverty schools. Moreover, Miksic (2014) found achievement gaps in math and reading between Latino students and their white counterparts.
Communities are becoming culturally diverse and soon the increase in immigrant numbers will result in the minority groups in the United States. The rapid change in the United States demographics is evident in schools. Goddard (2010) asserted that urban learning institutions in the 21st century western countries deal with more ethnocultural diverse students than ever before. Grothaus, Crum, and James (2010), in their support, indicated that students of color will account for a bigger percentage of the United States' total student population in 2020. These changes in demography have already happened in some areas in the United States. Currently, minority students constitute the biggest percentage of learners in the southern part of the country.
These demographic changes imply that the United States must start offering equal education to all children if it aspires to change the existing inequality in society. To so, schools and educators must understand that learning institutions reflect the country's dominant culture, which can put learners from other cultures at disadvantage. Generally, white, middle-class values are considered the dominant culture in the United States. It also includes values held by the male, non-disabled, as well as heterosexual persons. Diller and Moule (2012) discussed the values held by members from dominant groups. They include an emphasis on long-term goal setting, belief in internal locus of control, and self-disclosure. It is the consideration of these values as the dominant ones and differing values as the inferior ones that lead to differences in leadership performance and academic achievement between white students and those from minority groups.
The answer to the problem is the development of culturally competent students and teachers. Culturally competent individuals strive at understanding their own biases as well as patterns of discrimination. Diller and Moule (2012) define cultural competence as a set of congruent attitudes and beliefs that converge in a system or agency and enable that agency or system to operate effectively in a cross-cultural environment. Thus, culturally competent individuals can function successfully with those from different cultural backgrounds such as race, culture, gender, sexual orientation, religious orientation, or culture. Being culturally competent is a daunting task because culture manifests itself in visible and hidden manners. Visible aspects such as clothing, food, and artifacts are obvious as well as easy to understand compared to hidden cultural elements such as beliefs and values (Kochan, 2012). Cultural competence comprises the knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes that are vital for students to respond to other people's needs. The ability of a student to operate in a cross-cultural environment is an asset.
The current lack of studies on cross-cultural competence among learners is a matter of great concern. It is high time that researchers looked for ways to customize curricular and co-curricular activities to promote student leadership in culturally diverse learning institutions (Boberg&Borgeois, 2016). Cultural competence empowers students to commence a lifelong commitment to self-critique as well as self-awareness. Cultural awareness allows students to assess their multicultural backgrounds, to assess determinants of prejudice, and to acknowledge their inherent power as well as privilege. It also allows students to use this awareness to mitigate discriminatory practices for equity. Moreover, cultural competence empowers students to assess and critique power structures as well as imbalance in society. In doing so, learners develop an awareness of their society as individuals and their abilities in collaborative spaces. Third, cultural competence equips learners with the ability to establish mutually beneficial relationships with individuals. Student's awareness of cross-cultural differences also enhances their communication and leadership capabilities (Diller & Moule, 2012). In essence, developing intercultural knowledge allows students to improve their ability to engage and interact with diverse groups.
Apart from leadership skills, results from past studies show that promoting cultural competence enhances students' academic performance (Triggs, 2021). Many researchers have studied the differences in academic achievement existing between White American students and those from racial minority groups and provided possible reasons for the gap. One major explanation for the difference in academic achievement among students from different racial backgrounds is the dissonance between the culture of the home of minority students and the culture of learning institutions (Miksic, 2012). American schools, like other social systems, reflect the dominant culture's values and beliefs. Thus, the United States' education system reflects the values of white, middle-class Americans. While the system seeks to benefit many students, it does not benefit all learners. Many students do not grow up in the white, middle-class culture thereby not benefiting in schools.
Many researchers have studied diversity issues among learners in culturally diverse k-12 schools. However, most of these studies that focus on leadership in culturally diverse k-12 learning institutions have concentrated on leadership concerning school heads and administrators, educational stakeholders, and teachers instead of leadership issues among students in culturally diverse k-12 learning institutions (Genao, 2016). Only a limited number of studies have explored the impacts of cross-cultural factors on learners' leadership development (Bartel-Radic&Giannelloni, 2017). Normore, Hamdan, and Esposito (2019) explored cross-cultural perspectives on leadership development programs. They found that effectively prepared teachers play important role in ensuring that students possess the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in life. Kerr (2016) explored the perceptions of the United States military graduates about how their studies alongside foreign officers influenced their perceptions for cultural adaptation, task performance, as well as decision-making in cross-cultural leadership contexts. Polat, Arslan, and Ocum (2017) developed a valid and reliable tool to determine educators’ perceptions about the degree of school administrators' diversity leadership. Karadaq (2020) analyzed the relationship between different leadership approaches and student achievement. Lyons, Buddie, and Purcell (2018) examined how first-year university learners in two cohorts of a leadership program made meaning of such pedagogical approaches during their short-term education overseas.
Apart from leadership development, there are limited studies that have explored the relationship between cultural competence and academic performances among k-12 students. Brace (2011) examined the link between the cultural competence level of teachers from urban elementary schools and their students' academic achievements as measured by standardized testing. According to Brace (2011), personal biases and emotions normally overshadow the subtle variables affecting interactions and a student’s inappropriate behavior is a consequence of a teacher’s actions. Hence, those teaching in culturally diverse schools must possess dispositions that enable and equip them to determine and manage cultural differences that can create a positive social environment.
Spence (2016) investigated educators’ cultural competency level, ethnicity, and years of teaching experience, as well as the level of education. They also explored learners’ demographic characteristics of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, grade level, and the link between these factors and learners’ perceptions of the classroom social atmosphere in a culturally diverse middle school. However, it must be understood that an educator’s cultural competence and learners’ perception of it, can be affected by extraneous variables. Sims (2011) discusses some of the demographic factors affecting teachers’ cultural competence. They include gender, ethnicity, nationality, years of teaching experience, and age, as well as educational attainment. The ability of educators to work effectively in a culturally diverse environment is a valuable asset, which is gaining popularity in the United States because of the increasing number of students from minority cultures in public schools. For the United States education system better serve all students either from dominant or minority cultures, teachers must strive for cultural competence by understanding the influence that culture has on education and learning. They must also realize the cultural differences existing in their classrooms and make instructional as well as assessment decisions that can incorporate these factors. This diversion from the Eurocentric perspective is one way of equalizing the country’s system of education and making it effective for all learners.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Background of the Study
(Minimum two to three paragraphs or approximately one page)
The learner provides a brief history of the problem space, and a summary of results from the prior research on the topic.
3
2
The learner identifies what still needs to be understood within the problem space.
The learner provides a clear statement of what still needs to be understood: “The research that needs to be better understood is …”
2
1
The learner builds a justification for the current study, using a logical set of arguments supported by appropriate citations.
2
2
Learner situates what needs to be understood by discussing how the research is applicable to/beyond the local setting and may be contributory to professional or broader societal needs.
2
2
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
2
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Definition of Terms
Various terms relating to cultural competence have been used throughout this proposal. Hence, it is important to provide their operational definition. They include:
African American: The two terms refer to persons having origins in the black racial groups of Africa (Planty et al., 2009).
Asian American: A person having origins in the original people of Southeast Asia, the Far East, and India (Planty et al., 2009).
Cultural competence: It is a set of congruent policies, behaviors, as well as attitudes that converge in a system or agency and enables that agency or system to operate effectively in a cross-cultural setting (Lum, 2011).
Cross cultural leadership capacity development: Cross-cultural leadership refers to the way to understand leaders working in a globalized environment. Thus, cross cultural leadership capacity development is process and ability to produce leaders who can to influence and motivate their followers’ attitudes and behaviors in a culturally diverse environment to shared goals (Wijnen & Wildschut, 2015).
Culture: This is a lens via which life is perceived (Zoller Booth &Nieto, 2010)
Dominant culture: Since the study will be conducted in the United States, the dominant culture refers to a set of values and beliefs held by white Americans from the middle or upper class (Planty et al., 2009).
Hispanic/Latino: These two terms refer to persons of Mexican, Southern or Central American, Puerto Rican origin, or Spanish origin irrespective of race (Planty et al., 2009).
Native American: These are persons having origins in the original persons of North, South, and Central America (Planty et al., 2009).
School Poverty Rate: This is the proportion of learners within a learning institution receiving free lunch (Planty et al., 2009)
White Americans: These terms refers to persons having origins in the original people of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa (Planty et al., 2009)
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Definitions of Terms
(Each definition may be a few sentences to a paragraph.)
The learner defines any words that may be unknown to a lay person (words with unusual or ambiguous meanings or technical terms) from the research or literature.
2
1
The learner conceptually defines the phenomena in the study
2
1
The learner supports definitions with citations from scholarly sources, where appropriate.
2
1
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
1
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments: 7 31 21 all definitions must include citations
Anticipated Limitations
The main limitation of this study is that it will only use data from a high school in Central Florida, school administrators, and teachers. In particular, the study will include 16 - 24 participants. However, this small sample size will be less relevant if discussed in the context of the research problem. Since the study will use semi-structured interview method of data collection it will be difficult to independently verify self-reported data. In essence, the study will have to consider what the respondents say at face value. Self-reported data can also contain potential sources of bias such as selective memory, telescoping, attribution, and exaggeration. Selective memory will arise if a respondent recollects or does not remember cultural and learning experiences that happened in the past. Telescoping bias will arise if a respondent recalls events that happened at one time as though they happened at another time. Attribution will happen if respondents attribute positive events to their inputs and negative events to external forces. Concerning exaggeration, there is a likelihood of respondents embellishing cultural competence as more important than is actually presented from other data.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Anticipated Limitations
(Each definition may be a few sentences to a paragraph.)
The learner identified anticipated limitation.
2
1
Learner provided a rationale for each anticipated limitation.
2
1
Learner discussed consequences for the transferability and applicability of the findings based on anticipated limitations.
1
1
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
1
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence student leadership capacity development and academic achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida. This chapter has discussed various aspects such as the background of the study, the purpose of the study, research questions, and the significance of the study. This study is important because it will fill the existing gap in current literature about the correlation between cross-cultural experience and student leadership behaviors as well as the academic outcome. The literature review will focus on various studies about cultural competence and student academic performance as well as leadership development.
Insert Project Timeline Here:
This does not need to be so detailed: Refer to the simple sample below:
Timeline.
Dissertation Proposal-Final sent to Chair- April 8, 2015
Level 2 Review- April 22, 2015
Level 3 Review: Proposal Defense- May 6, 2015
Level 4 Review and IRB Approval- May 20, 2015
Level 5 Review- June 17, 2015
Level 6 Review- July 1, 2015
Level 7 Review- July 15, 2015
Level 8 Review- July 29, 2015
Dissertation Timeline Plan to Completion
Student Name: Youting Zhang
Expected Graduation Date
6/2022
Chair:
Date Timeline Established
Handbook deadlines
Dissertation Milestones
To be completed by
Actual date of completion
Notes/revised completion date
Chair signature
Date
Student signature
Date
Discuss topics with a member of faculty
1st year
Advisor signature
Preparing a research proposal and discuss it with faculty chairperson
2nd year
Advisor signature
Choose chairperson
January 3rd year
Spring 3rd year
Pre-proposal presentation
March 3rd year
First draft of proposal to chairperson
June 30
Choose committee members
Summer of 3rd Year
Member 1:
Member 2:
Complete literature review
Write dissertation proposal
Update committee members on progress;
Send final draft to chairperson by August 1;
When approved send to committee;
Check proposal management committee availability for 3-4 weeks;
Schedule proposal meeting
Summer 3rd year
August 15
Before Oct 15
4th year
Proposal meeting
Complete proposal evaluation form
October 1 4th Year
Identify study sample
Identify study measures
IRB approval
Train research assistants
Recruit and train coders
Gather research data
Conduct data analysis
Write study results
Write discussion section
Send to chairperson,
Make requested revisions
Send to committee
Schedule date of defense
Defend
Bring proposal evaluation form
Table 2.
Dissertation Alignment Table
Problem Statement: The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence student leadership capacity development and academic achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida.
Issue 1: Only a limited number of studies have explored the impacts of cross-cultural competence on learners' leadership development
Objective 1: The first objective of this study is to determine the relationship between cultural competence and leadership capacity development among k-12 students.
Research question 1: How does cross-cultural experience affect student leadership capacity development?
Issue 2: Only a limited number of studies have explored the impacts of cross-cultural competence on learners' academic performance
Objective 2: The second objective of this study is to determine the relationship between cultural competence and academic achievement among k-12 students.
Research Question 2: How does cross-cultural experience influence student academic achievement?
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Chapter 1 Summary and Organization of the remainder of the study
(Minimum one to two pages)
FOR PROPOSAL ONLY: The learner provides a project timeline for completion of the dissertation.
2
1
The learner provides a summary of feasibility of the study. The learner completes Appendix H (feasibility and benefits checklist).
2
0
The learner completes the alignment table above. Furthermore, the items within the table are aligned.
2
0
The learner describes the remaining Chapters and provides a transition discussion to Chapter 2.
3
The learner correctly formats the chapter to the Template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.
3
All research presented in the chapter is scholarly, topic-related, and obtained from highly respected academic, professional, original sources. In-text citations are accurate, correctly cited, and included in the reference page according to APA standards.
2
1
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
2
1
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter aims to evaluate existing works of literature, which are relevant for this research study. It begins with the existing gap in the literature about the influence of cultural competence on student leadership development and academic achievement. Culture influences all human systems (Zoller Booth &Nieto, 2010). It is an accepted framework for harmonious co-existence with people from different cultural backgrounds (Seeberg & Minick, 2012). The concept of cultural competence has gained traction in international humanitarian, business, and education, due to changing demographic patterns around the world. This chapter presents the Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model as the theoretical framework for the study and examines the concept of cultural competence, divided into four themes of progressive cultural competency, cultural competency, ethical attitudes, and teachers' awareness of cultural competence. Among the key issues covered under progressive cultural competency include the attributes of cultural competence, the impacts of cultural competence on students' performance, and Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) and cultural competence. It also assesses criticisms against cultural competency.
The theme of cultural competencies evaluates different cultural competence frameworks applicable in the field of education such as the Bennett's Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, the Cultural Proficiency Model, and the Cross-Cultural Efficiency, as well as Meta-Cultural Competency Models. It also evaluates the Intercultural Development Inventory and Intercultural Sensitivity Scale Models of cultural competence. The third theme of ethical attitudes explores the impact of Teacher Efficacy and perceptions on cultural competence. It also assesses the relationship between behavior and cultural competence. The theme of teacher awareness about cultural competence evaluates issues such as integration of cross-cultural knowledge into teaching practices and processes, and the impacts of lack of teacher awareness about cultural competence on students' academic achievements.
Search Tools and Strategies
A comprehensive and systematic information search was conducted in databases such as the Cochrane Library, Medline, and Emcare. Literatures were considered eligible if they explored the relationship between cultural competence and academic performance. Also, only articles that explored the relationship between cultural competence and leadership among students were considered eligible for this study. Various terms such as cultural competence, leadership, academic performance, and attitudes were used to locate relevant articles. Other words employed included knowledge, skills, as well as perceived benefits. Cumulatively, the three databases generated more than 1,500 articles related to cultural competence, leadership, and education. The Boolean search strategy was used to narrow down to the relevant articles that met the purpose of this study. Specifically, words such as and, or, and not were used between the aforementioned terms to narrow down the information search to the most relevant articles. This strategy reduced the number of articles to less than 500. However, only articles published during the last 20 years were used for this study
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: The learner describes the what still needs to be understood defined in the problem space in current literature and how it leads to the creation of the topic and problem statement for the study. Note: This section is a significant expansion on the Background of the Study section in Chapter 1.
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The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
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*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Identification of the Problem Space
With the demographic make-up of the United States quickly changing and minority learners are becoming the majority in learning institutions (Grothaus, Crumm& James, 2010), there is a need to focus on cross-cultural competence among students.
· Multiple researches have demonstrated the difference in academic achievement and leadership development between white American students and their counterparts from minority groups (Miksic, 2012). This issue becomes more important in the face of the current demographic composition of the United States compared to the country's teaching force. The United States is increasingly turning into a diverse nation more than ever.
· In 1980, white Americans comprised 80 percent of the national population with African Americans accounting for only 11.5 percent, Hispanics at 6.5 percent, and Asian Americans at 1.8 percent. By 2000, white Americans accounted for 69.1 percent, Hispanics at 12.6 percent, African Americans at 12.1 percent, and Asian Americans at 3.8 percent. In 2019, white Americans accounted for 60.1 percent, Latinos at 18.5 percent, African Americans at 12.1 percent, and Asian Americans at 6 percent (Frey, 2020).
· In 2050, white Americans will constitute 47 percent of the entire country's population. Hispanics, African Americans, and Asian Americans will account for 29 percent, 13 percent, and 9 percent of the entire population, respectively (Passel & Cohn, 2008).
· White American students record better academic performances than their counterparts from other racial minorities.
· Between 2000 and 2017, the proportion of white students attending public schools declined from 61 percent to 48 percent, and the proportion of African American students also declined from 17 percent to 15 percent over the same period. On the contrary, the percentage of Hispanic students attending public schools increased from 16 percent to 27 percent during the same period (NCES, 2021).
· White American students still perform better than their counterparts, especially in math and reading (Carnoy& Garcia, 2017). In the United Kingdom, a report by the Higher Education Council for England found that 72 percent of white students who scored grades BBB at A-level gained first or upper second class degree honors compared with 56 percent of Asian students and 53 percent of black students (Adams, 2014).
The above statistics show the need for cultural competence among students to enhance their leadership skills and academic achievements.
· Studies on how to promote student leadership as well as academic achievement in culturally diverse k-12 learning institutions must be given significant attention.
· The gap of the need to apply both curricular and co-curricular activities to foster student leadership in k-12 learning institutions has received less attention in favor of other areas of concern considered to be more significant such as educational attainment.
This study is significant in the sense that:
· There is little research examining the relationship between cross-cultural experience and students' academic achievement as well as leadership development.
· It seeks to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence student leadership capacity development and academic achievement, thereby adding an updated qualitative aspect to cultural competence studies as it relates to student leadership development and academic achievement. Much of the study conducted on leadership in culturally diverse k-12 learning institutions tend to focus on leadership regarding school heads and administrators, educational stakeholders, and teachers instead of leadership issues among students in culturally diverse k-12 learning environments (Genao, 2016).
· There is a scarcity of scholarly materials exploring the impacts of cross-cultural issues on students' academic performance and leadership development (Bartel-Radic & Giannelloni, 2017).
· It investigates the relationship between cross-cultural experience and students' academic performance as well as leadership development. This is crucial because cultural competence involves the development of internal knowledge, skills, and abilities that students bring to the school environment daily rather than the strategies they use in classrooms with their colleagues.
· Several studies explore the impact of cultural competence on school heads and instructors (Genao, 2016), but this study is more directed on the effect on students.
· Other studies on the field of education have focused on how to develop cultural awareness and competence in healthcare students (Forsyth et al., 2019). Some have discussed the importance of developing cross-cultural experience among nursing students (Cruz et al., 2018).
· There are many studies on issues related to cross-cultural awareness such as culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 2014), culturally responsive teaching (Hernandez, Morales & Shroyer, 2013), and cultural congruence (Bayanova et al., 2016). Yet, there is a scarcity of studies on the topic being explored.
· The meaning of cultural competence implies that this asset is vital for effective leadership skills and good academic performance. In essence, a student must develop a higher cultural competence to become an all-round person in life. This study aims to fill the existing gap in literature such as the need to explore the impact of cultural competence on students' academic performance and the need to investigate the influence of cultural competence on students' leadership development.
This study will fill the existing gap on the impact of cultural competence on student leadership and leadership development:
· Many studies have not explored the impact of cultural competence among students (Litts et al., 2020).
· The shortage of studies on cultural competencies among learners, and how curricular, as well as co-curricular activities, can be customized to foster student leadership in culturally diverse learning institutions is a matter of great concern (Boberg &Borgeois, 2016).
· Engagement gaps, including the inequality and alienation among foreign as well as minority learners, have only been examined within administrative leadership (Mawhinney, 2018).
· With the increasing change in the United States' population, it is important to explore the impact of cross-cultural competence among students. Many studies have not explored the issue of cultural competence among students (Litts et al., 2020).
· The lack of focus by researchers on cultural competencies among learners, and how curricular as well as co-curricular activities can be customized to foster student leadership in culturally diverse learning institutions (Boberg & Borgeois, 2016).
· Engagement gaps, including the inequality and alienation among foreign as well as minority learners, have only been examined within administrative leadership (Mawhinney, 2018).
Criterion
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Identification of the Problem Space
(Minimum two-three pages)
The learner provides a detailed description of how the problem space has evolved over time, and the effects it has had on the research (research trends).
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The learner summarizes the problem space, highlighting what has been discovered and what still needs to be understood related to the topic from literature or research dated primarily within the last five years.
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· Identifies the key sources used as the basis for the problem space
· Identifies trends in research and literature.
· Identifies how the research focus has changed over the recent past (five years).
· Discusses key findings that emerged from recent studies.
· Discusses prior research and defined future research needs.
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From the findings of research studies and evolution of recent literature on the topic, the learner defines the parameters for problem statement for the study.
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The learner describes how the study will contribute to the body of literature.
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The learner describes the potential practical or professional applications from the research.
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*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments: Refer to the following:
· Problem Space/GAP (what is known and what still needed to be known) supported by empirical sources:
· Using results from prior studies.
· Using recommendations for further study.
· Using professional or locally based problems documented in the literature.
· Using broader societal areas of research in current empirical articles.
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Synthesis of problems and approaches to formulate a unique need or problem that still requires additional study.
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· You must initially identify the NEED for this particular study
· For example:
· “This study is different because it will focus on…”
· “This study will extend prior research on…”
· “The research that needs to be better understood is …”
· Bohlmann et al. (2019) future recommendations is to include a more…”
Theoretical Foundations
Webber and Jan’s (1998) Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model is a framework that helps in promoting education across international settings because of its ability to overcome the challenges associated with gender, and culture. It can also overcome the issues of nationality and ethnicity in a diverse school environment. It focuses on various aspects of educational context such as leadership development, generative learning, and development of discussion forums that foster diversity, sense, and responsibility for the community. In essence, it promotes cultural competence and cultivation of respect as well as ethical and collaborative spirit (Tomlinson, 2013). The Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model can be used to foster and promote unity through collaboration among learners from diverse cultural backgrounds. This theoretical model will help in answering the research questions. In particular, it will help in understanding the relationship between cross-cultural experience and student leadership capacity development by exploring leadership development in learning environment. It will also help in understanding the impact of cross-cultural experience on student academic achievement by understanding the impact of collaboration among learners from diverse cultural backgrounds on academic performance.
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Theoretical Foundations
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The learner discusses the theoretical foundation and, where appropriate, the extended conceptual framework that undergird and frame the study.
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The learner identifies theory(ies) models, and/or concepts from seminal source(s) that provide the theoretical foundation to use in developing the research questions, identifying phenomena, and describing the sources of data.
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The learner cites the appropriate seminal source(s) for each theory, model, or concept.
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The learner includes a cogent discussion/synthesis of the theories, models and concepts, and justifies the theoretical foundation/framework as relevant to the problem statement for the study. The learner connects the study directly to the theory and describes how the study adds or extends the theory, model, or concept.
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The learner’s discussion reflects understanding of the foundational and historical research relevant to the theoretical foundation.
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The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
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*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Review of Literature
Progressive Competency
Culture influences all human systems either directly or indirectly (Zoller Booth &Nieto, 2010). When examining the importance of cultural competence, it is important to understand that there is no culture-free service delivery. For many years scholars have focused on the effects of discrimination on diverse cultures. The basis of cultural competence scholarly works is rooted in the United States experience, as socio-political context changes from segregation to pluralism. Recently, the concept of cultural competence has gained popularity in international humanitarian, business, and education, as well as medical because of changing demographics around the globe. Cultural competence is an old concept and various iterations have evolved over the years. The United States plays a vital role in the development of the field of cultural competence. Banks (2004) contends that t philosophers and scholars have, since the early 20th century, supported the right of different cultural groups to practice important aspects of their cultures and languages.
Attributes of Cultural Competence
Pinderhughes first coined the concept of cultural competence in 1989. She used the term to conceptualize vital changes needed to help professionals in the face of pluralism. In her study, she urged professionals to engage in reflective practices that can allow them to understand cultural differences that impacted service delivery (Lum, 2011). Another study related to cultural competence was carried out by Cross et al. in 1989. They aimed to develop vital tools to navigate cultural differences. To do so, they developed six elements along a cultural competence continuum and five skills essential for cultural competence. These skills include self-awareness, awareness and acceptance of cultural differences, and managing dynamics of cultural differences. Others include knowledge of clients' cultures and adaptation of skills based on circumstances (Nicole, 2012).
Cultural competence is an accepted framework for harmonious co-existence with people from different cultural backgrounds. The term refers to the awareness, knowledge, and processes required by people, professions, and organizations, as well as systems to operate effectively in a culturally diverse environment (Seeberg & Minick, 2012). Having evolved over many years, cultural frameworks consist of individual skills such as professional development and standards, and verbal as well as non-verbal communications. Cultural competence involves three elements-the affective element, the cognitive element, and the behavioral element. The affective element comprises traits such as respect and sensitivity; this emotional mindset plays a significant role in establishing positive relationships between different cultures. The cognitive element is premised on the notion that prior knowledge of cultural differences helps in developing creating better relationships and countering cross-cultural misunderstandings. The behavioral element concerns skills required to work across cultures. They may include verbal and non-verbal skills and the ability to work with interpreters for broader community or policy development skills (Gopalkrishnan, 2019).
Current demographic patterns in the United States and future trends of the student population in the country have prompted education stakeholders to recognize the need for cultural competence within schools. Multicultural curriculum advocates have pushed for the definition of multicultural education from a critical point of view. Gay (2010) posits that there is a need to explore the dialectical link between theory and practice, and value human emancipation as well as cultural contradictions. She posits that this process involves understanding how current curriculum and teaching methods perpetuate socioeconomic exploitation, and articulation of innovative approaches to promote equality in learning institutions.
Cultural competence acknowledges the significant roles of culture in shaping people's behavior and values including education and the role of dominant culture values in reinforcing learner's minority status in schools. Subsequently, the development of learners can be impaired, resulting in self-esteem, isolation, as well as identity formation issues. It can also lead to flawed assumptions concerning the role of learning institutions. Cultural competence goes beyond classroom borders into the natural support systems of learners such as families and communities. It enables teachers to effectively serve students from different cultures by adapting their professional as well as personal practices to cultural differences relating to thought patterns, values, and preferences. Adoption of these prerequisites is a crucial aspect of cultural competence since it provides an awareness of the effect of marginalization and discrimination on a student's day-to-day life (Robinson, 2012).
Many curriculum theorists have also advanced the idea of multi-cultural education as an instrument for critically engaging and altering current curriculum practices. Glock and Klapproth (2017), for example, envision multicultural education as a tool that challenges educators to develop a curriculum that caters to the needs of all students. Moreover, he articulates that multicultural education gives credence to ethnic and cross-cultural differences and helps in shaping personal identities and social experiences. It also plays a significant role in shaping educational opportunities in ways that promote equitable treatment for diverse groups.
According to Gopalkrishnan (2019), multicultural education encompasses curricula and instructions for effective understanding of the history, culture, and contributions of different cultural groups. It also involves developing attitudes, behaviors, and values for combating the unfair treatment of people from different cultural groups Glock and Klapproth (2017) propose the establishment of culturally sensitive educational practices as the requirement for attaining optimal academic outcomes for learners from culturally diverse backgrounds. The researchers broaden the conditions of multicultural education and contend it should be extended into the nature of teaching and interactions between instructors, students, and parents. These explanations of multicultural education have a common underpinning. They need an understanding of the requirements of culturally diverse learners, cognizance of personal limitations in knowledge and skills, as well as awareness of the impacts of personal bias in perpetuating educational inequalities. Thus, cultural competence knowledge and skills are at the core of multicultural education.
Impact of Cultural Competence on Students' Performance
Templeton (2011) performed an experimental study that used culturally competent instructional practices. The practices included high expectations and adoption of culture acclimation in a study group of 100 percent African American learners. The study showed that there were significant academic performance differences between the control group and the study group, where culturally competent practices were lacking. These findings support the notion that the adoption of culturally competent practices enhances academic achievement. Thus, teachers who use culturally competent practices can yield greater positive academic achievements from their students.
Van den Berg et al. (2010), in a study exploring the impact of the implicit prejudiced attitude of educators, found that ethnic minority students are at higher risk for academic failure and heightened sustainability to negative educator expectancy effects. The researchers examined the prejudiced attitudes of more than 40 elementary school educators through self-reports as well as Implicit Association Test. They obtained teacher expectations and performance scores for more than 430 students. The implicit assessment of educator prejudiced attitudes explained differing ethnic academic achievement gaps through educator expectations. Glock and Kiapproth (2017) investigated elementary and secondary school educators' implicit and explicit attitudes towards ethnic minority students. The study revealed that elementary and secondary educators had negative implicit behaviors toward students from minority groups, irrespective of students' gender. While secondary school educators were implicitly less positive towards girls, elementary educators were implicitly less positive towards boys. In essence, elementary school educators were less enthusiastic about teaching ethnic minority girls than boys. These findings provide insights into the impact of cultural competence on student academic achievement.
Educators need to be multi-culturally sensitive to maintain equal social support for learners. Their expectations and stereotypical attitudes lead to the bullying suffered by ethnic minority students. Stereotypes are normally linked with prejudice suffered by learners from an ethnic minority, who are usually disadvantaged by educators' behavior and attitude in the learning process (Wilson & Kumar, 2017). However, cultural competence provides educators and students with opportunities to resolve positive socio-cultural conflicts, strengthen social solidarity, and develop empathy. It also provides them with an opportunity to enhance learners' academic achievement.
Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) and Cultural Competence
To understand the impact of cultural competence on student success, it is important to understand that the role of cultural competence allows embedding of the ideas to the CRT concept. This is because CRT considers learners' cultural attributes, knowledge, backgrounds, and traits to create a learning environment that enhances the success of all students (Gay, 2010). The aim is facilitated by structuring teaching instructions in ways that allow learners to use cultural elements, knowledge, and capital while at the same time assimilating and embracing new content (Howard, 2012).
Howard (2012) indicates that CRT is naturally multidimensional and moves past curriculum to inform classroom climate, school culture, and educator-learner interactions. In addition, it aims to empower minority learners intellectually, emotionally, and politically, as well as socially by using cultural elements to impart knowledge, attitudes, as well as skills (Howard, 2012).
Criticisms against Cultural Competency
Critics of cultural competence contend that it is a new form of racism based on its static and absolutist perception of culture. However, the assumption that culture is stable and absolute is inaccurate. Cultures, in a globalized environment, constantly interact with one another, permeating into one another to form a hybridized culture (Chen, 2012). Moreover, individuals within cultures lead bicultural and multicultural lives alternating between varying cultural frames (van Oudenhoven & Benet-Martinez, 2015). Culture has never been static and the continuous interactions of groups ensure constant reproduction of culture by myriad individuals. Considering culture from a static and absolutist perspective aims to benefit the powerful instead of the powerless members of society (Gopalkrishnan, 2019).
Finally, some argue that many teachers are ill-equipped to utilize culturally competent practices in classrooms. It happens to the level that many schools use didactic, traditional teaching approaches, even when delivering diversity education lessons. Moreover, many teachers do not know how to cope with and address reactions that normally accompany discussions related to racial oppressions (Retchenda, 2017).
Learning institutions must acquire the abilities as well as skills to put controversial issues into perspective when discussing issues related to diversity.
Cultural Competencies Models
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
Following the benefits of cultural competency, various scholars have developed various models of intercultural sensitivity. Milton Bennett's Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity provides a framework to understand the progression of a person's perceptions towards cultural competence. Bennett utilized a grounded theory approach by applying cybernetic constructivism and observed intercultural adaptations (Bennet, 2017). The Bennett Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity can be considered as a framework along which people grow to become interculturally sensitive. According to Bennett, the phases to developing into an interculturally sensitive individual are denial, defense, and minimization. The other stages are acceptance, adaptation, and integration. He considered the first three phases as ethnocentric, meaning that people experience their own cultures as more important than reality. The other three phases are ethnorelative; people view their culture relative to other cultural contexts. In essence, the three ethnocentric stages describe cultural avoidance behaviors while ethnorelative stages describe culture-seeking behaviors. According to Bennett (2017), the DMIS model demonstrates important changes in worldviews instead of descriptors of behavioral changes. The self-report is a method for demonstrating an individual's underlying cultural worldview.
The denial phase of the DMIS model symbolizes a worldview where only a person's culture rather than other cultures is relevant. An individual in the denial phase believes that other cultures do not affect his or her own life. Typically, these types of people were raised in a homogeneous community and have not interacted with people from different cultures. The defense against difference phase encompasses the recognition of as well as a negative response to different cultures. Individuals in this phase perceive different cultures as a threat to their cultural worldview. They have polarizing behaviors and tend to use the "us versus them" phraseology (Bennett, 2017). The three sub-stages of defense are superiority, denigration, and reversal. Paige, Jacobs-Cassuto, Yershova, and DeJaeghere (2003) assert that people under superiority sub-stage have inflated positive view of their cultural group. They are more likely to demote other cultural groups to lower levels in case of criticisms. Individuals in the denigration sub-stage assess other cultures from an adverse perspective and reinforce their negative stereotypes. People in the reversal sub-stage experience internal conflict since they consider their culture as inferior to another culture and purposely distance themselves from their culture.
The minimization stage of the DMIS model describes people who despite recognizing cultural differences subscribe to the notion that all people are the same. They focus on universal similarities and hold that all human beings are the same. The minimization stage consists of two sub-stages- physical as well as transcendent universalism. The former emphasizes physiological similarities such as biological traits between people. Transcendent universalism, on the other hand, holds that people are the same in spiritual, economic, philosophical, and political aspects. People in the minimization phase can correct those exhibiting cultural differences. People in this stage normally belong to the dominant culture and do not recognize the institutional privileges they are enjoying due to their cultural status (Hammer, 2011).
Persons in the acceptance stage, which is the first phase of ethnorelativism, recognize and appreciate cross-cultural differences. The greatest shift from those in ethnocentric stages is that people in the acceptance phase believe in the inherent equality of all cultures. They consider culture as an avenue for organizing people's behavior and understanding cultural differences. The acceptance stage consists of two sub-stages- behavioral relativism and value relativism. People in behavioral relativism acknowledge that behavior differs across different cultures and is acceptable for those who share them. Nonetheless, they are not comfortable with all types of behaviors. Individuals in value relativism acknowledge that values and beliefs differ across different cultural groups (Paige et al., 2003).
The adaptation to differences phases characterizes individuals who purposefully change their views based on cultural contexts. By adopting alternative worldviews and approaching decision-making from different perspectives, these people are more likely to communicate effectively with those from different cultural backgrounds. The two sub-stages of the adaptation phase are behavioral adaptation and cognitive adaptation. The former, also known as pluralism, involves the internalization of more than a cultural perspective. The latter involves the capability to shift worldviews and understand the emotions associated with a particular perspective. Individuals who realize these two sub-stages of adaptations can express feelings in cultural contexts (Paige et al., 2003).
Integration of difference depicts a person who has integrated at least a single worldview into his or her own rather than subscribing to a particular culture. A significant characteristic of this phase is cultural marginalism because a person is on the periphery of cultural groups and acts as a facilitator of cultural transition (Paige et al., 2003. This phase comprises of two sub-stages- contextual evaluation and constructive marginality. Those in the former sub-type of integration use various cultural frames of reference to assess a situation. In constructive marginality, a person fosters constructive contact among cultures. Thus, people in the integration stage may experience cultural competence as an alienation process. Alternatively, they can be empowered by their capability to move seamlessly between different cultural groups. Those in the integration stage include long term-expatriates, third culture children, and global nomads (Hammer et al., 2003).
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity offers individualized ways for assessing and monitoring student learning. After enrolling in a given course, students can be examined with an instrument that correlates with the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (Mahoney & Schamber, 2004). Kriese and Osborne (2016) assessed students' intercultural sensitivity performance after enrolling in three courses infused with intercultural sensitivity. The courses included: the psychology of prejudice, discrimination, and hate; forensic psychology; and sports psychology. Despite their different contents, assignments were developed that expected learners to consider important theories as well as content within intercultural contexts.
In addition, the researchers gathered self-reported changes on the six levels of the Bennett Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity at two points within a semester. The learners also completed a Tolerance for Ambiguity measure. The researchers found a negative correlation between Tolerance for Ambiguity scores and ethnocentricism. On the other hand, there is a positive correlation between Tolerance for Ambiguity scores and ethnorelativism scores. This implies that students with higher Tolerance for Ambiguity scores at the start of the semester had lower ethnocentrism scores by the end of the semester than at the start of the semester. Moreover, those with higher Tolerance for Ambiguity scores at the start of the semester recorded the highest improvement in ethnorelativism measures.
Cultural Proficiency Model
Within the past few years, the cultural proficiency continuum has gained significant momentum in the education sector. This framework follows subscribes to the learning and effectiveness approach because it connects cultural diversity to strategies adopted in organizations. Previous educational diversity efforts used either access and legitimacy philosophy or a discrimination and fairness pattern that accentuated inequality in abstract ways (-(Spiess & Cooper, 2020). Lindsey, Robins, and Terrell's cultural proficiency framework of 1999 is a climax of Bennett's DMIS work of 1993. The model goes past the cultural competency framework to ground the continuum in a set of beliefs about non-negotiable behaviors as well as cultural diversity. By including the cultural proficiency idea, Lindsey, Robins, and Terrell assert that possessing cultural competence is not the ultimate goal. Instead, professionals who exhibit cultural competence must respond to cultural differences in effective ways (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016).
The cultural proficiency model traces its roots to additive acculturation, to work in a pluralistic society. It emphasizes embracing cultural diversity and acknowledging cultural differences while at the same time valuing similarities (Nuri-Robins, Lindsey, Terrell & Lindsey, 2007). In addition, the framework provides the tools needed to gain cultural proficiency and benchmarks for assessing an organization's or a person's development. It includes a set of four culturally tools: cultural proficiency continuum, barriers to cultural proficiency, and guiding principles of cultural proficiency, as well as essential elements of cultural proficiency (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016).
The cultural proficiency framework is a developmental model that depends on the prevailing situation and time. It comprises six stages: cultural destructiveness, cultural incapacity, and cultural blindness. The other three stages include cultural pre-competence, cultural competence, as well as cultural proficiency (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016). Just as Bennett's DMIS model, a person increases his or her cultural competence by moving from a mono-cultural worldview to a pluralistic one. Cultural destructiveness represents behaviors as well as attitudes that are destructive to people from different cultures. Genocides and ethnic cleansings are good examples of cultural destructiveness.
Cultural incapacity portrays behaviors that propel the dominant culture's superiority. The use of extreme bias and discrimination reinforces the superiority of the dominant group over the non-dominant group. People in this stage are ignorant and fear others. A common example of cultural incapacity happens when members of non-dominant cultures are placed in highly visible organizational positions to prove an entity's inclusive hiring practices. However, such organizations demonstrate discriminatory practices through stereotyping. In addition to discriminatory attitudes, cultural incapacity results in learned helplessness where people from non-dominant cultures feel disempowered (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016).
Many people misinterpret cultural blindness as inclusive since people in this phase believe in universal human beings. For many years, color blindness was the aim of diversity education programs and many educators find themselves in the cultural blindness phase. They proclaim that all human beings are the same and hold this as evidence of their inclusivity. However, they deny that their behaviors are privileges enjoyed by individuals in the dominant culture (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016). This, therefore, perpetuates systematic oppression. According to Nicole (2012), the cultural blindness attitude emanates from different sources in education. Teachers in this stage hold that there is no relationship between education and culture. Rather, education is about imparting intellectual, civic, as well as vocational skills. Furthermore, most teachers aspire to their students' success. Teachers in the color blindness phase mistakenly believe that differential treatment of students because of their cultural beliefs and practices is discriminatory. They do not understand that their inability to embrace cultural differences demean those from different cultures. In the classroom, those in the color blindness stage view culturally different behaviors as disobedient. Moreover, culturally blind teachers believe that best practices apply in all cultural contexts since they denote mastery teachings.
Cultural pre-competence demonstrates the awareness of cultural differences. It is a significant shift that reflects the movement towards ethnorelativism. People in this stage are also aware of their shortcomings in interacting with those from different cultural groups. They recognize when a person from a non-dominant culture is facing oppression but cannot make positive changes. They normally experience guilt as well as a sense of inadequacy (Nicole, 2012). Individuals in cultural competence, which is the fifth phase on the cultural proficiency framework, recognize and embrace cultural differences. They can manage cultural difference dynamics and continuously strive toward increasing their ability to work with people from different cultures. Culturally competent people are inclusive in their personal as well as professional lives. They align their values with institutional or organizational structures (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016). Thus, culturally competent people can address the needs of cultural diversity.
According to Nicole (2012), people in the cultural proficiency phase of the continuum have moved past working effectively with those from different cultures and embody professionals with vast knowledge about culture. Lindsey and Lindsey (2016) posit that culturally proficient people have self-awareness and understand how other people may construe their behaviors as offensive. They are continuously aspiring for new knowledge and improve their practices. They can easily negotiate cultural elements in strange or unknown settings without offending others. Moreover, they can easily access the resources needed to succeed in new situations. Most importantly, they are champions of cultural proficiency in all aspects of their professional as well as personal lives. Lindsey et al. (2009) further assert that culturally proficient teachers believe in equitable and socially fair democracy and possess the skills needed to advance positive changes.
Another significant aspect of the cultural proficiency continuum is the essential elements for cultural proficiency. These elements are the standards for organizational practices as well as individual behaviors. Educators depend on the essential elements for a set of expectations needed to measure their alignment. Cultural knowledge assessment is the ability to identify cultural differences and intercultural impacts (Nicole, 2012). Valuing diversity demonstrates the ability to not only recognize, but also accept and embrace cultural differences in affirmative ways. Managing difference dynamics is the ability to resolve conflicts arising due to cultural differences in ways that respect each culture and foster trust-building behaviors. The ability to adapt to diversity promotes systemic and organizational behaviors to align behaviors with cultural competence. It also involves the ability to use intercultural communication and reduce conflicts caused by cultural differences in a proactive manner. Institutionalizing cultural knowledge calls for the integration of cultural knowledge into organizational structures (Lindsey & Lindsey, 2016). Such organizations have culturally competent practices, standards, and policies, as well as continuous professional development of cultural competency.
Culturally proficient classrooms boast of an inside-out systematic perspective that satisfies the needs of all school community members. As a result, the democratic practices in culturally competent classrooms act as the impetus for effective change. People within culturally proficient learning institutions collaborate within the culturally diverse environment of school communities. In addition, such schools operationalize cultural proficiency into their operations, in ways that result in positive policy changes (Nicole, 2012). For instance, a culturally proficient learning institution will have more gender-neutral washrooms. Bakken and Smith (2011) posit that culturally proficient learning institution does not have barriers because of language, disability, race, gender, and sexual orientation. Moreover, the hiring process of culturally proficient learning institutions reflects the hiring and promotion of individuals who think differently from those already in the institution. This includes the hiring of quality educators emanating from backgrounds that reflect a diverse student population. Thus, the environment of a culturally proficient institution is welcoming as well as accessible to people from different cultural backgrounds.
According to Nicole (2012), a culturally proficient teacher embraces continuous improvement and employ triple loop learning to continually address cultural assumptions. The teacher understands change and can operate in a culture of change that enables them to overcome the challenges of continuous transformation. Moreover, the learning environment is oriented towards teaching interventions that aim at preventing learning gaps. Learners experience differentiated instructions and offered the resources needed to facilitate their success. Culturally proficient teachers also disaggregate students' achievement data depending on formative assessments and adjust instructions to allow students to master essential learning.
The scope of culturally proficient teachers permeates the school doors. They use their students, languages, ethnicity, and the parents of their students as resources to enhance the learning environment. They use the diversity of learning institutions to provide resources that lead to high expectations and achievement of rigorous standards by all learners. Families also feel like a vital component of the school community and understand the value of their experiences and culture in enriching classes (Bakken & Smith, 2011)). In essence, culturally proficient schools respect and appreciate the role of families in school activities. Lindsey et al. (2009) recommend the establishment of cultural proficiency indicators to measure the performances of learning institutions. These indicators can include operationalization of cultural proficiency, approach to equity issues, professional development, and inclusion of families as well as the community in a school activity.
Cross-Cultural Efficiency and Meta-Cultural Competency Models
The cross-cultural efficacy model has gained significant popularity in the medical field over the last decade. The development of this cultural competence model follows the outcomes of the DMIS and the cultural proficiency continuum models. Just as the cultural proficiency continuum framework, the cross-cultural efficacy model was developed to enable professionals to enhance their understanding of cultural competency (Nicole, 2012). She asserts that many people still treat cultural competence as a set of discrete facts; professionals have overlooked effort and skills involved. It is high time to understand that the cross-cultural efficacy model reiterates much of the cultural proficiency continuum framework.
Cross-cultural efficacy is anchored on the notion that cultural competence is not just about the ability to effectively work with people from different cultures. This framework implies that a professional is culturally competent and responsive to clients' cultural interpretation of the services offered and expected (Kelly, 2008). It also encompasses organizational context of behaviors. Mallow and Cameron-Kelly (2006) indicate that cross-cultural efficacy focuses on integrated attitudes, behaviors, as well as policies that inform and affirm consumers. This model also requires researchers to explore cultural competency from the consumers' point of view. It holds that a practitioner must interact with people from different cultures effectively rather than considering his or her culture as superior.
Professionals must enhance their understanding of culture and adopt a comprehensive cultural competence practice. Thus, meta-cultural competency is a more rigorous model of developing cultural competence. Meta-cultural competency encompasses traditional cultural competency, cross-cultural education, and cross-cultural efficacy (Mallow & Cameron-Kelly, 2006). This is the same as the proposal by Lindsey et al. (2009) for learning institutions. It consists of personal development, culturally responsive interactions, and organizational change, as well as professional development. The meta-cultural competency model takes into consideration cultural complexities and moves professionals beyond their tendency to dwell on race and ethnicity. Mallow and Cameron-Kelly (2006) hold that the model assumes that professionals consider cultural diversity in family migration, acculturation, It requires practitioners to be versed in cultural knowledge that customers bring to the table during interactions.
Intercultural Development Inventory and Intercultural Sensitivity Scale Models
Another model for measuring cultural competency is the Intercultural Development Inventory, which was developed by Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman in 2003. It was developed to operationalize the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity and provide a way of assessing at what phase individuals are (Lombardi, 2010). Uribe, LeLoup, and Haverluk (2014) employing confirmatory Factor Analysis on more than 590 respondents from diverse backgrounds noted that the six phases of the mono-cultural and intercultural continuum standard reliability satisfied standard reliability criteria for a group as well as individual psychometric diagnosis. Moreover, the researchers did not identify any significant variances among gender, education, and ethnicity, as well as gender.
Segura-Robles and Parra-Gonzalez (2019) assessed the impact of the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, a model for measuring cultural competence, on teachers. The result showed that teachers from two schools, Melilla and Ceuta, demonstrated high cultural sensitivity levels. The Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, both abridged and unabridged has proven reliable in measuring cultural sensitivity. The abridged version of the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale comprises five measures: relational engagement, relational certainty, and regard for cultural diversity. Other elements include relational satisfaction and relational carefulness.
Teachers Awareness of Cultural Competence
For more than two decades, cultural competency initiative has flourished within the law enforcement and medical fields with numerous works of literature on implementation and outcome. The concept has gained momentum in the education field only recently. It is a new research area for researchers in the education field with many studies emerging in the last two decades. To date, studies on the importance of teacher cultural training provide limited information on the effects of cultural competence on student success.
Mark (2011), in a qualitative study on what educators know and perceive about the concept of cultural competence, found that educators do not bring culturally competent practices into the learning environment without prior proper training. The researcher also indicated that pre-service multicultural training programs have little impact on educators' cultural competency in the classroom. She also highlighted that educators may have an informal understanding of the cultural competency concept when a school does not consider cultural competence a priority. Moreover, the extent to which teachers recognize the significance of cultural competency wavers based on personal experience. Mark also noted educators lack efficacy and confidence on the cultural competence matters. The research respondents noted that without formalized training programs and evaluation systems, educators' approach to the cultural competence concept was individualized and anchored on personal experiences and instinct.
In the last decade, studies on cultural competence training programs indicate that an effective professional training program can profoundly influence educators' views within and away from learning institutions (Gies, 2010). On the contrary, an ineffective and heavily mandated program can adversely affect teachers' perspectives of cultural competence initiatives (Pauley, 2008). Gies (2010) indicates that developing cultural competency along available frameworks is a personal journey that needs a trusting environment, self-reflection, and effective conversations with a diverse group of teachers. It also requires a commitment to openly discuss a person's past experiences and actions. Without these vital requirements, a lack of educator agency serves as a significant barrier to the development of cultural competence.
With regards to academic achievement, Well-Rivers (2011) concluded that students from minority groups exhibit academic success when educators have enhanced skills related to issuing culturally relevant teaching instructions. However, the growth extends to learners from dominant and marginalized cultures. Moreover, teachers with culturally relevant practices had fewer cases of discipline referrals. Nicole (2012) explored the role of cultural competence and its role on student engagement. The researcher noted that there was no significant correlation between self-reported cultural competence and student perceptions of their instructors' cultural competency. Nonetheless, it bears a strong positive correlation with student engagement.
Integration of cultural competence into instructional approaches is a vital component for bridging the achievement gap between students from dominant cultures and their counterparts from non-dominant cultures. The existence of academic achievement gaps between dominant and non-dominant culture students should send an alarm to educators that assessment of teaching instructions through cultural competence lens is no longer an option (Coggins & Campbell, 2008). Lewis, James, Hancock, and Hill-Jackson (2008) contend that the gap of cultural competence and instructional responsiveness in learning institutions and among educators is the major reason for the poor academic outcomes of many minority students. The researchers also identify racist policies and practices as well as social-structural inequality philosophies as some of the leading reasons for culturally unresponsive educational practices.
Talbert-Johnson (2004) asserts that lack of cultural competence among instructors is a major reason for the low academic achievements of students from minority groups. This lack of cultural competency constitutes pre-conceived perceptions of the educators' part such as the belief that students from minority groups have lower capabilities and potential. These types of beliefs can have negative impacts on students because they position learners to develop behaviors and practices that hinder academic performance, such as low self-esteem and lack of motivation. Diamond, Randolf, and Spillane (2004) confirm this assertion and posit that racial and social class perceptions always influence teachers' perceptions. As a result, they deem students from non-dominant cultures as less capable compared to their colleagues from dominant cultures. To counteract these beliefs, teachers must respect diverse cultures and challenge both their racial as well as social biases.
However, cultural competence has its shortcomings. The most common shortcoming revolves around its unclear definition, its genuineness as an effective strategy for attaining equity in classrooms, and its impact as a framework for classroom practice. The other challenge concerns whether educators are well prepared to portray true cultural competence. According to Lum (2011), the greatest shortcoming of cultural competence is the achievement of a universal concrete definition. This lack of universal definition results in clouding of the theory leading to unclear methodologies. Moreover, educators and other professionals can perceive cultural competence as a vehicle for ideological agendas. Lum (2011) contends that focusing on the core meaning of cultural competence, principles, as well as assumptions can endanger the use of a universal operational definition.
The inability of cultural competence as an educational practice framework is supported by unsubstantiated studies. Marks (2011) asserts that this criticism is normally supported by evidence relating to the quantity of content matter learned instead of the objectives that learners are failing to accomplish. Garneau and Pepin (2015) identify the tendency of reducing the meaning of cultural competence to a list of characteristics worth exhibiting as another challenge facing cultural competence. On the contrary, it is important to consider cultural competence as an ongoing and dynamic process comprising of complex interactions. Abrams and Moioi (2009) indicate that this oversimplification of the concept of cultural competence can impair its existence. The confusion can inadvertently lead to and reinforce negative racial perceptions such as dominant group hegemony instead of allowing racial discourses that respect cultural differences.
Developing a cultural awareness perspective can help teachers in understanding and accepting students' diverse cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and practices. Hence, the awareness of multicultural attitudes, practices, and values can help educators to understand the influence network within a learning institution's micro-system that operates as a learner's social agent. Responsiveness to cultural differences is a significant aspect of the pedagogy of both elementary and secondary school education. A student's microsystem environment, just as the macro-system environment can influence academic achievement. Hence, educators must be aware of issues concerning cultural diversity dimensions since each student interacts with multiple social-cultural and religious identities that affect his or her life. In the same manner that psychologists must understand their clients' cultural beliefs and practices for effective therapy outcomes, teachers require a cultural pedagogy to prepare learners as agents of social change and succeed in their academic endeavors (Dike, Parida & Welerubun, 2020).
Cultural competence can help educators develop learning materials that enable students to gain knowledge about new formats of understanding about the meaning of student identity. Citizen identity, from a globalization perspective, transcends beyond national boundaries rather than being fixed to defined territorial zones. Consequently, local citizens and foreigners have ownership rights which may weaken a nation's foundation of citizenship. The immediate impact of broad citizenship can be witnessed in the mass reactions of some groups of local citizens who are antipathy to foreigners. Awareness of citizenship must be enhanced through a comprehensive education process from a cultural competence perspective. This type of cultural awareness is required in educational policies as well as processes to promote the peace education concept. Peace education can empower the cultural competencies of students with good problem solving to overcome complex social issues (Culp, 2017).
The process of cultural competence and its dynamics enable all learners from diverse cultural backgrounds to enjoy their freedom without causing social conflicts. In this way, learners can grow based on their unique and exclusive ecology. Cultural awareness of different cultural values can enhance teachers' positive expectations of the adoption of multicultural education in learning institutions (Avalos, 2011). The challenges to the adoption of multicultural education in schools lie in a low understanding of cultural competency and inadequate culture-based curriculums. Moreover, educators are usually pessimistic and spend less time exploring the potentials of cultural diversity in the school community. They are prejudiced against students from non-dominant cultures who possess special abilities (Glock &Klapproth, 2017). Another major hindrance is educator's reservations towards the realization of cultural competency-based education processes and practices at policy levels and their unpreparedness to implement culturally competent pedagogy (Tonbuloglu, Aslan & Aydin, 2016).
The success of cultural competence is highly hinged on awareness and acknowledgment of different cultural values. It also depends on teachers' support of cultural competency-based programs developed by learning institutions. When educators have a strong sense to maintain both personal and communal awareness of cross-cultural differences, they will appreciate using culturally responsive learning processes in the classroom. They will be motivated to eradicate prejudice and discrimination occurring in societies if they can take control of diverse societies. Hence, educators and students can learn to appreciate the power of cultural diversity and fight against unfair actions in communities (Carjuzza, 2012).
To enjoy the fruits of cultural competency, elementary schools must develop and implement a theoretical framework of cultural competence pedagogy to enhance comprehensive thinking process with topics on the practice of cultural diversity in the education process. By doing so, learning institutions may enhance educators' knowledge and skills in cultural competency pedagogy. Multicultural training can empower teachers to work and establish social arrangements within learning institutions and promote social equity in communities and learning institutions. Teachers and learning institutions should establish environments that promote cultural awareness and design cultural competence pedagogy with the help of parents and communities (Dike, Parida & Welerubun, 2020).
Ethical Attitude
Cultural competence is the ability to interact effectively with individuals of different cultures. The outcome of developing cultural competence is the ability to understand, effectively interact with, as well as communicate with individuals across cultures. While some people are born with cultural competence, many put considerable effort to develop it. This implies assessing personal biases and prejudices, searching for role models, interacting with individuals who have a passion for cultural competence, and developing cultural competence skills (Chu, 2011). Generally, there is a close relationship between cultural competence and teacher perceptions, appropriate behaviors, as well as effective policies.
Teacher Efficacy and Perceptions
Researchers have attempted to conceptualize the concepts of cultural competency and teacher perceptions to establish culturally sensitive learning practices and policies. Pieces of literature indicate that cultural competence and educator efficacy are at the heart of culturally responsive teaching practices and policies (Blatchley & Lau, 2010). Further, studies show a significant relationship between cultural competence and educator efficacy, and their impact on student's academic performances (JohnBull, 2011).
Various studies have also demonstrated that educator expectations are influenced by cultural diversity in learning institutions, whether based on ethnicity, race, and socio-economic status. This can result in lowered expectations for students from non-dominant cultures. Teachers can misread a learner's aptitudes and abilities in case of a significant difference between a student's school culture and home culture because of the differences in interactional patterns Dike, Parida & Welerubun, 2020). Rogers-Sirin, L., & Sirin, S. R. (2009). Hauser-Cram et al. (2003) (as cited in Rogers-Sirin & Sirin, 2009) support this assertion. The researchers collected student, educator, and parent level data from more than 100 low-income kindergarten learners. The study's results showed that educators rated their students as less competent when they perceived their values as different from those of their students. In some cases, the students from non-dominant cultures exhibited strong academic abilities.
McKown and Weinstein (2008) explored the three causal pathways linking educator expectations to the academic achievement gap among students from four different racial groups- whites, Asian Americans, African Americans, and Latinos. First, they found that learners who are expected to perform well are more likely to receive better quality education than those not expected to do well. The other reason between educator expectations and students' achievement is that the latter may perceive the former's expectations and internalize them, thereby learning to expect low academic performances. The researchers examined learning institutions in which learners perceived a high degree of differentiated treatment between low and high learners and compared them to learning institutions in which there were low perception levels of differentiated treatment. The study's results showed that there was a significant relationship between achievement gaps in culturally diverse classes and teacher perceptions in schools characterized by high perception levels of differentiated treatment.
Similarly, Rubie-Davies et al. (2010) found that educator expectations influenced student performances. Student perceptions of their teachers' expectations also affected their academic performance. These studies demonstrate learners' academic performances by establishing a self-fulfilling prophecy by which students learn irrespective of their abilities. McKown and Weinstein (2008) indicate that the third relationship between educator expectations and student academic performance is that learners from non-dominant cultures may experience stereotyping. They can experience anxiety due to fear of being judged by their ethnic background or race, which in turn affects their academic performances.
Behavior and Cultural Competence
Throughout the last twenty years, scholars have discussed the observable aspects of learning environments that reflect a school climate such as teaching practices, support for student behavior, school safety-related practices, as well as administrative practices. Researchers have identified the five features of learning institutions encompassing safe learning environments. They include positive and productive relationships, awareness of and respect for cultural diversity, and unbiased norms as well as expectations. The other elements include opportunities for growth and achievement, as well as individual value and shared purpose (O'Malley & Eklund, 2013).
Respect for diversity consists of all differences a person may possess including ethnicity, socio-economic status, gender, sexual orientation, and language. Learning institutions may be the safest place for students; a place where they can receive support from their teachers, classmates, and school administrators to be successful irrespective of their backgrounds. Awareness and respect for cultural diversity consist of the diversity of the school community. Educators may have an indirect effect on how students interact with each other. Learning through observations, students can see how teachers respect and appreciate those from different cultures. Teachers should be aware of their cultures, assumptions, and biases, as well as values to understand how they may affect their teaching practices in classrooms. Teachers should be aware of their students' cultural backgrounds to incorporate them into their teaching practices. 5Thsy should see student diversity as an asset rather than a liability in their education (O'Malley & Eklund, 2013). Thus, schools must strive at incorporating their students' different cultural backgrounds into the learning institutions' culture. Education cultures and policies that enhance a positive outlook on cultural diversity will have educators with positive and supportive relationships with students.
Treatment effectiveness in healthcare is largely dependent on therapeutic collaboration between a physician and a patient. Similarly, numerous studies reveal that educator effectiveness in the classroom depends on a positive educator-teacher relationship. Generally, a healthy educator-student relationship is associated with high academic achievement and healthy social life. A positive relationship between a physician and a patient includes trust, genuineness, as well as rapport. Medical literature suggests that a physician contributes to the physician-patient relationship by being aware of the impact of cultural insensitivity and unintentional biases on relationship strain and poor health outcome (Jo, 2016).
The efficacy of therapeutic interventions can only be enhanced through cultural awareness and competence. Students, just as patients must trust and demonstrate the willingness to learn from their educators. Similarly, teachers should practice multicultural practices to create and maintain a safe and healthy learning environment for students. Educators instruct students via their academics. Any behavior that strains the relationship between educators and students from different cultural backgrounds will adversely affect student's academic performances, behaviors, and social wellbeing (Jo, 2016). These negative implications can add to the academic achievement gap, behavioral challenges, and school drop-out rates in ethnic minorities.
Student Leadership Skills
The primary aim of learning institutions in imparting knowledge to learners is to ensure that they can attain their personal and professional objectives. Also, they can sustain their opportunities in appropriate ways and turn out to be productive members of society. In addition to academic learning, students must develop leadership skills needed to guide others in the right direction and inculcate diligence traits in them. Thus, educators must assign to learners tasks that augment their leadership abilities. For instance, they can make provision of duties to learners within classrooms to enhance their leadership skills. Some of these duties include maintenance of discipline, monitoring and supervision, and helping colleagues having learning problems (Parlar, Türkoğlu & Cansoy, 2017).
When conducting studies on leadership skills development among students, it is important to understand the concept of leadership. Leadership is a process in which a person formulates the direction as well as objectives for other individuals (Wang et al., 2012). It is the art of influencing others to work towards attaining the desired goals and objectives (Madhlangobe & Gordon, 2012). Leaders influence other people’s behavior without resorting to violence or coercion. Thus, students must develop leadership skills to enhance their career and professional prospects. By developing leadership skills, they can generate vital knowledge necessary to accomplish personal and professional goals as well as to accomplish better livelihood opportunities.
Role of Leaders
Leaders play different roles in their day to day activities including negotiation, coaching and motivation, team-building, mentorship, guidance, and advising. In educational set up, some students have learning problems and take some time to understand academic concepts. Others, on the other hand, are astute and require simple explanations. In such cases, it is the role of an educator to assign responsibilities to learners to help those with learning disabilities. Learners can augment their leadership abilities by helping their colleagues in solving academic problems. Other students can develop leadership skills by monitoring and supervising classroom activities, particularly in the absence of teachers. Where possible, it is important assign student duties when organizing seminars and workshops to enhance the development of their leadership skills (Wang et al., 2012).
Leadership Traits
Leaders must inculcate appropriate leadership traits to earn the trust and respect of their followers, as well as to perform their jobs in appropriate ways. Some of common leadership traits include reliability, truthfulness, confidence, cooperation, consistency, and effective communication. When students develop these traits, they can develop vital leadership skills needed for their personal and professional growth (Parlar, Türkoğlu & Cansoy, 2017). Apart from academic problems, students may encounter other sources of conflict such as disagreements with colleagues and unfavorable conditions at home. It is by developing leadership skills that students can establish healthy relationships with their collective irrespective of their cultural backgrounds. Also, they can seek guidance and advice from others to solve their personal problems (Madhlangobe & Gordon, 2012).
The other important traits of effective leadership are assertiveness, tolerance, inspirational, responsibility, charisma, adaptability, skills development, risk taking, as well as performance orientation. Students must hone some of these traits throughout their school life because they experience various challenges when implementing their tasks. Therefore, they need to develop these traits to maintain effective relationships with people from diverse cultures within learning institutions and to contribute toward enhancement of overall education system (Marcketti & Kadolph, 2010). Most importantly, students must learn how to overcome their psychological problems including depression, stress, and anxiety. They need not to impose unnecessary barriers in their quest to achieve academic excellence and professional growth (James-Ward, 2012).
Students must also hone their interpersonal skills to develop effective leadership skills. The major interpersonal skills expected of any leader include empathy, diplomacy, listening skills, patience, tactfulness, caring, honesty, and emotional intelligence (Marcketti & Kadolph, 2010). Educators must strive at inculcating communication skills and listening skills in students to enhance their leadership skills. Effective leaders listen to other people’s concerns to provide them with factual information and help them with anger management. They also communicate with others in friendly ways and are approachable. Students who possess interpersonal skills are visionary and promote creativity and ingenuity in others (Parlar, Türkoğlu & Cansoy, 2017).
Importance of Leadership Skills Development
Leadership is essential in all aspects of life including academic life. Thus, students must develop leadership skills to guide and lead their communities in the right direction. Learning institutions must impart necessary knowledge and competencies in learners to augment their leadership skills. This is because the current job market demands workers who have effective leadership skills to help realize organizational goals and objectives. Nonetheless, learning institutions, particular middle schools emphasize meeting academic standards. Hence, they must inculcate leadership skills among learners.
In schools, students strive towards attaining academic goals. Their aim is to put into practice the learning methods in ways that enable them to attain their academic goals. But students must develop leadership skills to their desired academic goals and objectives. Specifically, they need leadership skills to make appropriate decisions, to establish healthy relationships with others, and to implement tasks with ingenuity (Madhlangobe & Gordon, 2012).
In addition to achieving academic goals, learners must have the desire for self-development. However, they must take several factors into account when focusing on self-development. Some of these factors include developing effective communication skills, morality and ethics, having constructive perspective, honesty and truthfulness, and recognizing other people’s responsibilities. Effective self-development means putting into practice these personality traits (Wang et al., 2012).
Development of leadership skills among students enhances their creativity, which is essential for tasks implementation and accomplishments. They depict creativity when working on projects and assignments through idea generation. Through creativity, students can augment their leadership abilities and skills. Thus creativity is an important requirement for effective communication and performance of tasks. It is the responsibility of leaders to guide and lead others in the right direction, which requires creativity in giving suggestions and opinions (James-Ward, 2012).
Leaders inspire others. In schools, teachers usually encourage and foster teamwork. Students assume different responsibilities by working in teams because each student possesses different personality traits, skills, and capabilities. While some group members perform their tasks with enthusiasm, others procrastinate. But when students assume leadership roles, they put the methods and strategies needed to inspire others into practice (James-Ward, 2012). Through leadership, students can make effective decisions. Student leaders can predict the behavioral traits of their colleagues, which may help in implementation of tasks and activities. Decision making is also an important aspect of learning institutions and classroom activities. While leaders have the authority to make decisions, they must consider other people’s perspectives. In essence, students must understand the essence of allowing team members to take part in decision making processes. Decisions must benefit all team members and enhance the overall education system (Marcketti & Kadolph, 2010).
Leaders can also cope with different types of challenges. Students must bear with some problems and challenges in their quest for academic goals and objectives. They must overcome challenges associated with preparation of assignments and developing efficient understanding of academic concepts. Thus, students must develop leadership skills to cope up with such challenges. They can evaluate alternative solutions and put into practice the most effective approach to solve their problems. It is only by demonstrating the ability to cope with problems and challenges, that students can guide others in appropriate ways. Also, leadership helps in developing professionalism among students. In particular, they learn how to communicate with others with respect and demonstrate traits of honesty as well as ethics (Marcketti & Kadolph, 2010).
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Review of the Literature
(Approximately 30 pages)
The learner assures that this section of Chapter 2 should be approximately 30 pages. (Thirty pages reflects a typical literature review length and is a recommendation, not a rule). The purpose of the minimum number of pages is to ensure that the overall literature review reflects a foundational understanding of the theory or theories, literature and research studies related to the topic. A well-written comprehensive literature review that reflects the current state of research and literature on the topic is expected and will likely exceed 30 pages. Literature reviews are updated continuously. This is an ongoing process to dissertation completion.
2
2
X
Describes the phenomena being explored in the study discussing the prior research that has been done on the phenomena.
2
2
X
Themes or Topics:
The learner discusses and synthesizes studies related to the dissertation topic. May include (1) studies focused on the problem from a societal perspective, (2) studies describing and/or relating the exploring related phenomena (qualitative),, (3) studies on related research such as factors associated with the themes, (4) studies on the instruments used to collect data, (5) studies on the broad population for the study, and/or (6) studies similar to the study. The themes presented, and research studies discussed and synthesized in the Review of the Literature demonstrates understanding of all aspects of the research topic, the research methodology and sources of data.
3
1
X
The learner structures the literature review in a logical order, including actual data and accurate synthesis of results from reviewed studies as related to the learner’s own topic. The learner provides synthesis of the information not just a summary of the findings.
2
2
X
The learner includes in each major section (theme or topic) within the Review of the Literature an introductory paragraph that explains why the particular topic or theme was explored relative to the overall dissertation topic.
2
2
X
The learner includes in each section within the Review of the Literature a summary paragraph(s) that (1) compares and contrasts alternative perspectives on the topic and (2) provides a synthesis of the themes relative to the research topic discussed that emerged from the literature, and (3) identifies how themes are relevant to the dissertation topic and research methodology.
3
1
X
The learner provides additional arguments for the need for the study that was defined in the Background of the Study section.
3
2
X
The learner ensures that for every in-text citation a reference entry exists. Conversely, for every reference list entry there is a corresponding in-text citation. Note: The accuracy of citations and quality of sources is verified by learner, chair, and content expert.
2
2
X
The learner uses a range of references including founding theorists, peer-reviewed empirical research studies from scholarly journals, and governmental/foundation research reports.
2
2
X
The learner verifies that all references are scholarly sources NOTE: Websites, dictionaries, publications without dates (n.d.), are not considered scholarly sources and are not cited or present in the reference list.
2
2
X
The learner avoids overuse of books and dissertations.
Books:
Recommendation: No more than 10 scholarly books that present cutting edge views on a topic, are research based, or are seminal works.
Dissertations:
Recommendation: No more than five published dissertations should be cited as sources in the manuscript. (This is a recommendation, not a rule).
1
1
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
2
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments: 7 31 21 Theme 4 is not evident or clearly stated (Student Leadership Skills)
Problem Statement
There is a problem in K12-shools, that there is no clear information about the correlation between cross-cultural curricular and co-curricular activities, as well as student leadership and academic performance. Cross-cultural experience influences students' leadership capacity development and academic achievement. Nonetheless, co-curricular and curricular activities tend to influence a learner's leadership behaviors as well as academic performance in diverse k-12 schools. This study will focus on students in a high school in central Florida, with the sample of 16 -24 teachers who provide data including girls and boys from different grade levels. The preferred learning institutions are those offering cross-cultural enrichment programs including, summer and winter exchange programs as well as immersion programs.
Student academic performance and leadership development in culturally diverse learning institutions are vital indicators of effective culture in k-12 learning environments. Student leaders in culturally diverse learning institutions encounter different diversity challenges such as contempt and intimidation. These issues can negatively affect a person's mental, emotional, as well as social well-being apart from academic performance (Allen, 2017). Thus, it is important to develop culturally inclusive curricular and co-curricular activities to foster social cohesion among students. This cohesion will help in improving their leadership behaviors and academic outcome (Allen, 2017). Hence, it will be important to explore how cultural inclusivity and the development of appropriate curricular as well as co-curricular activities affect student's academic performance and leadership behaviors.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Problem Statement
(Minimum three or four paragraphs or approximately one page)
The learner states the specific problem for research with a clear declarative statement.
2
The learner describes the population of interest. The population of interest includes all individuals that could be affected by the study problem.
EXAMPLE: The population of interest might be all adults in the United States who are 65 or older. The target population is a more specific subpopulation from the population of interest, such as low-income older adults ( ≥ 65) in AZ. Thus, the sample is selected from the target population, not from the population of interest.
2
The learner discusses the scope and importance of addressing the problem.
1
The learner develops the Problem Statement based on what needs to be understood as defined in the Problem Space and the Review of the Literature.
2
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Summary
Cultural competence is an accepted framework for harmonious co-existence with people from different cultural backgrounds. The term refers to the awareness, knowledge, and processes required by people, professions, and organizations, as well as systems to operate effectively in a culturally diverse environment (Seeberg & Minick, 2012). While many scholars have explored the impact of cultural competence on educators and learning institutions, few have explored its influence on student leadership development and academic performance. This research study will use the Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model to foster and promote unity through collaboration among learners from diverse cultural backgrounds
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Chapter 2 Summary
(Minimum one to two pages)
The learner synthesizes the information from all prior sections in the Literature Review using it to define the key strategic points for the research.
1
X
The learner summarizes the problem space and the what still needs to be understood and how it informs the problem statement.
2
X
The learner identifies the theory(ies) or model(s) describing how they inform the research questions.
3
X
The learner builds a case (argument) for the study in terms of the value of the research and how the problem statement emerged from the review of literature.
3
X
The content of this section reflects that learners have done their “due diligence” in synthesizing the existing empirical research and writing a comprehensive literature review on the research topic.
2
X
The learner summarizes key points in Chapter 2 and transitions into Chapter 3.
2
X
The chapter is correctly formatted to dissertation template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.
2
X
All research presented in the chapter is scholarly, topic-related, and obtained from highly respected, academic, professional, original sources. In-text citations are accurate, correctly cited and included in the reference page according to APA standards.
3
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence student leadership capacity development and academic achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida. It will investigate issues of student academic performances and leadership behaviors in culturally diverse learning institutions. It will do so by examining the relationship between culturally inclusive co-curricular activities and curriculum initiatives and student leadership as well as the academic outcome. The study can be used in communities as well as communities that have individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds for the promotion of social cohesion in communities and effective student leadership behaviors. It can also be applied for the improvement of student social as well as learning outcomes in schools (Oplatka& Arar, 2016).
Studies on cross-cultural experience show a direct relationship between cultural competence and effective leadership. In schools, culturally competent teachers develop a caring community for all students irrespective of race and ethnicity. Culturally competent teachers also develop their background knowledge on institutional as well as structural racism. They read different perspectives about cultural competence and emerge with a broader view of the concept. Moreover, they collaborate with others and are more patient as well as comfortable in their vulnerability (Pope, Reynolds & Mueller, 2014).
In organizations, culturally competent leaders treat all employees equally and utilize their knowledge, skills, and abilities to the fullest irrespective of their background. By doing so, they increase staff morale across the organization. Cross-cultural leaders can also handle conflicts among employees without bias and determine how to utilize conflicts as a means of enhancing workplace communication and as a method to foster innovative approaches to businesses. A leader also shows cultural competency by recruiting people from diverse groups such as race, ethnicity, disability, religious orientation, gender, age, and sexual orientation (Pope, Reynolds & Mueller, 2014).
The Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model will be used to promote education across multicultural settings because of its ability to overcome issues associated with gender, ethnicity, and/or nationality. The model focuses on numerous factors within the educational context such as leadership development and the creation of discussion forums that foster diversity, responsibility, and a sense for the community. The model also focuses on generative learning, ethical and collaborative spirit, as well as cultivation of respect. The Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model can be used to create unity through collaboration among learners with diverse features (Tomlinson, 2013).
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Chapter 3 Introduction
(Minimum two to three paragraphs)
The learner begins by restating the Purpose Statement for the study.
3
2
X
The learner provides a re-orienting summary of the research focus from Chapter 2 and outlines the expectations for this chapter.
1
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence student leadership capacity development and academic achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida. Data will be gathered from a high school in Central Florida, school administrators, and teachers. In particular, the study will include 16 - 24 participants because of limited resources and time frame. With the current Covid-19 pandemic, it will be important to limit the number of research participants to between 16 and 24 in order to reduce risk of infection. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021) indicates that there is no “zero risk” when having a social gathering. Irrespective of the size of the gathering, people are at risk from COVID-19 whenever they gather. The COVID-19 causing virus spreads easily in poorly ventilated settings.
Researchers will contact school administrators and teachers and explain the purpose as well as the significance of the study. The researcher will seek IRB approval by explaining the nature and significance of the study and how the study is aligned with ethical research principles and practices. Blackwood et al. (2015) indicate that the purpose of IRB approval is to assure that a researcher protects the rights and welfare of research subjects. This will only be done after obtaining permission from the school. The researcher will inform the school administrators and teachers about the research ninety days in advance so that they can decide on whether to participate or not and adequately prepare for the exercise.
The process of data collection will commence by contacting the relevant school authorities. Since the study will not interfere with normal learning activities, research participants will be expected to respond to the interview questionnaires during weekdays or weekends. Observations will be conducted during indoor as well as outdoor activities by using cameras in classrooms. Direct observations will be used for outdoor activities. For teachers, paper and pen face-to face-interview will be effective. Secondary data will be gathered from education offices and teachers as well as school administrators' inventories. A compilation of data from different research participants will be done 30 days after completing the data collection process.
After data collection, the data will be coded and arranged systematically through itemization of nominal data in the same group. Different themes will be determined, and thematic analysis performed to interpret observations. For example, if one of the coded groups is leadership performance across all learners, the list's subcategory would be leadership performance among African-Americans, Asian American, and Caucasian students. The implication is that there will be an analysis and comparison of trends in different classes and sub-classes. Data validity will be ascertained by the deviations between the study's findings and research questions, and whether the findings are consistent with the standard accuracy limits of the research instruments employed in the study. Krysik and Flynn (2013) assert that data validity is crucial because it determines the type of research questions to use and helps in ensuring that researchers use questions that focus on important issues.
Data management is an important requirement in any research activity. It involves the organization, storage, and preservation, as well as sharing of data collected and utilized in a study (Cresswell&Cresswell, 2017). In this study, information systems will be used for data storage. A cloud backup system will be used to prevent loss, destruction, and deletion of data. Cloud backup will also safeguard data integrity. Furthermore, various information security methods such as encryption, physical access controls, as well as password authentication will be used for data security and protection. Most importantly, the data will be kept for at least one month to ensure easy accessibility during the data analysis stage or for verification purposes, and typically for 3- 5 years for record.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Purpose of the Study
(Minimum one or two paragraphs)
This section begins with one sentence that identifies the research methodology, design, problem statement, and geographic location. This is presented as a declarative statement: "The purpose of this qualitative [design] study is to … [include the Problem Statement] at a [setting/geographic location]."
3
2
The learner introduces how the study will be carried out.
3
2
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
2
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Research Questions
A research question is a question that a particular study seeks to answer. It addresses an issue, through data analysis and interpretation, which is answered in the conclusion part of a study. As the name suggests, a research question is grounded on research. The research questions are grounded on the Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model. Specifically, the model helps in understanding the issues of nationality and ethnicity in a diverse school environment. Educators and policy makers can use the model to explore the impact of cross-cultural experience on students; academic performance. The model also helps in understanding the relationship between cross cultural experience and leadership capacity development. In particular, it focuses on various aspects of educational context such as leadership development, generative learning, and development of discussion forums that foster diversity, sense, and responsibility for the community (Tomlinson, 2013). Cross-cultural awareness is closely linked with positive student leadership qualities and behavior. Hence, this study will be guided by two questions.
RQ1: How does cross-cultural experience affect student leadership capacity development?
RQ2: How does cross-cultural experience influence student academic achievement?
The study will use primary data of between 16 and 24 respondents to answer the two research questions. The semi-structured interview and observation techniques will be used for data collections. Allen (2017) defines the semi-structured interview as a qualitative method of data collection in which a researcher asks respondents a series of predetermined open-ended questions. The semi-structured interview method of data collection is effective if a researcher wants to explore the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs of a research participant about a particular issue. It is also effective when a researcher wants to delve deeply into sensitive issues and to gather qualitative, open-ended data. Semi-structured interviews will be used because of their framework, which makes it easy to focus on the main themes of a study. Moreover, they are not restricted to particular questions (Poucher et al., 2020).
The semi-structured interviews and observation data collection methods will be used to help in answering the two research question. The semi-structured interview will be used because it permits flexibility to some limit, which can allow a researcher to interactively respond to the interviewees' respondents, thereby allowing the development of new themes and identification of new issues as they arise (Allen, 2017). The experimental form of the interview will be used because it enables a researcher to capture a respondent's perceptions, feelings, and experiences during the time they have been a culturally diverse learning institution. In addition to semi-structured interviews, observation methods of data collection will also be used. It is a method of data collection in which a researcher observes within specific research. This method of data collection will be used since it allows a researcher to understand as well as capture the context within which interactions take place.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Research Questions
(Minimum one to two pages)
The learner establishes the research questions, and defines the phenomenon/a
3
2
X
The learner describes the nature and sources of necessary data to answer the research questions (primary versus secondary data, specific people, institutional archives, Internet open sources, etc.).
The learner describes the data collection methods, instrument(s) or data source(s) to collect the data for each research question.
3
1
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
1
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Rationale for a Qualitative Methodology
This study will use the qualitative method of research because it aims at understanding how cross-cultural experiences influence students' academic performance and leadership development. This study is more concerned with what issues instead of why or why a certain phenomenon has happened. A qualitative research methodology focuses on interpreting people’s perception from a social perspective by using qualitative data collection tools such as interview and surveys (Cresswell&Cresswell, 2012). Moreover, the qualitative approach will be used because it offers numerous methods for data collection, thereby, eliminating the scope of mistakes and rate of errors (Poucher et al., 2020).
A qualitative study focuses on collecting non-numerical data such as the feelings and perceptions of research participants. The qualitative research methodology will be used because it is subjective and focuses on the interpretation as well as an understanding of a social phenomenon within natural settings (Saunders et al., 2018). Thus, the methodology is suitable for this study because it helps in understanding as well as interpreting the current state of student academic performance and leadership competence in culturally diverse k-12 learning institutions. The method can also be used to determine the appropriate strategies that can help in preventing and managing diversity-related issues that hinder academic attainment and obstruct leadership.
Moreover, the qualitative methodology accommodates both the complexities and several realities regarding new ideas as well as themes emerging from the gathered data (Saunders et al., 2018). Therefore, the qualitative method of research would facilitate the expansion of the study and allow accommodation as well as the generation of new ideas that would enhance understanding of diversity issues in learning institutions. The sensitivity of cultural diversity means that there is a need to have caution when choosing the type of research methodology for data collection. It is also important to focus on the researcher's behavior (Poucher et al., 2020). In this regard, the qualitative methodology is appropriate because the emphasis is to use ethical behaviors to create a socially conducive atmosphere where research subjects can comfortably provide their genuine responses. Genuine responses are crucial for data accuracy and reliability. Furthermore, the qualitative methodology allows for data analysis in a nonlinear, iterative, as well as holistic manner, which will improve the quality of the research (Cresswell&Cresswell, 2017).
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Expanded Rationale for a Qualitative Methodology
(Minimum one to two pages)
The learner defines and describes the chosen methodology.
3
2
X
The learner provides a rationale for choosing a qualitative methodology, based on what still needs to be understood from the problem space, problem statement, and research questions.
3
1
X
The learner provides a rationale for the selected the methodology based on empirical studies on the topic.
3
2
X
The learner justifies why the methodology was selected as opposed to alternative methodologies.
3
1
X
The learner uses authoritative source(s) to justify the selected methodology.
Note:
Do not use introductory research textbooks (such as Creswell or internal GCU research course e-books) to justify the research design and data analysis approach.
3
1
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
1
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Rationale for Research Design
The purpose of this descriptive qualitative study is to understand how cross-cultural experiences influence student leadership capacity development and academic achievement, located at a high school in Central Florida. A descriptive qualitative method of research design will be used to explore the relationship between cross-cultural experience and student academic performances as well as leadership development. Poucher et al. (2020) indicate that the purpose of a qualitative descriptive research design is to provide a comprehensive summarization of specific events faced by an individual or a group of people. In essence, it focuses on people's experiences, including the integration of people's experiences with consciousness, as well as the implication of the situation (Poucher et al, 2020).
The descriptive qualitative research design focuses on an understanding of the essence and core structure as well as the impacts of experiences. Allen (2017) asserts that a qualitative descriptive research design is used when there is a need for an uncomplicated description that focuses on the what, why, and when, as well as where of an experience. Doyle et al. (2020) offered a major reason for using the qualitative descriptive approach of research methodology. The rationale is that a qualitative descriptive research design offers a clear description of experiences as well as perceptions, especially in areas where there is insufficient information about the issue under investigation.
A descriptive qualitative research design will be used for this study as it requires an uncomplicated description of how cross-cultural experiences affect a student's leadership development and academic outcome. Moreover, a descriptive qualitative research design can help in understanding the lived experiences as well as academic performance of students in culturally diverse learning institutions based on the current state of cross-cultural cooperation as well as cohesion in schools.
Firsthand experience with the culturally diversified k-12 schools will allow the researcher to embrace inductive and discovery instead of guessing about the context. Moreover, the researcher will see some things that normally escape the respondents' awareness when using a different method of data collection. Most importantly, it will provide the researcher with an opportunity to learn new things that respondents may not be willing to discuss in an interview. Cresswell and Cresswell (2017) indicate that the observation method of data collection allows researchers to view events, norms, and actions from the respondents' perspectives. It also allows researchers to attend to mundane details needed to understand ongoing experiences and provide clues to other aspects of reality. Most importantly, observation enables researchers to contextualize events from social and historical perspectives.
The study will also utilize focus groups for data collection to complement semi-structured interviews. Guest et al. (2017) assert that focus groups are a qualitative method of data collection used to gather in-depth information about a topic under investigation. Focus groups help in collecting information on collective perspectives, and the meanings lying behind such perspectives. They will also help in acquiring a rich understanding of the research participants' experiences and beliefs. Cresswell and Cresswell (2017) assert that focus groups cans be used during the pre-structuring phase of a study when a researcher aspires to collect different perspectives or judgments of experts. Focus groups will be used to collect data from a purposely chosen group of people instead of a statistically representative sample. In addition, this method will help in understanding the respondent's socio-cultural aspects of life. The method will be employed by determining as well as defining the primary research objectives. Then a list of questions will be developed for discussion by the focus group.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Research Design
(Minimum one to two pages)
The learner identifies the research design for the study. The learner provides the rationale for selecting the research design supported by empirical and methodological references.
3
2
X
The learner justifies why the design was selected as the best approach to collect the needed data, as opposed to alternative designs.
2
1
X
The learner uses authoritative source(s) to justify the design.
Note:
Do not use introductory research textbooks (such as Creswell) to justify the research design and data analysis approach.
3
1
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
3
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Population and Sample Selection
In this section the learner discusses the setting (e.g., location), the population of interest (general population), target population, and study sample. Learners should identify each of these explicitly within this section. The learner must use sampling terminology to identify the specific type of sampling to be used for the study. Qualitative research involves a nonprobability sampling approach such as convenience sampling, purposeful (or purposive) sampling, and volunteer sampling. There are many others depending on the study design, as such it is necessary to describe the sampling approach in detail.
Qualitative Sample Size
Sample sizes in qualitative research are smaller than those in quantitative research. The criterion table below specifies sample size and adequacy of data for several qualitative research designs. GCU has provided guidelines regarding sample size for each of the core designs, which are based on the traditions of design and analysis in qualitative research (Grand Canyon University, 2015, 2016, 2017a, 2017b, 2020). See Guest, Bunce, and Johnson (2006), and Mason (2010) for two examples that discuss the sufficiency of sample size in qualitative research.
Recruiting and Sampling Strategy
Include a description of the recruiting approach for the study as well as a description of the sampling strategy selected for the study. Part of the recruiting approach is the discussion of obtaining site authorization in order to access the target population. Include relevant information, such as confidentiality measures, geographic specifics, and participant requirements. This means if Plan A does not work, the learner will not need to file an amendment with IRB. If the learner has not obtained an adequate sample size after going through all three plans, the learner can move forward with data analysis and will include a discussion of any challenges in Chapters 4 and 5.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Population and Sample Selection
(Minimum one to two pages)
The learner defines and describes the population of interest (the group to which the results of the study would be generalized or applicable) (such as police officers in AZ).
The learner defines and describes the target population from which the sample ultimately is selected (such as police officers in AZ who belong to the police fraternal association).
The learner defines and describes the study sample, who are the individuals who will volunteer or be selected from the target population and are the final source of data, and the final group from whom complete data will be collected.
NOTE: There is no such thing as a sample population, there is only a “sample
” that is taken from the target population or the population.
X
The learner describes the required sample size to secure adequate qualitative data as based on the literature related to the design indicated in the previous section and provides the rationale for how this size was derived.
X
The learner defines and describes the sampling procedures (such as convenience, purposive, snowball, etc.) supported by scholarly research sources.
For a purposive sample, the learner identifies the screening criteria (“purposes”) and how the participants will be screened (e.g., demographic questionnaire, expert knowledge of topic, screening questions such as years of experience in a position).
The learner defines and describes the sampling strategy and the process for recruiting individuals to comprise the sample. The learner provides a compelling argument that the target population is large enough to meet the target sample size by defining the “sample frame” (the subset of the target population from which the sample will be drawn).
X
The learner discusses the primary plan to obtain the sample (plan “A”) as well as two back up plans to use if plan “A” does not provide the minimum target sample size.
X
The learner describes the process used to obtain site authorization to access the target population and sample frame. This includes the information required to obtain this authorization, such as a description of confidentiality measures, the limits of study participation requirements, and geographic specifics, for example.
The learner includes evidence of site authorization in an appendix prior to submission for peer review.
If public data sources or social media are used to collect data, and no site permission is required, the learner provides a rationale and evidence for why these sources can be used without this permission.
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Sources of Data
In this section the learner fully identifies and describes the types of data that will be collected, as well as the specific research materials, instruments, and sources used to obtain or collect those data (interviews, questionnaires, media, documents, focus groups, observations, etc.). The learner will use the term research data to refer to data that will be collected specifically to address the research questions. Data used for screening/selection purposes, or demographic data, should be referred to as additional data. The learner will discuss the specific research materials, instruments, or sources used to collect data for the proposed study. The learner will include a brief introductory paragraph and then use the following section organization:
Research Data
Sources of qualitative data, such as interview protocols, are usually developed by the researcher. This differs considerably from quantitative data since the purpose of a qualitative study is to achieve depth of understanding of a particular situation and context to understand meaning and specific social attributes (organizational context, social relationships, roles, group patterns, and so on).
Research
Data Source #1. The learner describes the first research data source in detail, including the phenomena for which it will provide data.
Research Data Source #2. The learner describes the second research data source in detail, including the phenomena for which it will provide data, and so forth.
For an interview protocol, the learner should develop interview questions that are consistent with the design. For example, for a phenomenological design, interview questions should be highly open-ended to elicit lived experiences in terms of feelings, thoughts, reflections. If learners are using a previously published measurement instrument, they should discuss the characteristics of the instrument in detail and why it is suitable to gather data applicable to a qualitative study. For example, for a survey tool describe how the instrument or data source was developed and constructed. Learners planning to include previously published instruments must also obtain all appropriate use permissions from instrument authors. A copy of all “permissions to use” and all instruments must be included in separate appendices (one for each instrument-permission pair). For qualitative studies, learners often revise existing instruments, so the “permissions to use” must also include “permission to revise” as well.
If research data will come from an electronic database (archival, or secondary data), the learner must identify the database and indicate exactly how the data will be obtained or accessed and how it applies to the qualitative study. The learner must confirm that the database actually contains data that are needed to address the research questions. The learner must identify the source of the data (e.g., agency, website, etc.), and indicate how the data will physically be obtained and in what format. An outline of the structure of the database should be in an appendix, e.g., labels for the rows and columns. If permission to use the database is required, evidence of this permission also should be included in the same appendix.
Additional Data
The learner states the additional data to be collected, such as demographic data.
Additional Data Source #1. The learner describes the first additional data source in detail.
Additional Data Source #2. The learner describes the second additional data source in detail, and so forth.
Additional data includes, for example, information used for sample screening and/or selection purposes, and demographic data. For screening/selection instruments, the learner should explain how the instruments work, and exactly how the information obtained relates to participant selection. Additionally, a rationale should be provided for collection of demographic data. Use of additional demographic data should be primarily to provide a profile of the sample, and the specific demographic information collected must be relevant to the proposal topic. Due to new data privacy laws, collection of personally identifiable information (PII) is restricted. All demographic information to be collected will need to be clearly stated in the Informed Consent documents so participants are aware of the personal information they are being asked to provide as a study participant. Merely collecting demographic data to “have it” will not be approved. Note: For qualitative studies, learners may create the demographic form.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Sources of Data
(Minimum one to three pages)
The learner provides a detailed discussion of the sources to be used to collect the research data that will be used to address the research questions. The required details include:
1. How the instrument was developed and constructed.
2. Interview questions must be aligned with the research design and collect the information to address the research questions and problem statement.
X
If the learner’s research data will come from an electronic database (archival, or secondary data), they provide the following information:
1. Identify the database and indicate exactly how the data will be obtained or accessed.
2. Confirm that the database actually contains data on the phenomenon or case that are needed to address the research questions.
3. Identify the source of the data (e.g., agency, website, etc.), and indicate how the data will physically be obtained and in what format.
The learner includes an outline of the structure of the database in Appendix E, e.g., labels for the rows and columns.
If permission to use the database is required, evidence of this permission also is included in Appendix E.
X
The learner provides a detailed discussion of the instrumentation and/or research materials to be used to collect any additional data, such as data to be used for participant screening/selection and/or demographic data.
For screening/selection instruments, the learner explains how the instruments work, and exactly how the information obtained relates to participant selection.
For demographic data, the learner describes why it is necessary and how it will be used. The main use of demographic data is to provide a profile of the sample, and the specific demographic information collected will be relevant to the proposal topic.
X
The learner includes a copy of all instruments, questionnaires, surveys, interview protocols, observation protocols, focus group protocols, or other research materials in Appendix E. For any instruments or research materials that require “permission to use,” Appendix E includes evidence of having obtained such permission.A protocol for data collection such as an interview or focus group or observation is more than a set of interview questions, It should provide the detailed process the learner will use to collect the data including their introduction and description of the process, the location, the physical set-up, the technologies to be used for holding and recording the meeting, the interview questions, additional probing questions, and/or facilitation and data collection techniques used in these approaches. A detailed protocol enhances the learner’s ability to defend the study.
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Trustworthiness
This section describes the four key elements that together serve to produce confidence in the research procedures and results of a qualitative study. These elements constitute the overarching concept of “trustworthiness.” The four elements are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility and transferability are the qualitative version of validity, and dependability and confirmability are the qualitative version of reliability
see Appendix I.)
Learners can start this discussion by (1) defining the concept (e.g., credibility), (2) identifying the “threats” (biases or weaknesses) inherent in their methodology (design, sampling, data collection procedures and sources of data/instruments, and data analysis), and (3) describing how they will minimize such threats (e.g., reflexivity for subjective bias in qualitative data analysis). The following are steps taken by a qualitative researcher to ensure the research is trustworthy, and are from Shenton (2004, p. 73), based on Guba’s (1981) four criteria for trustworthiness. The researcher should address as many as are applicable to the design selected.
Credibility
Credibility refers to how well the study’s findings accurately represent the experiences of participants for the sample under study. In other words, credibility describes the internal validity of the study. Some strategies qualitative researchers use to ensure credibility include:
· Adoption of a well-established data collection plan.
· Fundamental knowledge of naturalistic inquiry, which is the essence of naturalistic inquiry is that research is conducted in natural settings, that is, in settings where the participants live or engage in activities that are relevant to the phenomenon under study. (Armstrong, 2010; Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
· Deep engagement, which means sufficient time is given to listen, document, and achieve saturation of data.
· Member checking, which increases the authenticity of the final transcript.
· Narrative truth, which means the researcher represents the authenticity of participants’ reflections, comments, stories, and perspectives.
· Negative cases and rival explanations, which include evidence that does not fit the pattern that emerges during analysis and provides an explanation.
· Researcher reflexivity, which is how the researcher maintain awareness about how results unfold, documenting emerging patterns. The researcher’s positionality or “reflective commentary:” allows researcher to clearly state the lens through which the social world is interpreted and discuss how the researcher’s background influences data collection and analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
· Thick description, which is the context(s) of the participants be described in a rich and detailed manner.
· Triangulation via use of different data collection methods, different informants, different locations
· Researcher experience, which includes a description of background, qualifications, and experience of the researcher (researcher positionality)
Dependability
Dependability refers to the degree to which research procedures are documented and are reliable. Techniques used to demonstrate dependability include:
· Audit trail, which is documentation of the inquiry process.
· Evidence, which includes full transcripts, careful documentation of data gathering sessions, media (audiotapes, videotapes, documents, photographs), employment of “overlapping methods.”
· An in-depth methodological description that provides a comprehensible record of how data were collected and analyzed. Meticulous description increases soundness of study that can be useful for future studies.
· Records of the data analysis process, which includes codebooks, how coding schemes were developed, documentation of initial codes secondary codes, categories, with multiple examples from the dataset (interview transcripts, observational records, focus group transcripts, for example).
· Clear alignment of what needs to be understood, problem statement, research questions, methodology, research design.
· Peer debriefing, which includes consulting with mentors or experienced qualitative researchers to discuss and receive feedback on the study, prior to, during, and after the completion of the study.
· Test the strength of the analysis and interpretation, which includes checking analysis and interpretation against documents, records, recordings (the dataset).
Transferability
Transferability refers to the degree to which findings are applicable to policy, practice, and future research, or the degree to which the results of a qualitative study apply to other people or contexts. Transferability addresses the external validity and is the qualitative version of “generalizability” of the study’s results.
· Thick description that provides background data to establish context of study and detailed description of phenomenon in question to allow comparisons of the context can be made to other contexts. The greater the detailed description of the phenomena, the more meaningful the results may be when informing another context.to be made.
· Sampling sufficiency, which refers both to the sample size and to the appropriateness of the sample, so that the participants experience the phenomena so that the data collected from them provide insight into the phenomena.
Confirmability
Confirmability refers to the objectivity or the ability of others to confirm or corroborate findings (Chess, 2017, section 3, para. 3). Qualitative researchers develop confirmability through:
· Coding, which is clear and well defined; the naming of patterns identified in the data; patterns can include stories, ideas, specific participant-offered terms, and phrases.
· Providing ample evidence to support claims.
· Intercoder reliability. The extent to which two researchers, coding data based on the same codebook (an inductively developed list of codes and their definitions) code the data in the same way.
· Rival explanations and negative cases. Identify examples that do not fit a pattern that is emerging. These might indicate an alternative organizing scheme, or may be the exception that proves the rule (Creswell & Miller, 2000; Patton, 1999)
· Researcher reflexivity, which is how the researcher maintain awareness about how results unfold, documenting emerging patterns. The researcher’s positionality or “reflective commentary:” allows researcher to clearly state the lens through which the social world is interpreted and discuss how the researcher’s background influences data collection and analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
· In-depth methodological description to allow integrity of research results to be scrutinized.
· Admission or statement of researcher’s beliefs and assumptions.
· Recognition of shortcomings in study’s methods and their potential effects.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
TRUSTWORTHINESS
(Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
1. Defines the concepts of credibility, transferability
2. Credibility: discusses how the study represents the participants’ experiences
3. Transferability: discusses how the study’s findings may be applicable to policy, practice, future research
X
1. Describes the threats to the credibility and transferability of the study inherent in the study design, sampling strategy, data collection method/instruments, and data analysis
2. Addresses how these threats will be minimized
X
Defines concepts of dependability and confirmability
X
Dependability: discusses how the study documents research procedures. Provides detailed research protocols.
X
Confirmability: discusses how the study could be confirmed or findings corroborated by others.
X
Describes the threats to dependability and confirmability of the study inherent in the study design, sampling strategy, data collection method/instruments, and data analysis.
Addresses how these threats will be minimized.
X
Appendices must include copies of instruments, materials, qualitative data collection protocols, codebook(s), and permission letters from instrument authors (for validated instruments, surveys, interview guides, etc.)
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, correct punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Data Collection and Management
The learner will use this section to describe in detail the entirety of the process that will be used to collect the data. “The data” includes both research and additional data (see Sources of Data and/or Research Materials). This includes describing the basic, step-by-step procedures used to carry out all the major steps for data collection for the study at a level of detail that would allow another researcher to execute the study. The learner should view this section as similar to a “recipe,” that needs to be carefully followed to produce the best possible study results (the “entrée”). It is critical for the learner to ensure that this section is clear, comprehensive, and details the exact steps to be used in the data collection process. Detail is critical! This section needs to have sufficiently detailed steps so that another researcher could collect data following those steps.
It also is important that the learner describes the method(s) of collecting data using protocols and instruments. For example, it might be that all data be collected within a single face-to-face or videoconferencing setting. Alternatively, the researcher might meet with the learner in one data collection session and ask the participant to complete a different instrument in a separate session for some reason. For the latter situation, the learner must describe the process by which data from all sources will be linked to a specific participant.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Data Collection and Management
(Minimum one to three pages)
The learner describes the procedures for the actual data collection at a level of detail that would allow execution of the study by another researcher. This will include (but not be limited to) how each instrument, measurement technique, or data source will be used, how and where data will be collected, and how data will be recorded.
The learner includes a sequence of actions or step-by-step procedures to be used to carry out all the major steps for data collection. This includes a workflow and corresponding timeline, presenting a logical, sequential, and transparent protocol for data collection that would allow another researcher to conduct the study.
Data from different sources may have to be collected in parallel (e.g., paper-and-pen surveys for teachers, corresponding students, and their parents AND retrieval of archival data from the school district). Provides detailed description of data collection process, including all sources of data and methods used, such as field tests, interviews, member checking, observations, surveys, and expert panel review. Note: The collected data must be sufficient in breadth and depth to answer the research question(s) and interpreted and presented correctly, by theme, research question and/or instrument. sequence is acceptable.
X
The steps include acquisition of site authorization documents, IRB approval, and the procedures for obtaining participant informed consent and protecting the rights and well-being of the participants.
The learner includes copies of the relevant site authorizations, participant informed consent forms, recruitment announcements/materials (e.g., posters, e-mails, etc.) in appropriate appendices.
X
The learner describes the data management procedures for paper-based and/or electronic data. This includes, for example, data security procedures and how and when data will be destroyed.
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Data Analysis Procedures
The learner uses this section to identify and provide a rationale for the data analysis approach for the study, and to provide a step-by-step description of the procedures to be used to conduct the analysis. The key elements of this section include:
· Description of analytic approach that should clearly connect to the problem and research questions. Learners might provide the discussion in a narrative way to show the connection between varying types of analysis and each research question, particularly if different techniques are needed for each question.
· The process by which the raw data will be prepared for analysis.
· If descriptive statistics are used, the language used to describe the will be reported for all research and additional data analysis procedure.
· A rationale for and choice of an analytic approach for addressing each of the research questions.
· A description of the analytic approach (for example: for thematic analysis, describe all steps in coding, how codes were developed, provide tables showing both initial and secondary coding cycles, show development of codes into themes, provide examples of every code, pertinent clusters of codes, and relationship of those to themes, provide multiple examples from transcript to illustrate codes, code clusters, and themes. Note that some designs, such as phenomenology and narrative analysis, follow a distinctive analytic approach unlike thematic analysis. These approaches must be supported by citations.
· For thematic analysis, include codebook for those analyses in which coding is conducted. The codebook should include in each row: the code, a definition of the code, examples of the code from transcripts, and other sources of data.
· Provide ample description of the data, including:
· Interviews: how the interview questions were developed. If based on literature or existing data source(s), include citations and permissions to use and revise in the appendix. Once reviewed by expert panel or field tested, include initial and revised versions of interview questions in the appendix before peer review submission; revisions would be based on outcomes from field testing or expert panel review.
· Questionnaires: how the questions were developed. If using (and revising) existing questionnaire, include citations and permissions to use and revise in the appendix.
· Focus group: identify and describe the type of focus group to be used. Describe how the questions or activities were developed, the way(s) in which the focus group(s) will assist in answering research questions, and how the purpose of the focus group(s) differs from that of the interviews.
· Observations: information on how the observation(s) will assist in answering the research questions. Observation protocol must be included in the appendix and should relate to the overall research protocol. Identify the observation form(s) that will be used as a part of the protocol to record the observation data. Observations are not for the purpose of noting participant body language, facial expressions, or other reactions that do not relate to addressing the Problem Space. The data from the observation must address the research questions.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Data Analysis Procedures
(Minimum one to three pages)
The learner restates the problem statement or purpose statement, along with the research question(s)
X
Describes how raw data are prepared for analysis (i.e., transcribing interviews, conducting member checking, how all sources of data will be organized. and checking for missing data).
Describes (for both paper-based and electronic data) the data management procedures adopted to maintain data securely, including the length of time data will be kept, where it will be kept, and how it will be destroyed
X
Describe evidence of qualitative analysis approach, such as coding and theming process, which must be completely described and include the analysis /interpretation process. Clear evidence from how codes were combined or synthesized to create the themes must be presented.
X
Provides evidence that quantity and quality of data is sufficient to answer the research questions.
X
The learner provides description of how the results will be reported.
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Ethical Considerations
In this section the learner demonstrates adherence to the key principles of the Belmont Report (respect, justice, and beneficence) in the study design, sampling procedures, the research problem, and the research questions. The learners discuss very clearly how data will be stored, safeguarded, and destroyed. Learners are required to securely maintain and have access to raw data/records for a minimum of three years.
If asked by committee chair/members, peer reviewer, or CDS representative, learner must provide all evidence of collected data including raw survey or source data, Excel files, interview/focus group recordings and transcripts, evidence of coding or data analysis, or survey results, etc. As such, the learners Informed Consent document must state that the dissertation chair, committee members, and College of Doctoral Studies reviewers may be able access to all study data. No dissertation will be allowed to move forward in the review process if data are not produced upon request. In this section, the learner also references IRB approval to conduct the research is required to conduct their research, which includes subject recruiting, the informed consent process, and the voluntary nature of study.
The learner also identifies all the potential risks for harm to participants that may be inherent in the study. For example, some types of testing may stimulate feelings of fear, anger, and/or depression. The learner anticipates this possibility and indicates how this will be addressed. The learner makes a clear distinction between whether participation and participant data will be confidential or anonymous. This distinction will be needed for IRB approval. Refer to the DC Network>IRB Research Center for IRB resources, templates, video instructions, and IRB webinars on preparing your IRB application materials.
Figure 3.
IRB A
lert
IRB Alert
Please be aware that GCU doctoral learners may not screen, recruit, or collect any data until they receive Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval and obtain a signed D-50 form. IRB review occurs after the proposal is approved by AQR and the proposal defense is completed. Learners are responsible for knowing, understanding, and following the IRB submission and review processes. Screening, recruiting participants, and collecting data in advance of IRB approval is a serious research ethical violation, with legal and federal regulatory implications to the University. If a learner chooses to screen, recruit study participants, or collect data in advance of obtaining IRB approval (IRB approval letter and D-50 form), they will be subject to serious academic disciplinary action by the Institutional Review Board and Code of Conduct committee. This may include collecting new data or requiring the learner to start over with a new research study. In addition, the Code of Conduct committee will issue a disciplinary action that may include warning, suspension, or dismissal from the program.
NOTE: Learners should NEVER proceed with any aspect of participant screening, recruiting, interacting with participants, or collecting data in advance of receiving the IRB approval letter and the signed D-50 form. The chairs and committee members are trained on these requirements; however, the learner is ultimately responsible for understanding and adhering to all IRB requirements as outlined in the University Policy Handbook and Dissertation Milestone Guide.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
(Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
Provides a discussion of ethical issues, per Belmont Report and IRB guidelines, related to the study and the study population of interest. Includes citations.
Explains which principles / issues are relevant to the study.
Identifies the potential risks for harm that are inherent in the study.
X
Describes the procedures for obtaining informed consent and for protecting the rights and well-being of the study sample participants. Includes statement in Informed Consent on who has data access including chair, committee members, IRB and peer reviewers, college representative.
X
Addresses key ethical criteria of anonymity, confidentiality, privacy, strategies to prevent coercion, and any potential conflict of interest.
X
Describes the data management procedures adopted to store and maintain paper and electronic data securely, including the minimum 3-year length of time data will be kept, where it will be kept, and how it will be destroyed.
Explains plan to implement each of the principles/issues that are relevant the study data management, data analysis, and publication of findings.
Note:
Learners are required to securely maintain and have access to raw data/records for a minimum of three years. If asked by a committee member, IRB reviewer, peer reviewer or CDS representative, learner must provide all evidence of data including source data, Excel files, interview recordings and transcripts, evidence of coding or data analysis, or survey results, etc. No dissertation will be allowed to move forward in the review process if data are not produced upon request.
X
Includes copy of site authorization letter (if appropriate), IRB Informed Consent (Proposal) and IRB Approval letter (Dissertation) in appropriate Appendices.
All approvals, consent forms, recruitment, and data collection materials are mentioned in the Data Collection section and included in appropriate appendices (with appropriate in-text references).
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Assumptions, and Delimitations
This section identifies the assumptions and specifies the delimitations of the study. The learner should define the terms using citations from the literature, and then list the assumptions and delimitations. The learner should provide a rationale and appropriate citations for all statements.
Assumptions
An assumption is a self-evident truth. This section lists what is assumed to be true about the information gathered in the study. State the assumptions being accepted for the study which may be methodological, theoretical, or topic-specific. Provide a rationale for each assumption. Additionally, identify any potential negative consequences of the assumptions for the study. For example, the following assumptions were present in this study:
· It is assumed that survey participants in this study were not deceptive with their interview answers, and that the participants answered questions honestly and to the best of their ability. Provide an explanation to support this assumption.
· It is assumed that this study is an accurate representation of the current (health, economic, education) situation in rural southern Arizona. Provide an explanation to support this assumption.
Delimitations
Delimitations are decisions or choices made by the researcher (or stakeholders) to establish the boundaries (or limits) of the study (e.g., location and duration), which could affect the quality of the research. Identify the delimitations of the research. Provide a rationale for each delimitation and discuss associated consequences for the transferability and applicability of the findings. Address delimitations pertaining to different aspects or scope of the study. Note that “Limitations” due to challenges in the conduct of research should be described in Chs.4 & 5.)
Examples of Delimitations. Lack of funding delimited the scope of this study. Provide an explanation to support this delimitation.
1. The survey of high school students was delimited to only rural schools in one county within southern Arizona, limiting the demographic sample. Provide an explanation to support this delimitation.
2. Case study design was delimited to one single case instead of multiple cases for comparison.
3. Data collection methods were delimited to interviews, questionnaires, and archival document reviews, excluding classroom observations due to school policy.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations - Methodological
(Minimum three to four paragraphs)
The learner provides a separate subsection for assumptions and delimitations.
X
The learner states the assumptions being accepted for the study and provides a rationale for making each assumption.
The learner also discusses associated consequences for the transferability and applicability of the findings.
X
The learner identifies the methodological delimitations of the study and provides a rationale for each delimitation.
The learner discusses associated consequences for the transferability and applicability of the findings.
X
The learner discusses strategies to minimize and/or mitigate the potential negative consequences of methodological assumptions, limitations, and delimitations.
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Summary
In this section the learner summarizes the key points Chapter 3. The learner demonstrates an in-depth understanding of the overall research design and analysis techniques. The learner concludes the Chapter 3 summary with a discussion that transitions the reader to Chapter 4.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Chapter 3 Summary
(Minimum one to two pages)
The learner summarizes key points presented in Chapter 3 using authoritative, empirical sources/citations. Key points include (for example):
· Methodology/design
· Population
· Sample size/selection
· Instrumentation/Sources of Data
· Data collection
· Data analysis
X
The learner concludes Chapter 3 with a transition discussion to focus for Chapter 4.
X
The learner writes this section in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with a concise summary of the study and a presentation of the results. In this section of Chapter 4, the learner should briefly restate the research problem, the methodology and design, the research question(s), and phenomena, and then offer a statement about what will be covered in this chapter. Chapter 4 should present the results of the study as clearly as possible, leaving the interpretation of the results for Chapter 5. Make sure this chapter is written in past tense and reflects how the study was actually conducted. Any change to the sampling approach, instrumentation, data collection procedures or data analysis must be noted in this chapter. After the research study is complete, make sure this chapter reflects how the study was actually conducted in comparison to what was proposed in Chapter 3. These changes should also be discussed as limitations of the study (in appropriate sections of Chapters 4 and 5).
This chapter typically contains the analyzed data, often presented in both text and tabular, or figure format. To ensure readability and clarity of findings, structure is of the utmost importance in this chapter. Sufficient guidance in the narrative should be provided to highlight the findings of greatest importance for the reader. Most researchers begin with a description of the sample and the relevant demographic characteristics presented in text or tabular format. Ask the following general questions before starting this chapter:
1. Is there sufficient data to answer each of the research question(s) asked in the study?
2. Is there sufficient data to support the conclusions made in Chapter 5?
3. Is the study written in the third person? Never use the first person.
4. Are the data clearly explained using a table, graph, chart, or text?
5. Visual organizers, including tables and figures, must always be introduced, presented and discussed within the text first. Never insert them without these three steps. It is often best to develop all the tables, graphs, charts, etc. before writing any text to further clarify how to proceed. Point out the salient results and present those results by table, graph, chart, or other form of collected data.
Important Changes and Updates to Information in Chapters 1-3
.
In this required section, the learner discusses changes made to the original research plan presented in Chapters 1-3. Furthermore, learner discusses implications of these changes, including changes to the sample, data collection, design, data analysis, etc. For example, if target sample size was not achieved using plans A, B and C, the learner must address the ramifications on the breadth and depth of the analyses, and study findings. Based on peer review and/or committee recommendations, the learner may choose to update Chapters 1-3 to reflect what actually occurred OR clearly present the important changes that occurred between the original plan and what actually occurred in this section and also in the Study Limitations section of Chapter 4. Changes to the research plan must also be addressed in Chapter 5 under strengths and weaknesses section.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
INTRODUCTION (TO THE CHAPTER)
(Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
Provides a summary of the study including research problem, methodology, design, research questions and phenomena.
X
Provides an orienting statement about what will be covered in the chapter.
X
Learner discusses important changes between original plan presented in the proposal (Chapters 1-3) and what actually occurred.
Learner updated Chapters 1-3 to reflect what actually occurred OR clearly presents the important changes that occurred between the original plan and what actually occurred in this section and in the Study Limitations section of Chapter 4
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Preparation of Raw Data for Analysis and Descriptive Data
Preparation of Raw Data for Analysis
Within this subsection, the learner describes how all raw data were prepared for analysis. This should include transcription process, member checking, and any other preparation activities. Describe how data were prepared for uploading to MAXQDA or other qualitative software program, if relevant. For example:
· Define how to organize the data (some options: by participant, by source)
· Set up system for pseudonyms (create a table in separate document showing real names and associated pseudonym). We advise names (John, Mary), rather than numbers (P1, P2) in qualitative studies to maintain the sense of personhood and presence in a natural setting (not a lab), which is consistent with a qualitative approach
· Organize other sources of data (sociograms, photographs, images, copies of hand coded data, collected documents, etc.)
· Transcribe all interview and focus group data
· Send copies of transcripts to participants to “member check” (check that the transcript shows what they meant; they can add clarification if so desired)
· Upload raw data to MAXQDA or other qualitative software program (Note GCU provides MAXQDA to all learners at no cost)
· Upload raw data to a new folder in the LDP (either create a new 07 Data folder or into a new folder in the 05 Folder). [NOTE: GCU faculty are required to maintain all confidentiality pledged by learner]
Once the learner has prepared the data, the learner then provides a narrative summary (description per next section) of the population or sample characteristics and demographics of the participants in the study.
Descriptive Data
This section describes the dataset that was produced from data collection activities. This should include the number of participants and corresponding descriptive information regarding the demographic data (such as gender, age, and ethnicity) and research data. It should also include tables showing each data collection method, which participants joined each, and pertinent information such as duration of interviews or focus groups, and number of pages of transcript, measured as complete single-spaced pages, Times New Roman 12 pt. font (see Table 3. Keep in mind that all descriptive or demographic information must pertain directly to the study and must be included in the informed consent for participants to understand what personal data is being collected about them. Ensure this data cannot lead to anyone identifying individual participants in this section or identifying the data for individual participants in the data summary and data analysis that follows. It is important that key demographic and descriptive data are provided. It is also acceptable to put most of this in the appendix if the chapter becomes too lengthy.
For numbers, equations, and statistics, spell out any number that begins a sentence, title, or heading – or reword the sentence to place the number later in the narrative. In general, use Arabic numerals (10, 11, 12) when referring to whole numbers 10 and above, and spell out whole numbers below 10. There are some exceptions to this rule:
· If small numbers are grouped with large numbers in a comparison, use numerals (e.g., 7, 8, 10, and 13 trials); but, do not do this when numbers are used for different purposes (e.g., 10 items on each of four surveys).
· Numbers in a measurement with units (e.g., 6 cm, 5-mg dose, 2%).
· Numbers that represent time, dates, ages, sample or population size, scores, or exact sums of money.
· Numbers that represent a specific item in a numbered series (e.g., Table 1).
A sample table in APA style is presented in all tables in this template, see, for example, Table 6. Be mindful that all tables fit within the required margins, and are clean, easy to read, and formatted properly using the guidelines found in Chapter 5 (Displaying Results) of the APA Publication Manual 7.0 (2019).
Table 6.
Example of a Clean, Easy-to-Read Table
Participant
Setting
Interview
Duration
# Transcript Pages (Time New Roman, Font size 12, single spaced)
Participant 1
Main office
Date
65 minutes
19
Participant 2
Zoom conference
Date
72 minutes
21
Participant 3
Zoom conference
Date
50 minutes
15
etc.
…
…
…
…
MEAN
N/A
N/A
62.3 minutes
18.3
TOTAL
N/A
N/A
187 minutes
55
Table 7.
Example of Clean, Easy-to-Read Table for Focus Group Data
Participant
Group
Participation Length
Contributions
Initial Codes Produced
Participant 1
Group 1
48 min.
7
4
Participant 2
Group 1
48 min.
5
2
etc.
…
…
…
…
Participant 3
Group 2
67 min.
12
6
Participant 4
Group 2
67 min.
9
5
etc.
…
…
…
…
TOTAL
N/A
115 minutes
33
17
Table 8.
Example of Case Unit Profiling (in Narrative)
Case Unit-1 is comprised of state-funded community healthcare programs in rural counties of the southwestern United States that rely on both Medicaid and local non-profit service organizations for their delivery of care. Programs are overseen by either a chief medical officer or nurse-practitioner director, and have the following staff composition as reported by Smith, Smith, and Johnson (2016): 30% community case managers, 20% clinical case managers, 15% medical practitioners, 15% compliance officers, 10% enrollment specialists, and 10% administrative leadership. The annual budget for these programs was reported as $2.2 million from 2015 to 2018 (Williams & Janson, 2019). For this study, the participants identified by the pseudonyms of Michael, Sarah, Erika, and Jane all work for programs in Case Unit-1.
Case Unit-2 is comprised of community healthcare programs in urban municipalities of the southwestern United States that rely on Medicaid and federal health programs for their delivery of care. These diverse public-funded programs are overseen jointly by a state-appointed health commissioner and a chief medical officer from the Medicaid division. Their staff composition was reported by Weston and Burke (2015) as being 40% nursing case manager, 20% compliance representative, 15% enrollment specialist, 15% behavioral health counselor, and 10% administrative staff. The annual budget for these programs was reported as 1.8 million from 2014 to 2018 (Weston & Burke, 2015). Study participants identified by the pseudonyms of Ellen, Robert, Thomas, Cassandra, and Jennifer all work for programs in Case Unit-2.
Cast Unit-3… [etc.]
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
PREPARATION OF RAW DATA AND DESCRIPTIVE DATA
(Number of pages as needed)
Describes how raw data were prepared for analysis.
Provides a narrative summary of the population or sample characteristics and demographics.
Presents the "sample (or population) profile," may use descriptive statistics for the demographics collected from or retrieved for the actual sample or population.
X
Includes a narrative summary of data collected (e.g., examples of collected data should be included in an Appendix.)
X
Uses visual graphic organizers, such as tables, histograms, graphs, and/or bar charts, to effectively organize and display coded data and descriptive data. For example:
Discuss and provide a table showing number of interviews conducted, duration of interviews, #pages transcript; #observations conducted, duration#pages of typed-up field notes# of occurrences of a codenetwork diagramsmodel created, etc.
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Data Analysis Procedures
This section presents a description of the process that was used to analyze the data. Data analysis procedures can be framed relative to each research question. Data can also be organized by chronology of phenomena, by themes and patterns, or by other approaches as deemed appropriate by design and for a qualitative study. This section should specify the procedures that were specifically carried out to ensure the reader understands how the analytic process was conducted.
Reflexivity Protocol
For learners who implemented some sort of reflexivity protocol (such as bracketing or peer debriefing) to track and manage biases, please be sure to clarify how this protocol fit sequentially with respect to the data analysis strategy. For instance, did you record and organize your bracketing notes before/after each data collection event – and hence before the data analysis process even began – or did you wait to record your bracketing notes before/after each cycle of analytic coding (tracking your bias during the conceptual development of codes, categories, and themes)? What was the logic for your approach?
Data Analysis Steps
Describe in detail the data analysis procedures. The analytic procedures must be aligned to the design; they are not generic. Start discussion of data analysis procedures by identifying and describing the analytical approach (e.g., thematic analysis, phenomenological analysis, narrative analysis). Describe analytic process. For example: for thematic analysis provide a description of how codes were developed, how clusters of codes or categories were developed, how these are related to themes. Provide examples of codes and themes with corresponding quotations, demonstrating how codes were synthesized or clustered or combined and developed into themes. For phenomenological analysis identify the specific type of phenomenological design and the specific data analysis approach used. That approach might involve providing transformation procedures, the transformation process, how phenomenological constituents were developed, how these are related to the general phenomenological structure of the experience. Provide examples of phenomenological constituents with corresponding quotations, demonstrating how constituents were discovered among phenomenological transformations. Provide evidence of analytic elements in text or an Appendix. Include graphic organizers to demonstrate analytic steps.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
(Number of pages as needed)
Describes in detail the data analysis procedures.
Coding procedures must be tailored to the specific analytical approach; they are not generic.
Start discussion of data analysis procedures by identifying and describing the analytical approach (e.g., thematic analysis, type of phenomenological analysis).
Describes coding process, description of how codes were developed, how categories or clusters of codes were developed, how these are related to themes. Provide examples of codes and themes with corresponding quotations, demonstrating how codes were developed or synthesized into themes. Provides evidence of initial and final codes and themes in text or an Appendix.
Detail the specific kinds of analytic units appropriate to the design and analytic approach.
X
Explains and justifies any differences in why data analysis section does not match what was approved in Chapter 3 (if appropriate).
X
Discusses the reflexivity protocols used (such as bracketing and peer debriefing) and how these protocols complement the data analysis strategy.
Describes approaches used to ensure trustworthiness for qualitative data including expert panel review of questions, field test(s)/ practice interviews, member checking, and triangulation of data, as appropriate.
X
Justifies how the analysis aligns with the research question(s), and how data and findings were organized by chronology of phenomena, by themes and patterns, or by other approaches as deemed appropriate.
Develops a description of the phenomenon by synthesizing the data across the research questions. The synthesis approach used to develop the description of the phenomenon should be specific to the design used,
X
. Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Results
Presenting the Results
This section, which is the primary section of this chapter, presents an overview and analysis of the data in a nonevaluative, unbiased, organized manner that relates to the research question(s). List the research question(s) as they are discussed to ensure that the readers see that the question has been addressed. Answer the research question(s) in the order that they are listed by drawing on the thematic results and (if relevant) descriptive statistics. Learners can organize data in several different ways for qualitative studies including by research question, by themes and patterns for thematic analysis, or by other approaches deemed appropriate for the study, such as by the general phenomenological structure with a list of all constituents. The results must be presented without implication, speculation, assessment, evaluation, or interpretation, as the discussion of results and conclusions are left for Chapter 5. Refer to the APA Style Manual (2020) for additional lists and examples.
The results do not merely include using themes to answer research questions, It is important to develop a description of the phenomenon that is specific to the design based on synthesizing the data cross the research questions and data analysis. For a qualitative descriptive design, this involves providing a detailed description of the phenomenon through a narrative and visuals. For a case study, this involves producing a case study summary that can include narrative and visuals. For grounded theory it can include the creation of a theory, visual model, or process flow. For a narrative, depending upon the narrative approach selected it might include developing a single story that synthesizes the stories from all of the participants. For phenomenology this final description varies based on the type of phenomenological design selected.
For learners who implemented a reflexivity protocol (such as bracketing or peer debriefing) to track and manage biases, the beginning of this section is an ideal place to synthesize those reflexivity notes into a composite of your preconceptions prior to data collection and analysis, as well as how those preconceptions may have biased your study. This step typically requires the learner to take a step back and think contemplatively about initial expectations for the data and results, and then compare these expectations with the actual perspectives provided by the participants (or the meanings derived from them). The narrative at the beginning of Chapter 4-Results offers a good place to summarize any major preconceptions that might have colored the data analysis.
For qualitative studies, it is important to provide a complete, that is, holistic, picture of the analysis conducted and of the coding used to arrive at a set of themes or conclusions about the subject. In qualitative studies, if thematic analysis is used, the questions are examples of what to ask, and are not comprehensive:
1. What themes emerged across all data sources and how were those themes identified?
2. Does the learner provide examples that the themes exist from multiple, well-specified and described, sources of data?
3. What topics were mentioned most often?
4. What issues were most important to the people in the study?
5. How do the participants view the topic of research?
6. How can the categories identified in the data be ordered into meaningful, grounded theories?
After completing the first draft of Chapter 4, ask these general questions:
7. Are the findings clearly presented, so any reader could understand them?
8. Are the findings presented with a narrative thread, which provides a “storyline” to coherently connect the data that has been analyzed?
9. Are all the tables, graphics or visual displays well-organized and easy to read?
10. Are the important data described in the text?
11. Is factual data information separate from analysis and evaluation?
12. Are the data organized by research questions or by themes?
Make sure to include appropriate graphics to present the results. Always introduce, present, and discuss the visual organizers in narrative form prior to the visual organizer placement. Never insert a visual organizer without these three steps.
A figure is a graph, chart, map, drawing, or photograph. Do not include a figure unless it adds substantively to the understanding of the results or it duplicates other elements in the narrative. If a figure is used, a label must be placed under the figure. As with tables, refer to the figure by number in the narrative preceding the placement of the figure. Make sure a table or figure is not split between pages.
Here is an example of how a table might be set up to visually illustrate results:
Table 9.
Initial Codes
Code
Column A
Description of Code
Column B
Examples from Transcript
Name of Code 1
Description of code
Provide multiple examples from transcripts
Name of Code 2
Description of code
Provide multiple examples from transcripts
Name of Code 3
Description of code
Provide multiple examples from transcripts
Note. Adapted from: Sampling and Recruitment in Studies of Doctoral Students, by I.M. Researcher, 2010, Journal of Perspicuity, 25, p. 100. Reprinted with permission.
Figure 4.
Diagram of a Blank Sociogram
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
RESULTS
(Number of pages as needed)
Data and the analysis of that data are presented in a narrative, non-evaluative, unbiased, organized manner.
In thematic analysis, the researcher should address saturation and the distribution of themes that emerged when themes were not present in all data sets. Qualitative, thematically-analyzed data may be organized by theme, participant and/or research question.
In phenomenology the research should address the stability of the structure based on each constituent being essential, not merely frequent.
Note, this addresses volume and quality of the data collected as germane to the phenomenon under study, not to population representativeness.
Results of analysis are presented in appropriate narrative, tabular, graphical and/or visual format. If using thematic analysis, coding and theming process must be clearly evident in the results presentation. Integration of quotes in the results presentation to substantiate the stated findings and build a narrative picture is required.
For a case study design, include a summary of the case (how did the analysis inform the case?).
Learner describes thematic findings mostly in own words in narrative form as if they are telling their story or summarizing their experiences, and then use selected quotes (ideally one or few sentences, no longer than one paragraph) to illustrate.
X
The outcome of the reflexivity protocol is reported in a way that helps the reader distinguish the learner’s preconceptions from the perspectives (and meanings) shared by participants. This discussion should touch on major preconceptions that may have biased the data analysis and what was done to mitigate these biases.
As appropriate, tables are presented for initial codes, themes and theme meanings, along with sample quotes.
X
Sufficient quantity and quality of the data or information appropriate to the research design is presented in the analyses to answer the research question(s). Evidence for this must be clearly presented in this section and in an appendix as appropriate.
Note: AQR reviewer may request to review raw data at any time during the AQR process. Additional data collection may be required if sufficient data is not present.
X
· Qualitative data analysis is fully described and displayed using techniques specific to the design and analytic method used.
· Data sets are summarized including counts AND examples of participant’s responses for thematic analysis. For other approaches to qualitative analysis, results may be summarized in matrices or visual formats appropriate to the form of analysis.
· Findings may be presented as themes using section titles for thematic analysis, as stories for narrative designs, as models or theories for grounded theory, and as visual models or narrative stories for case studies.
X
Appendices must include qualitative data analysis that supports results in Chapter 4 as appropriate (i.e. source tables for coding and theming process or codebook, if not included directly in Chapter 4).
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Limitations
Limitations are flaws or shortcomings with the study that either the researcher has no control over because they are inherent in the methods selected (e.g., sampling bias), or that are due to mishaps in the conduct of research (e.g., missing data). No study is free of limitations. It is important to acknowledge as many limitations as deemed pertinent in order to reflect integrity and transparency in the conduct of research. This section discusses limitations that emerged based specifically on data collection and data analysis, and how the interpretation of results may be affected by the limitations. State limitations that are inherent in the data sources, instruments, data collection methods, and/or data analysis approach, and address also additional limitations pertaining to shortcomings in how the data was collected, the amount or quality of the data collected, and/or how the data was analyzed. The learner should provide a rationale for each stated limitation and discuss associated consequences for transferability and applicability of the findings. Tie back the limitations to the anticipated limitations discussed in Chapter 1.
For example: The following limitations were present in this study:
· The study was limited to 10 teachers and four administrators, thus making the results less transferable;
· The study was limited to novice participants whose insights about the organization were partial and restricted.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
LIMITATIONS
(Minimum one to two pages)
Lists limitations that emerged based specifically on data collection and data analysis, and how the interpretation of results may be affected by the limitations.
X
Discuss associated consequences for the transferability and applicability of the findings.
X
Discuss the current limitations in relation to the anticipated limitations originally presented in Chapter 1.
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Summary
This section provides a concise summary of what was found in the study. It briefly restates essential data and data analysis presented in this chapter, and it helps the reader see and understand the relevance of the data and analysis to the research question(s). Finally, it provides a lead or transition into Chapter 5, where the implications of the data and data analysis relative to the research question(s) will be discussed. The summary of the data must be logically and clearly presented, with the information separated from interpretation. For qualitative studies, summarize the data and data analysis results in relation to the research question(s). Finally, provide a concluding section and transition to Chapter 5.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
SUMMARY
(Minimum one to two pages)
Presents a clear and logical summary of data analysis approach.
X
Summarizes the data and data analysis results in relation to the research questions.
X
Discusses limitations that emerged based on data collection and data analysis and how the interpretation of results may be affected by the limitations.
X
Provides a concluding section and transition to Chapter 5.
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Introduction and Summary of Study
Chapter 5 is perhaps the most important chapter in the dissertation manuscript because it presents the researcher’s contribution to the body of knowledge. For many who read research literature, this may be the only chapter they will read. Chapter 5 typically begins with overview of why the study is important and how the study was designed to contribute to our understanding of the research topic within the context of the problem space identified in Chapter 2. The remainder of the chapter contains a summary of the overall study, a summary of the findings and conclusions, recommendations for future research and practice, and a final section on implications derived from the study.
No new data should be introduced in Chapter 5; however, references should be made to findings or citations presented in earlier chapters. The researcher can articulate new frameworks and new insights derived from the synthesis of study results. The concluding words of Chapter 5 should emphasize both the most important points of the study, study strengths and weaknesses, and directions for future research. This should be presented in the simplest possible form, making sure to preserve the conditional nature of the insights. Study findings should not be misinterpreted, exaggerated, or personalized.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
INTRODUCTION and SUMMARY OF STUDY
(Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
Provides an overview of why the study is important and how the study was designed to contribute to our understanding of the topic.
X
Provides a transition, explains what will be covered in the chapter and reminds the reader of how the study was conducted.
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Summary of Findings and Conclusion
Overall Organization
This section of Chapter 5 is organized by research question(s), and it conveys the specific findings of the study. The section presents conclusions made based on the data analysis and findings of the study and relates the findings back to the literature in Chapter 2. Significant themes/findings are compared and contrasted, evaluated, and discussed in light of the existing body of knowledge. The significance of every finding is analyzed and related back to Chapter 2 discussion of the Problem Spaces and ties the study together. The findings are also bounded by the research study parameters described in Chapters 1 and 3, are supported by the data and theory, and directly relate to the research question(s). No unrelated or speculative information is presented in this section. Conclusions represent the contribution to knowledge and fill in what still needs to be understood in the knowledge as evidenced in the literature. They should also relate directly to the problem space. The conclusions are major generalizations, and an answer to the research problem developed in Chapters 1 and 2. This is where the study binds together. In this section, personal opinion is permitted, as long as it is backed with the data, grounded in the study results presented in Chapter 4, and synthesized/supported within the existing research literature presented in Chapter 2.
Reflection on the Dissertation Process
The learner should end this section by discussing what they have learned throughout the dissertation process. This includes what changed in the learner’s understanding as they went through the research process. This also includes a thoughtful reflection on what was accomplished.
The use of reflective practices during the dissertation is when the researcher thinks about and reflects on their process. (Finlay, 2002). Reflexivity is important when there are challenges in the data reporting due to changes from the plan to the execution of the research project. The purpose of this added section is to provide the reader with a clearer understanding of what you learned through the process of conducting this research.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
(Minimum three to five pages)
Organizes Chapter 5 using the same section titles as Chapter 4, by research question(s) or by themes. Significant themes/ findings are compared and contrasted, synthesized and discussed in light of the existing body of knowledge covered in Chapter 2
X
Summarizes study findings. Compares, contrasts and synthesizes study findings in context to prior research on the topic (Chapter 2). Provides a cogent discussion on how the study is aligned to and/or advances the research on the topic.
X
Illustrates that findings are bounded by the research study design described in Chapters 1, 2 and 3.
X
Illustrates how findings are supported by the data and theory, and how the findings directly align to and answer the research question(s).
X
Discusses transferability of findings and relates each of the findings directly to the Background of the Study section of Chapter 1 and Identification of the Problem Space in Chapter 2.
X
Refrains from including unrelated or speculative information in this section.
X
Provides a conclusion to summarize the findings, referring back to Chapters 4 and 2, and tying the study together.
X
The learner reflects back on his/her dissertation process, what changed in understanding of research and the process.
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Implications
This section should describe what could happen because of this research. It also is an opportunity to inform the reader what the research implies theoretically, practically, and for the future. Additionally, it provides a retrospective examination of the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2 considering the dissertation’s findings. A critical evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the study and the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the methodology, research design, and data, should also be presented. The section delineates applications of new insights derived from the dissertation to solve real and significant problems. Implications can be grouped into those related to theory or generalization, those related to practice, and those related to future research. Separate sections with corresponding headings provide proper organization.
Theoretical Implications
Theoretical implications involve interpretation of the dissertation findings in terms of the research question(s) that guided the study. It is appropriate to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the study critically and include the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the method and data. It should also include a critical, retrospective examination of the framework presented in the Chapter 2 Literature Review section considering the dissertation’s new findings.
Practical Implications
Practical implications should delineate applications of new insights derived from the dissertation to solve real and significant problems. These implications refer to how the results of the study can be applied in professional practice.
Future Implications
Two kinds of implications for future research are possible: one based on what the study did find or do, and the other based on what the study did not find or do. Generally, future research could look at different kinds of subjects in different kinds of settings, interventions with new kinds of protocols or dependent measures, or new theoretical issues that emerge from the study. Recommendations should be included on which of these possibilities are likely to be most fruitful and why.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study
This section includes a critical evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the study. Strengths and weaknesses pertain to the how the researcher conducted the study, and which a researcher would want to repeat or avoid in future studies. For example, a strength a study might be the collection of ample, rich, “thick” data that supported an analysis of data that produced specific insights that contributed to the advancement of scientific knowledge. A weakness in a study might be the anticipated sample size was not obtained, the researcher did not provide sufficient probing or follow-up questions, thus limiting depth of query and final dataset. This section is a critical evaluation and reflection on the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the methodology, research design, and data analysis and results.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
IMPLICATIONS
(Minimum one to four pages)
Theoretical implications.
Provides a retrospective examination of the theoretical foundations presented in Chapter 2 in light of the dissertation’s findings.
Connects the findings of the study back to the conceptual framework and the study results are discussed in context to how the results advance a practitioner’s knowledge of that theory, model or concept
X
Practical Implications and Future Implications.
Connects the study findings to the prior research discussed in Chapter 2 and develops practical and future implications for research based on new insights derived from the research and how the results advance practitioners’ knowledge of the topic and how the results may influence future research or practice.
X
Strengths and Weaknesses.
Indicates all limitations of the study, critically evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the study, and the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the methodology, research design, and data analysis and results.
Learner reflects on the study and discusses what they would have continued or changed should they do this again
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format.
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Recommendations
This section allows the learner to add recommendations for future study based on the results of their authentic dissertation research. In this section, summarize the recommendations that result from the study. Each recommendation should be directly linked to a conclusion described in the previous section.
Recommendations for Future Research
This section should present recommendations for future research, as well as give a full explanation for why each recommendation is being made. Additionally, this section discusses the areas of research that need further examination or addresses what needed to be understood or new research opportunities the study found. The section ends with a discussion of “next steps” in forwarding this line of research. Recommendations relate back to the Problem Space and literature offered in Chapter 2.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
(Minimum one to two pages)
Lists a minimum of four to six recommendations for practitioners and for future research.
X
Identifies and discusses the areas that need further examination, or that will address what needed to be understood, that the study found.
X
Provides recommendations that relate back to the study significance and advancing scientific knowledge sections in Chapter 1 and theoretical foundation section in Chapter 2
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Recommendations for Future Practice
This section outlines recommendations for future practice based on the results and findings of the study, as well as, a full explanation for why each recommendation is being made. It provides a discussion of who will benefit from reading and implementing the results of the study and presents ideas based on the results that practitioners can implement in the work or educational setting. Unrelated or speculative information that is unsupported by data is clearly identified as such. Recommendations should relate back to the study problem space discussion in Chapter 2.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PRACTICE
(Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
Lists two to five recommendations for future practice.
X
Discusses who will benefit from reading and implementing the results of the study.
X
Discusses ideas based on the results that practitioners can implement in the work or educational setting.
X
Omits unrelated or speculative information that is not unsupported by data.
X
Provides recommendations that relate back to the study significance section in Chapter 1.
X
The Chapter is correctly formatted to dissertation template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.
X
All research presented in the Chapter is scholarly, topic-related, and obtained from highly respected academic, professional, original sources. In-text citations are accurate, correctly cited and included in the reference page according to APA standards.
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Holistic reflection on the Problem Space
In this section, the learner provides an overview of what the learner drew from the problem space, and how the study was relevant and contributed to what needed to be understood.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
HOLISTIC REFLECTION ON THE PROBLEM SPACE.
(Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)
Provides an overview of what the learner drew from the problem space
X
Discusses how the study was relevant and contributed to what needed to be understood.
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
References
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
Armstrong, J. (2010). Naturalistic inquiry. In N. J. Salk (Ed.), Encyclopedia of research design (pp. 880-885). SAGE.
Barzun, J., & Graff, H.F. (1992). The modern researcher: A classic work on research and writing completely revised and brought up to date. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Baxter, P. and Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers. The Qualitative Report 13(4):544-559
Blackwood, R. A., Maio, R. F., Mrdjenovich, A. J., VandenBosch, T. M., Gordon, P. S., Shipman, E. L., & Hamilton, T. A. (2015). Analysis of the nature of IRB contingencies required for informed consent document approval. Accountability in Research, 22(4), 237-245.
Brands, H. W. (2000). The first American: The life and times of Benjamin Franklin. Doubleday.
Brown, P.A. (2008). A review of the literature on case study research. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education 1(1).
Cabell’s Directory of Publishing Opportunities. (2000, continually updated).
Calabrese, R. L. (2006). The elements of an effective dissertation & thesis: a step-by-step guide to getting it right the first time. Roman & Littlefield Education.
Chess, P.S. (2017). Chapter 3: Validity and reliability in qualitative research. In Grand Canyon University (Ed.), GCU doctoral research: Advanced qualitative research methods. http://lc.qa.gcumedia.com/res855/gcu-doctoral-research-advanced-qualitative-research-methods/v1.1/#/chapter/3
Colman, A.M. (2015). Well-structured problem (well-defined problem). A dictionary of psychology (4th edition). Oxford University Press. DOI.org:10.1093/acref/9780199657681.001.0001
Englander, M. (2012). The Interview: Data Collection in Descriptive Phenomenological Human Scientific Research. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 43: 13–35
Englander, M. (2019). Phenomenological Psychological Interviewing. The Humanistic Psychologist. Advance online publication. doi.org/10.1037/hum0000144
Epstein, J. L. (1987). Parent Involvement: What Research Says to Administrators. Education and Urban Society, 19(2), 119–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124587019002002Euchner, J. (2019) Problem framing. Research-Technology Management, 62:2, 11-13, https://doi.org:10.1080/08956308.2019.1563433
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175-191.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149-1160.
Finlay, L. (2002). Negotiating the swamp: the opportunity and challenge of reflexivity in research practice. Qualitative Research, 2(2), 209–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/146879410200200205
Grand Canyon University. (Ed.). (2015). GCU doctoral research: Foundations and theories. http://lc.gcumedia.com/res850/gcu-doctoral-research-foundations-and-theories/v1.1/#/home
Grand Canyon University (Ed.). (2016). GCU doctoral research: Quantitative and qualitative research concepts. http://lc.gcumedia.com/res866/gcu-doctoral-research-quantitative-and-qualitative-research-concepts/v1.1/#/home
Grand Canyon University. (2017a). GCU doctoral research: Advanced qualitative research methods. http://lc.qa.gcumedia.com/res855/gcu-doctoral-research-advanced-qualitative-research-methods/v1.1/#/home
Grand Canyon University. (2017b). GCU doctoral research: The dissertation process. http://lc.gcumedia.com/res885/gcu-doctoral-research-the-dissertation-process/v1.1/#/home
Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(1). http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/3_1/pdf/groenewald.pdf
Guba, E. G. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29, 75–91.
Guest, G., Bunce, A., Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods 18(1), 59-82
Hacker, D., Somers, N., Jehn, T., & Rosenzweig, J. (2008). Rules for writers. Bedford/St. Martin's.
Hora, M. T. (2016). Navigating the Problem Space of Academic Work: How Workload and Curricular Affordances Shape STEM Faculty Decisions About Teaching and Learning. AERA Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858415627612
Jones, M., and Alony, I. (2011). Guiding the use of grounded theory in doctoral studies—an example from the Australian film industry. International Journal of Doctoral Studies 6.
Koivu, K.L., and Damman, E.K., (2015). Qualitative variations: the sources of divergent qualitative methodological approaches. Qual Quant 49:2617–2632; DOI.org: 10.1007/s11135-014-0131-7
Krysik, J. L & Flynn, J. (2013). Research for effective social work practice (3rd Ed.). Routledge.
Laub, J. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the servant organizational leadership assessment (SOLA) instrument (Doctoral Dissertation, Florida Atlantic University). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses Database. (UMI No. 9921922)
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. SAGE
Mason, M. (2010). Sample size and saturation in PhD studies using qualitative interviews. Forum: Qualitative Research 11(3).
Maxwell, Joseph A. (2017). Qualitative research design: an interactive approach. Sage.
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary Eleventh Edition. (2014). ISBN-13: 978-0877798095, ISBN-10: 0877798095.
Nock, A. J. (1943). The memoirs of a superfluous man. Harper & Brothers.
Noor, K.B.M. (2008). Case Study: A Strategic Research Methodology. American Journal of Applied Sciences 5(11): 1602-1604
Norman D.A. (1986). Cognitive engineering. In: Norman D.A. and Draper S.W. (eds.) User-centered system design: New perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. (2020). American Psychological Association. (7th edition) ISBN-13:978-1433832178; ISBN-10:1433832178
Reissman, C.K. (2005). Narrative analysis. In Narrative, Memory, and Everyday Life. University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, pp. 17.
Rutledge, B. (2015). Leader empowering behavior and burnout in nurses: A quantitative study (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses @ Grand Canyon University. (Order No. 3732870)
Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22, 63-75.
Spradlin, D. (2012). Are you solving the right problem? Harvard Business Review. September.
Squires, D. A., & Kranyik, R. D. (1995). The comer program: changing school culture. Educational Leadership, 53(4), 29-32.
Strunk, W. I., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style. Macmillan Publishing, Inc.
Wijnen, E., & Wildschut, M. (2015). Narrating goals: A case study on the contribution of digital storytelling to cross-cultural leadership development. Sport in Society, 18(8), 938-951.
Yoon, Wan C. (2001). Identifying, Organising and Exploring Problem Space for Interaction Design. IFAC Proceedings 34(16) (Elsevier)
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Quality of Sources & Reference List
For every in-text citation a reference entry exists; conversely, for every reference list entry there is an in-text citation. Uses a range of references including founding theorists, peer-reviewed empirical research studies from scholarly journals, and government/foundation research reports. The majority of all references must be scholarly, topic-related sources. Websites, dictionaries, and publications without dates (n.d.) are not considered scholarly sources and should not be cited or present in the reference list. In-text citations and reference list must comply with APA 7th Ed.
Ensures that for every in-text citation a reference entry exists. Conversely, for every reference list entry there is a corresponding in-text citation. NOTE: The accuracy of citations and quality of sources must be verified by learner, chair and committee members.
X
X
Uses a range of references including founding theorists, peer-reviewed empirical research studies from scholarly journals, and government /foundation research reports.
X
X
Verifies that approximately 75% of all references are scholarly sources within the last 5 years. The 5-year time frame is referenced at the time of the proposal defense date and at the time of the dissertation defense date. This is a recommendation, not a requirement.
Note:
Websites, dictionaries, publications without dates (n.d.), are not considered scholarly sources and are not cited or present in reference list.
X
X
Avoids overuse of books and dissertations.
Books:
Recommend a maximum of 10 scholarly books that present cutting edge views on a topic, are research based, or are seminal works. Note: when a book is cited this implies the learner has read the entire book.
Dissertations:
Recommend a maximum of 5 published dissertations. Note: dissertations are not considered peer -reviewed; and therefore, should be cited judiciously.
X
X
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, punctuation, and APA format
X
X
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Appendix A.
Ten Strategic Points
The 10 strategy points emerge from researching literature on a topic, which is based on, or aligned with, the defined need in the literature as well as the learner’s personal passion, future career purpose, and degree area. The 10 Strategic Points document includes the following ten key or strategic points that define the research focus and approach:
1. Topic - Provides a broad research topic area/title.
a. The College of Doctoral Studies recognizes the diversity of learners in our programs and the varied interests in research topics for their dissertations in the Social Sciences.
b. Dissertation topics must, at a minimum, be aligned to General Psychology in the PhD program, Leadership in the Ed.D. Organizational Leadership program, Adult Instruction in the Ed.D. Teaching and Learning program, Management in the DBA program, and Counseling Practice, Counselor Education, Clinical Supervision or Advocacy/Leadership within the Counseling field in the Counselor Education PhD program.
i. If there are questions regarding appropriate alignment of a dissertation topic to the program, the respective program chair will be the final authority for approval decisions.
ii. Specifically, although the College prefers a learner’s topic align with the program emphasis, this alignment is not “required.” The College will remain flexible on the learner’s dissertation topic if it aligns with the degree program in which the learner is enrolled. The PhD program in General Psychology does not support clinically based research.
2. Literature review - Lists primary points for four sections in the Literature Review: (a) Background of the problem/gap and the need for the study based on citations from the literature; (b) Theoretical foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study); (c) Review of literature topics with key theme for each one; (d) Summary.
3. Problem statement - Describes the problem to address through the study based on defined needs or gaps from the literature.
4. Sample and location - Identifies sample, needed sample size, and location.
5. Research questions - Provides research questions to collect data to address the problem statement.
6. Phenomena - Describes the phenomena to be better understood.
7. Methodology and design - Describes the selected methodology and specific research design to address problem statement and research questions.
8. Purpose statement - Provides one sentence statement of purpose including the problem statement, methodology, design, target population, and location.
9. Data collection - Describes primary instruments and sources of data to answer research questions.
10. Data analysis - Describes the specific data analysis approaches to be used to address research questions.
Appendix B.
Site Authorization
· This is a required Appendix for Level 2 Proposal Review; Level 4 IRB Review and Level 5 Dissertation Review.
· If no site authorization is required, provide a statement stating that, and explain why not site authorization was needed.
· Preliminary Site Authorization. At the proposal development stage, preliminary site authorization as evidenced by an email from the appropriate organizational personnel is acceptable, until a formal site authorization letter is obtained. Site authorization letters must be on letterhead of the organization providing permission and signed by the individual authorized to grant such permission per requirements below.
· Formal Site Authorization. Prior to IRB submission the learner must obtain formal site authorization to include:
· Written on organization letterhead
· Dated within the last 12 months
· Signed by an authorized representative of the site
· Clearly indicate activities for which researcher has obtained authorization. This is very important. The authorization should clearly indicate EXACTLY what authorization is being granted. For example: recruiting by email during work hours, interviewing primary teachers during their planning hours, distributing an electronic survey to staff members, granting access to email, etc.
· Site authorization information aligns exactly with recruitment materials, informed consent document, and the IRB application
· To review sample site authorization letter template please refer to GCU’s IRB Research Center on the DC Network: (
https://dc.gcu.edu/documents/irb_documents__iris/irb_forms_templates_updated_jan_2018
)
· For purposes of confidentiality, site authorization letters will be deleted from this appendix by the Form and Format reviewer (Level 7 Review - just prior to dean’s signature) and the following text will be inserted: Site authorization(s) on file at Grand Canyon University.
Appendix C.
IRB Approval Letter
· This is a required document for Level 5 Review and published in the final dissertation manuscript.
· When you receive IRB approval for your study, you will receive a determination (or approval) letter to move forward with data collection.
· Download (from iRIS) then copy/paste a copy of the determination (approval) letter you received from the IRB in this appendix prior to submitting for Level 5 peer review. This letter must be the actual copy issued from IRB, not something the learner types up themselves.
Appendix D.
Informed Consent
· This is a required document for Level 5 Review and published in the final dissertation manuscript.
· The IRB Research Center contains the most recent Informed Consent Template. It is essential that learners use the current Informed Consent template to comply with new federal regulations. Important Note: IRB applications submitted using older versions of the Informed Consent Template will require revisions.
· The current informed consent form is located on the DC Network (
https://dc.gcu.edu/documents/irb_documents__iris/irb_forms_templates_updated_jan_2018
).
Appendix E.
Copy of Instrument(s) and Permission Letters to Use the Instrument(s)
This is a required Appendix. Each separate instrument should be located within this Appendix, and should reflect the name of the instrument, protocol or scoring method, along with any letters of permission, if pertinent. Note that many researchers who conduct qualitative studies do not use instruments or protocols from other studies, unless they have been revised to address the indicated Problem Space and research, since qualitative studies are highly contextualized and specific. If instrument authorization is needed for a qualitative study, refer to the following requirements:
· Should be from an author or administrator of the organization
· A written letter, e-mail, or a screenshot of the email correspondence is sufficient
· Instrument authorization should contain the following items:
· The specific name of the instrument to be used
· For what purpose the instrument will be used
· If possible, statement that the person granting authorization owns the copyright (sometimes that is not the author of the instrument, it could be the journal in which the instrument was first published)
· Authorization is granted to use the instrument
· Authorization is granted to modify the instrument from the author and also the CDS associate dean (if applicable, typically this is not advised, as altering surveys can negate the validity)
· Evidence you are qualified to administer, score and interpret the data obtained from the instrument.
Appendix F.
Codebook
There are many ways to construct a Codebook in qualitative research, and learners can draw from those approaches by citing the relevant research authorities. The most minimal approach, however, should still produce a table of all codes generated from the analysis regardless of their cycle, along with “definitions” for each code. A “definition” entails the interpretive meaning that made a particular code necessary in the mind of the learner and might offer clues on the situational context tied to that meaning. Because the focus is on the codes exclusively, it does not entail the listing of higher categories or themes, or the tracing of codes to those themes (which is really what should be discussed and illustrated in Ch. 4-Data Analysis Procedures and Ch. 4-Results).
Table F10.
Sample Codebook
Code
Coding Cycle
Definition of Code
Name the code
xx
Define sufficiently so someone else could follow directions and code your data
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
Etc.
Appendix G.
Transcripts
This appendix is added once data are analyzed to assist with the preparation of Chapters 4 and 5 and should include excerpts of interview transcripts. Transcripts showing codes (hand coded or codes within qualitative analysis software) are encouraged. Provide excerpts from coded transcripts or analyzed research materials.
Appendix H.
Feasibility and Benefits Checklist
As you develop your dissertation, please complete this table to help you consider the gatekeepers involved in your study, the possible risks, the benefits of the study, authorizations, and potential challenges. Research should have some benefits to be truly academic.
In addition, as you are designing your study, reading peer-reviewed journal articles and books, and talking to peers/colleagues, please consider the following:
· Is your recruitment plan clear? (How will you access people that you want to talk to?)
· How will you obtain the data you want to use?
· Will you be able to collect data that you propose?
· Are the data analyses well-developed?
· Will you be able to accurately portray and understand what your participants/data had to say?
Gatekeepers:
Who are the possible gatekeepers? (i.e., If you are in a school district, have you checked with the principal and the superintendent’s office or their designee to see what the process is for research? Or, if you are at a company, talked with the management, etc.?
If you are planning on collecting data from a college, what is the process? It is preferred that you obtain Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from that institution prior to applying for GCU’s IRB approval).
Gatekeeper Contact:
Who do you need to keep in contact with as you form your research project to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risk and you can conduct your research? How will you initiate and maintain contact with them?
Outside IRB:
If you are planning on recruiting participants or getting data from a college (or other institutions with an IRB), have you talked to their IRB determine the process and what participants/data they will allow you access? Please note, IRB approval typically takes some time.
Study Benefits:
What is the benefit of your research? Who do you need to keep in contact with as you form your research project to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks?
Remember that research should have a benefit; what benefit does your research have to others beside yourself?
Research Activity:
Is your research part of normal every day activities? This is significant because this must be outlined in your site authorization. A preliminary site authorization letter could simply be an email from a school/college/organization that indicates they understand what you want to do and how that benefits the school/college/organization. In some cases this will determine the classification of the study (this is especially important for educational research studies).
***Please see below for information regarding preliminary site authorization
Recruitment:
Please describe your proposed recruitment strategy. How do you plan to involve your participants in the process? What would your flyer/email say?
Data Collection
What are you asking of participants? Are you asking them personal information (like demographic information such as age, income, relationship status)? Is that personal information necessary? How much time are you asking of participants (for example, if you are asking them to be interviewed, be in a focus group, fill out a questionnaire, fill out a journal/survey, collect artifacts, etc.)? How much time will they have to spend to be in your study? Does each part of your data collection help answer your research question? Participants must be told how long it will take to participants to participate in each activity. Are you concerned that the activities will take too long and participants might not finish/drop out?
Can you collect your data in a reasonable amount of time considering the stakeholders and possible challenges of gaining access to participants?
Child Assent. Studies with children often fall under the regulations for a full board review (full board reviews take significantly longer in IRB). Each child must fill out a child assent AFTER there is parental consent. (It can be very difficult to get parental consent, especially if this is something sent home to parents).
Informed Consent
Participants must be told how long it will take to participants to participate in each activity. Are you concerned that the activities will take too long and participants might not finish/drop out?
Site Authorization
Do you have a site authorization letter? How difficult will this be to get from the school/ school district/college/organization? Use the GCU template to ensure the correct information is included.
Can you collect your data in a reasonable amount of time considering the stakeholders and possible challenges of gaining access to participants?
Organizational Benefits:
Have you talked to your principal/supervisor/district/college/boss/ organization about your research? If so, have you asked them what you can do to help the district/organization/school?
What is the overall benefit of your research to participants?
What are the risks of your research? Please note that there are usually some risks (like revealing participant identity) in all research.
Now that you have contemplated the above questions, how long do you imagine it will take you prior to access your participants/data? AND, how much are you asking of your participants?
Based on the information that you have learned, is your study feasible? Why or why not? If not, how can you modify your ideas to make your study manageable?
·
Formal Site Authorization:
· Written on organizational letterhead
· Dated within the last 12 months
· Signed by an authorized representative of the site
· Clearly indicate activities for which researcher has obtained authorization - This is very important. The authorization should clearly indicate EXACTLY what authorization is being granted. For example: recruiting by email during work hours, interviewing primary teachers during their planning hours, distributing an electronic survey to staff members, granting access to email, etc.
· This information must align with recruitment, informed consent and the IRB application
· Instrument Authorization
· Should be from an author or administrator of the organization
· A written letter, e-mail, or a screenshot of the email correspondence is sufficient
· Instrument authorization should contain the following items:
· The specific name of the instrument to be used
· For what purpose the instrument will be used
· If possible, statement that the person granting authorization owns the copyright (sometimes that is not the author of the instrument, it could be the journal in which the instrument was first published)
· Authorization is granted to use the instrument
· Authorization is granted to modify the instrument from the author and also the CDS associate dean (if applicable, typically this is not advised, as altering surveys can negate the validity)
· Evidence you are qualified to administer, score and interpret the data obtained from the instrument.
· Please see the DC network (
https://dc.gcu.edu/irb)
for help with the difference between anonymity and confidentiality, informed consent, site authorization, data use agreements and many other helpful videos and job-aids.
· Something to consider: If you are doing a quantitative study you should consider having a company collect data for you; this is a VERY quick way to collect your data. Each company has their own requirements and capabilities. Please research to see how they can help you; it will depend on the eligibility criteria you have for your study and if they have access to that participant pool. Please see Qualtric, SurveyMonkey, Mturk, Prolific
·
Appendix I.
Strategies to Establish Trustworthiness
Used with Permission:
Chess, P.S. (2017). Chapter 3, Validity and reliability in qualitative research. In Grand Canyon
University (Ed). (2017). GCU doctoral research: Advanced qualitative research methods.
http://lc.gcumedia.com/res855/gcu-doctoral-research-advanced-qualitative-research-methods/v1.1/
Appendix J.
Developing Qualitative Interview Questions Systematically
Luis E. Zayas, PhD
Associate Professor & Peer Reviewer
College of Doctoral Studies
Grand Canyon University
Used with Permission
Qualitative Interviewing
· What is a qualitative interview?
· A conversation with a purpose – data gathering
· Open-ended format using probes
· Ideally with the least interviewer interjection as possible
· Interviewer is an extension of the instrument
· Requires many technical skills to elicit quality data
· Face-to-face vs telephone vs survey interviews
· Individual, in-depth vs. group interviews (small focus groups vs. large town hall meetings)
Dramaturgy and Interviewing
· Symbolic interactionism
· People perceive and interact in reality through the use of symbols
· The meaning of these symbols comes about as a result of a process of social interaction
· Interviewing as social performance
· Drama – a mode of symbolic action in which actors perform symbolically for an audience.
· Involves social actors and audience
· Active interviewing – meaning-making
· Interviewer’s role – actor, director, choreographer
· Interviewee’s role – leading actor in life drama
Types of Qualitative Interviews
· Major difference is degree of rigidity with regards to presentational structure
· Standardized (structured)
· Semi-standardized (semi-structured)
· Unstandardized (unstructured)
Standardized Interviews
· Similar in format to survey, but open-ended
· Use when you have a pretty good idea about the things you want to uncover
· Assumes the meaning of each Q is the same for every subject (positivist / objectivist framework)
· Operate from perspective that one’s thoughts are intricately related to one’s actions
Examples:
· Tell me what you eat for breakfast? (laundry list)? _______
· How many times a week do you eat fruits? _____________
· What kinds of physical activities do you engage in? _______
· Major limitations: short responses; lack of probing; manifest (literal) meaning, lack of context
Semi-Standardized Interviews
· Use when you have a general idea of what you want to elicit but do not want to restrict how it is presented
· Predetermined questions, special topics
· More flexibility in wording of questions and probing
· Assumes that not all subjects will necessarily find equal meaning in like-worded questions (phenomenological / relativistic framework)
· Reflects awareness that individuals understand the world in varying ways
See template and example
Unstandardized Interviews
· Use when you don’t know in advance what questions to ask (e.g. participant observation)
· Completely unstructured, no set order to Qs.
· Total flexibility in wording of questions and probing
· Same epistemological assumptions as semi-standardized (phenomenological / relativistic)
· Reflects awareness that individuals understand the world in varying ways
· Questions and probes appropriate to each given situation & to the purpose of the study
Instrument Development (Brainstorming)
· Determine the nature of the investigation and research objectives (how structured?)
· Develop an outline listing broad categories relevant to the study that are based on the literature or theory.
· Develop set of questions relevant to each of the categories in the outline
· Exercise: develop semi-structured schedule
· Topic: learning to cope with asthma
Template for Instrument Development
· Main Study Question
Topic I:
Q.1:
Q.2:
Q.3:
Topic II:
Q.4:
Q.5:
Q.6:
Topic III:
Q.7:
Q.8:
Q.9:
What else that we’ve not discussed can you tell me…?
Example of Questions Within a Template
· RQ: How do adults w/ asthma living in communities w/ high asthma prevalence can learn to cope w/ the illness?
Theme I: Perceptions of asthma.
Q.1: What do you think asthma is?
Q.2: What do you think gives people asthma?
Q.3: What things worry you more about asthma?
Theme II: Coping with asthma.
Q.4: How can people take care of their asthma?
Q.5: How does your doctor help you with your asthma?
Q.6: What lifestyle changes can help people with asthma?
Theme III: Learning about asthma.
Q.7: How do you get information about asthma?
Q.8: How do you learn to take care of your asthma?
Q.9: How else could people get information about asthma?
Q.10. What could be done to improve asthma education in your community?
Q.11. What else that we’ve not discussed thus far can you tell me about…?
Schedule Development (Sequencing)
· Question order (sequencing)
1. Start with easy, nonthreatening questions
2. Next, more important questions (not sensitive)
3. Then, more sensitive questions
4. Validating questions (pertaining to important or sensitive questions)
5. Next important topic or conceptual area of Qs.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4, and so on
· Content – level of language, wording
· Styles of Qs – essential, extra, throw-away (general Qs to develop rapport), probing
· Number of Qs based also on interview length and depth (e.g., 8-12 Qs for 60 min interview)
· Problems in question formulation
1. Affectively worded questions
· Try to neutralize the sense of the questions
· “How come?” vs. “why did you do that wrong”?
2. Double-barrel questions
· “How many times have you smoked marijuana, or have you only tried cocaine”?
3. Complex questions
· Keep questions brief and concise
4. Too many questions (long interviews)
· Keep interview between 60-90 mins.
· Telephone interviews 20-30 mins.
Pretesting
· Expert review
· Mock interview
· Assess for:
· Inclusion of all the necessary questions
· Do questions elicit the types of response anticipated?
· Is the language of the research instrument meaningful to the respondents?
· Are there other problems with the questions? (e.g., multiple issues addressed in single Q.)
· Does it motivate and engage respondents?
Interview Training
· Learning to build rapport
· Learn the questions, practice
· Develop listening skills
· Probing skills without leading
· Silence, echoing, follow leads
Probes: repeat question, what, when, where, how, give me an example, tell me a story that illustrates that point, please elaborate on that.
· Issues of power
· Self-reflection
· Professionalism
Focus Groups
· Moderator’s guide similar to individual interview schedule, but must consider group dynamic
· Collective brainstorming, synergistic group effect
· Greater interviewing skill level required in order to moderate effectively
· Guide should be shorter (6-8 Qs) in order to engage as many participants as much as possible.
· Qs should NOT be same as individual interview Qs in studies using multiple sources of data collection
· FG Qs should explore a specific aspect of research problem or of findings from individual interviews.
References
Padgett, Deborah K. (2008). Qualitative methods in social work research. Sage Publications.
Zayas L.E., McLean D. Asthma patient education opportunities in predominantly minority urban communities. Health Education Research, 2007;22(6):757-769.
Appendix K.
Sample Frames, Interview Duration, Transcript Expectations
Qualitative Research Design
Reasonable Sample Frame
Minimum Projected
Sample Size
Minimum Achieved Sample Size
Case Study
60+ individuals
20 individuals
10 individuals
Qualitative Descriptive
60+ individuals
20 individuals
10 individuals
Phenomenology
35+ individuals
12 individuals
8 individuals
Narrative Study
35+ individuals
12 individuals
8 individuals
Grounded Theory
60+ individuals
20 individuals (*iterative sampling)
10 individuals
Qualitative Research Design
Minimum
Interview Length
Per Person
Corresponding *
Minimum Transcript Length
Per Person
Corresponding *
Minimum Transcript Range
Per Person
Case Study
45+ minutes
8+ pages single-space typed
8-12 pages single-space typed
Qualitative Descriptive
45+ minutes
8+ pages single-space typed
8-12 pages single-space typed
Phenomenology
60+ minutes
15+ pages single-space typed
15-20 pages single-space typed per person
Narrative Study
60+ minutes
15+ pages single-space typed
15-20 pages single-space typed
Grounded Theory
45+ minutes
8+ pages single-space typed
8-12 pages single-space typed
* “Corresponding” projections above are based on the minimum interview length shown for each core design. Learners can pursue longer interviews, which would increase the corresponding range of transcript pages.
Appendix L.
Additional Appendices
Additional appendices may include descriptive statistical results, raw data (as appropriate), or other critical information pertinent to the dissertation. For the proposal, consider including all recruitment scripts (flyers, email text) and other documents planned for use in the study. Consult with the chair on additional appendices appropriate for the dissertation.
Example:
Copy of the Invitation to Participate (Study Advertisement)
Learners should provide a template of the recruitment materials that will advertise the study to candidates from the target population. For example, this might entail a preview of the email outreach or other forms of communication, such as a traditional letter, a posted flier, a web-forum post, or a full web-page advertisement. Recruitment materials are important in qualitative research because they advertise the inclusion criteria for the study and help enforce the sampling strategy.
Important Note: for learners who plan to use a web-forum or webpage to advertise their study, please be aware that you cannot publish a live post or webpage pertaining to your study until GCU-IRB has completed its review and assigned IRB approval. You can only preview its design in this Appendix as part of the proposal.
QUALITATIVE GCU Dissertation Template V9.0 8-10-2020
CATEGORIES
Economics
Nursing
Applied Sciences
Psychology
Science
Management
Computer Science
Human Resource Management
Accounting
Information Systems
English
Anatomy
Operations Management
Sociology
Literature
Education
Business & Finance
Marketing
Engineering
Statistics
Biology
Political Science
Reading
History
Financial markets
Philosophy
Mathematics
Law
Criminal
Architecture and Design
Government
Social Science
World history
Chemistry
Humanities
Business Finance
Writing
Programming
Telecommunications Engineering
Geography
Physics
Spanish
ach
e. Embedded Entrepreneurship
f. Three Social Entrepreneurship Models
g. Social-Founder Identity
h. Micros-enterprise Development
Outcomes
Subset 2. Indigenous Entrepreneurship Approaches (Outside of Canada)
a. Indigenous Australian Entrepreneurs Exami
Calculus
(people influence of
others) processes that you perceived occurs in this specific Institution Select one of the forms of stratification highlighted (focus on inter the intersectionalities
of these three) to reflect and analyze the potential ways these (
American history
Pharmacology
Ancient history
. Also
Numerical analysis
Environmental science
Electrical Engineering
Precalculus
Physiology
Civil Engineering
Electronic Engineering
ness Horizons
Algebra
Geology
Physical chemistry
nt
When considering both O
lassrooms
Civil
Probability
ions
Identify a specific consumer product that you or your family have used for quite some time. This might be a branded smartphone (if you have used several versions over the years)
or the court to consider in its deliberations. Locard’s exchange principle argues that during the commission of a crime
Chemical Engineering
Ecology
aragraphs (meaning 25 sentences or more). Your assignment may be more than 5 paragraphs but not less.
INSTRUCTIONS:
To access the FNU Online Library for journals and articles you can go the FNU library link here:
https://www.fnu.edu/library/
In order to
n that draws upon the theoretical reading to explain and contextualize the design choices. Be sure to directly quote or paraphrase the reading
ce to the vaccine. Your campaign must educate and inform the audience on the benefits but also create for safe and open dialogue. A key metric of your campaign will be the direct increase in numbers.
Key outcomes: The approach that you take must be clear
Mechanical Engineering
Organic chemistry
Geometry
nment
Topic
You will need to pick one topic for your project (5 pts)
Literature search
You will need to perform a literature search for your topic
Geophysics
you been involved with a company doing a redesign of business processes
Communication on Customer Relations. Discuss how two-way communication on social media channels impacts businesses both positively and negatively. Provide any personal examples from your experience
od pressure and hypertension via a community-wide intervention that targets the problem across the lifespan (i.e. includes all ages).
Develop a community-wide intervention to reduce elevated blood pressure and hypertension in the State of Alabama that in
in body of the report
Conclusions
References (8 References Minimum)
*** Words count = 2000 words.
*** In-Text Citations and References using Harvard style.
*** In Task section I’ve chose (Economic issues in overseas contracting)"
Electromagnetism
w or quality improvement; it was just all part of good nursing care. The goal for quality improvement is to monitor patient outcomes using statistics for comparison to standards of care for different diseases
e a 1 to 2 slide Microsoft PowerPoint presentation on the different models of case management. Include speaker notes... .....Describe three different models of case management.
visual representations of information. They can include numbers
SSAY
ame workbook for all 3 milestones. You do not need to download a new copy for Milestones 2 or 3. When you submit Milestone 3
pages):
Provide a description of an existing intervention in Canada
making the appropriate buying decisions in an ethical and professional manner.
Topic: Purchasing and Technology
You read about blockchain ledger technology. Now do some additional research out on the Internet and share your URL with the rest of the class
be aware of which features their competitors are opting to include so the product development teams can design similar or enhanced features to attract more of the market. The more unique
low (The Top Health Industry Trends to Watch in 2015) to assist you with this discussion.
https://youtu.be/fRym_jyuBc0
Next year the $2.8 trillion U.S. healthcare industry will finally begin to look and feel more like the rest of the business wo
evidence-based primary care curriculum. Throughout your nurse practitioner program
Vignette
Understanding Gender Fluidity
Providing Inclusive Quality Care
Affirming Clinical Encounters
Conclusion
References
Nurse Practitioner Knowledge
Mechanics
and word limit is unit as a guide only.
The assessment may be re-attempted on two further occasions (maximum three attempts in total). All assessments must be resubmitted 3 days within receiving your unsatisfactory grade. You must clearly indicate “Re-su
Trigonometry
Article writing
Other
5. June 29
After the components sending to the manufacturing house
1. In 1972 the Furman v. Georgia case resulted in a decision that would put action into motion. Furman was originally sentenced to death because of a murder he committed in Georgia but the court debated whether or not this was a violation of his 8th amend
One of the first conflicts that would need to be investigated would be whether the human service professional followed the responsibility to client ethical standard. While developing a relationship with client it is important to clarify that if danger or
Ethical behavior is a critical topic in the workplace because the impact of it can make or break a business
No matter which type of health care organization
With a direct sale
During the pandemic
Computers are being used to monitor the spread of outbreaks in different areas of the world and with this record
3. Furman v. Georgia is a U.S Supreme Court case that resolves around the Eighth Amendments ban on cruel and unsual punishment in death penalty cases. The Furman v. Georgia case was based on Furman being convicted of murder in Georgia. Furman was caught i
One major ethical conflict that may arise in my investigation is the Responsibility to Client in both Standard 3 and Standard 4 of the Ethical Standards for Human Service Professionals (2015). Making sure we do not disclose information without consent ev
4. Identify two examples of real world problems that you have observed in your personal
Summary & Evaluation: Reference & 188. Academic Search Ultimate
Ethics
We can mention at least one example of how the violation of ethical standards can be prevented. Many organizations promote ethical self-regulation by creating moral codes to help direct their business activities
*DDB is used for the first three years
For example
The inbound logistics for William Instrument refer to purchase components from various electronic firms. During the purchase process William need to consider the quality and price of the components. In this case
4. A U.S. Supreme Court case known as Furman v. Georgia (1972) is a landmark case that involved Eighth Amendment’s ban of unusual and cruel punishment in death penalty cases (Furman v. Georgia (1972)
With covid coming into place
In my opinion
with
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The ability to view ourselves from an unbiased perspective allows us to critically assess our personal strengths and weaknesses. This is an important step in the process of finding the right resources for our personal learning style. Ego and pride can be
· By Day 1 of this week
While you must form your answers to the questions below from our assigned reading material
CliftonLarsonAllen LLP (2013)
5 The family dynamic is awkward at first since the most outgoing and straight forward person in the family in Linda
Urien
The most important benefit of my statistical analysis would be the accuracy with which I interpret the data. The greatest obstacle
From a similar but larger point of view
4 In order to get the entire family to come back for another session I would suggest coming in on a day the restaurant is not open
When seeking to identify a patient’s health condition
After viewing the you tube videos on prayer
Your paper must be at least two pages in length (not counting the title and reference pages)
The word assimilate is negative to me. I believe everyone should learn about a country that they are going to live in. It doesnt mean that they have to believe that everything in America is better than where they came from. It means that they care enough
Data collection
Single Subject Chris is a social worker in a geriatric case management program located in a midsize Northeastern town. She has an MSW and is part of a team of case managers that likes to continuously improve on its practice. The team is currently using an
I would start off with Linda on repeating her options for the child and going over what she is feeling with each option. I would want to find out what she is afraid of. I would avoid asking her any “why” questions because I want her to be in the here an
Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using an Internet site as means of collecting data for psychological research (Comp 2.1) 25.0\% Summarization of the advantages and disadvantages of using an Internet site as means of collecting data for psych
Identify the type of research used in a chosen study
Compose a 1
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effect relationship becomes more difficult—as the researcher cannot enact total control of another person even in an experimental environment. Social workers serve clients in highly complex real-world environments. Clients often implement recommended inte
I think knowing more about you will allow you to be able to choose the right resources
Be 4 pages in length
soft MB-920 dumps review and documentation and high-quality listing pdf MB-920 braindumps also recommended and approved by Microsoft experts. The practical test
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One thing you will need to do in college is learn how to find and use references. References support your ideas. College-level work must be supported by research. You are expected to do that for this paper. You will research
Elaborate on any potential confounds or ethical concerns while participating in the psychological study 20.0\% Elaboration on any potential confounds or ethical concerns while participating in the psychological study is missing. Elaboration on any potenti
3 The first thing I would do in the family’s first session is develop a genogram of the family to get an idea of all the individuals who play a major role in Linda’s life. After establishing where each member is in relation to the family
A Health in All Policies approach
Note: The requirements outlined below correspond to the grading criteria in the scoring guide. At a minimum
Chen
Read Connecting Communities and Complexity: A Case Study in Creating the Conditions for Transformational Change
Read Reflections on Cultural Humility
Read A Basic Guide to ABCD Community Organizing
Use the bolded black section and sub-section titles below to organize your paper. For each section
Losinski forwarded the article on a priority basis to Mary Scott
Losinksi wanted details on use of the ED at CGH. He asked the administrative resident