Interview Guide - Management
Overview
For this assignment, you will develop a 2–4 page interview guide for a research study, focusing on issues of work-life balance for online learners in a business or technology doctoral program. The questions in the interview guide must:
Be conceptually valid.
Flow logically from the concepts and theories you plan to explore in your research.
Generate the type of data you are seeking.
You will be able to further refine your proposed questions using instructor feedback on this assignment before conducting interviews and gathering data for analysis.
Instructions
For this assignment, review the articles about work-life balance and online learners from the unit readings (linked in Resources). The research purpose statement you construct in the next step must be developed from concepts described in one or more of these articles.
Construct a research purpose statement based on selected references that is informed by an abbreviated theoretical framework and includes the research methodology and a construct of the central phenomenon, experience/event, or process that will be the focus of the study. To do this, develop a research purpose using an abbreviated theoretical framework. The research purpose must be developed from concepts described in one or more of the articles on work-life balance for online learners. Use the following research purpose template adapted from Creswell (2009) to develop your research purpose statement:
The purpose of this _________________ (exploratory/generic qualitative inquiry, phenomenological, case study, grounded theory, Delphi) research is to ________ (understand, describe, develop, discover) the ________ (central phenomenon, experience/event, process) for online learners in a business or technology doctoral program informed by the ________(theoretical framework). At this stage in the research, the ______ (central phenomenon, experience/event, process) being studied will be generally defined as ____________ (provide a credibly supported definition).
Construct a research question or questions and subquestions as needed. The questions must clearly align with the research purpose statement, use constructs from the purpose statement, and be characteristic of the chosen methodology. Specifically, as you write the research questions, ensure:
There is a clear link between the research purpose and research questions. The questions must speak explicitly to the phenomenon, experience/event, or process and the associated constructs under study.
The constructs in the questions are identical to those discussed in the purpose and the selected theoretical framework.
The primary research question recasts the purpose in question form. Subquestions, if needed, represent deeper or further inquiry into relevant subissues such as constructs of the overarching phenomenon, experience/event, or processes under study.
The research questions are characteristic of the research methodology and align with the methodological approach (exploratory/generic qualitative inquiry, phenomenological, case study, grounded theory, Delphi) identified in the research purpose.
Develop 8–10 open-ended interview questions that will be responsive to the research question and are appropriate for the collection of data from your population.
Order the questions to promote logical interview flow, ease of interaction, and rapport building between the interviewer and interviewee.
Be sure the questions flow logically from the research purpose and research question, are suitably worded for your population (online learners), and will capture the data you seek in response to your research question.
Discuss how each proposed question relates to the research purpose, research question, and key concepts or theories.
Be sure to use wording that is clear and suitable for your population (sample of participants) yet consistent with good scholarly writing and free of grammatical or other mechanical errors.
Review the assignment scoring guide to ensure that you meet all criteria.
Additional Requirements
Written communication: Written communication must be grammatically correct and free of errors that detract from the overall message. Writing should be consistent with graduate-level scholarship.
Length of paper: 2–4 double-spaced pages.
APA format: Resources and citations are formatted according to current APA style and formatting.
Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.
WORK LIFE BALANCE: A CONCEPTUAL
REVIEW
Omar Fayaz Khan*, Asif Iqbal Fazili*
*Assistant Professor, Department of Business Studies, Islamic
University of Science & Technology, Jammu & Kashmir, India.
Email: [email protected]
Abstract The present paper is an attempt to revisit the concept of work-life balance. An effort is made to cover in a conceptual framework
the vast knowledge of work-life balance. It highlights the progress of work-life interface as work-family affair to more comprehensive and
evolutionary term as work-life balance. Specifically, the progress of work-life balance issues related to women employees has been emphasized.
The recent issue in the work-life literature as work-life conflict is included. The role of colossal upscale of technological innovations impacting
work-life balance is acknowledged. The antecedents, consequences and strategies affecting the work-life balance are touched. A futuristic view
on the concept is put forward.
Keywords: Work-life balance (WLB), Work-life conflict (WLC), Work-life interference (WLI), Life-work interference (LWI)
Introduction
The concept of work-life balance is growing in importance
day by day in today’s fast paced global world. The
heightened debate of balance between work and personal
life owes to i) high speed technological innovations, ii)
considerable raise in expectations for both employees and
employers, and iii) a realisation among employees for a fit
between work and personal life which has got blurred due to
mobile technologies. So, employees greatly value firms who
see employees not just as physical input to generate output
but accept their other roles. Such firms continuously adopt
policies which facilitate balance of employees work role
and personal role. The drivers for WLB can be attributed
to changes in the demographic distribution of the labour
force, technological advancement and the 24/7 opening
hour culture in modern society (Beauregard & Henry, 2009;
Kalliath & Brough, 2008).
The expression WLB was first used in the late 1970s to
describe the balance between an individual’s work and
personal life. Work-life balance is a broad concept including
proper prioritising between career and ambition on one
hand, compared with pleasure, leisure, family and spiritual
development on the other. Other terms that are used to refer
to work-life balance include work-family balance, work-
family conflict, and family friendly policies etc.Work-life
balance is a much broader concept in comparison to work-
family balance in the sense, that it encompasses multiple
roles outside family life e.g. community, leisure and religious
roles, that an individual engages in (Frone, 2003).
Work in context of WLB means a domain where monetary
returns are expected for the efforts put in either working
for somebody or self-employed. This domain expects and
consumes a good amount of time, energy and involvement.
In contrast, the life domain is more encompassing involving
in its fold-family, friends, hobbies, religion, community etc.
with whom a person is associated apart from work. This
domain to be part of requires time, energy and involvement
although not as binding as in work domain. The domain
of life is non-paid domain rather it’s the social attachment
and obligations of a person. Balance in context of work-
life balance is highly subjective concept which implies
a satisfying relationship perceived by a person between
domains of life and work. The more the balance, the more
happier and productive a person is work in a straightforward
way is conceived as paid employment and life is viewed as
activities outside work (Guest, 2002).
WLB has progressed a lot since its realisation in the middle
of twentieth century. It began with employees especially
working women experiencing difficulties to balance the
obligations of family and work assignments. With more
working women joining workforce, policies were created
to facilitate their effort of balancing work and family roles.
With close of 21st century, the issue was no more restricted
to women employees as more men and working couples
found difficulty to fulfill both roles. The employees had
experienced more expectations and interference owing to
technology. They were contactable even during family hours
leading to conflict and crossover of two domains. At the
same time, the employees apart from family valued other
components of life- entertainment, hobbies, friends, religion,
Work Life Balance: A Conceptual Review 21
community etc. So, family was no more single domain, there
had entered other groups which employees valued especially
for unmarried and young individuals.
Researchers in human resources development have been
continuously working on construct of work-life balance.
Various studies have been conducted showing relationship
of WLB with variables: job satisfaction, family satisfaction,
life satisfaction, productivity, organisational performance,
psychological well-being, organisational commitment,
absenteeism, health, and stress. The researchers have come
up with results taking WLB as independent variable and
other variables as dependent variables. At times, the roles
of moderators generally as demographics have been studied.
Quite recently, there has been interest in finding association
of technologies on the work-life balance of employees.
Majority of studies have been done in west and other
advanced countries with much to be researched in developing
countries. In developing countries, employers have started
to realise the long-term benefits of well-constructed work-
life balance policies for employees.
Review of Literature
The literature review is categorised under the following themes
as i) work-life balance/conflict studies, ii) consequences of
work-life balance/conflict,and iii) individual strategies and
organisational strategies/policies for maintaining work-
life balance. The colossal increase in the technological
innovations is acknowledged for 21st century employees
who seems to be contactable even without in office.
Work-Life Conflict
Researchers at the turn of 21st century have focused attention
on conflict arising in two domains.Now-a-days employees are
facing competing demands between life (family) and work
resulting in conflict between the two domains. Researchers
are studying conflict related issues in work-life interaction as
work-life conflict. The three variations of conflict as i) time-
based conflict, (ii) strain-based conflict, and (iii) behaviour-
based conflict have been identified Greenhaus and Beutell
(1985). Most of the studies on the work-life conflict revealed
that more interference of work with life (family) rather the
latter. Thedirection of spillovers among employees have
been studied indicating more work-interference with family
(Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991; Frone, Russell, & Cooper
1992; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997; Hammer, Allen,
& Grigsby,1997; Eagle, Miles, & Icenogle,1997; Hsieh,
Pearson, Chang, & Uen2005; Wesley & Muthuswamy, 2005;
Rajadhyaksha & Ramadoss, 2010).The conflict source is not
only work domain but demands in life too can interfere with
work. A two-directional relationship as work interference
with family and family interference with work has now
started to be researched (Duxbury, Higgins, and Mills,
1992). So, researchers are studying both conflict directions
of work-life interaction as work-life interference (WLI) and
life-work interference (LWI).
Work-Life Enrichment
At the same time, for some employees in certain cultures, the
two domains seem not be at conflict rather are supporting.
Generally in collectivistic cultures, the life domain especially
family - the sibling and extended family helps in reducing
and managing the family obligations. So, the support in
family domain helps in managing the balance in work and
life, termed as positive work-family spill-over (Grzywacz,
Almeida, & McDonald, 2002; Crouter, 1984) or work-
family enhancement (Barnett, 1998; Voydanoff, 2002).
The researchers have begun to realise that one domain can
support and enrich the other domain in the shape of work-
life enrichment.The degree to which involvement at work or
at home makes to gain experiences, skills and opportunities
which facilitates discharging responsibilities in work or at
home (Frone, 2003).However, some studies have revealed
supporting roles between work and life (family) with no
gender differences (Baral, 2010).
Gender
An important factor among demographics/individual related
factors affecting work-life balance/conflict is gender. Most
of the studies have indicated that a woman has more issues
of work-life balance that man. A woman shares more of
family responsibilities than males especially in eastern
countries. The highly skewed load of family obligations
makes difficult for women to balance work and family (Bird,
2006). Married women experience more work-life conflict
than unmarried women. Mothers with younger children
experience the highest work-life balance issues. Majority of
scholars have come up with that family interferes more with
work than the other-way round as seen in studies by Gutek et
al. (1991), Williams and Alliger (1994), Higgins, Duxbury,
and Lee (1994), Loscocoo (1997), Aryee, Luk, Leung, and Lo
(1999), Grzywacz, Arcury, Marin, Carrillo, Burke, Coates,
and Quandt (2007), Rajadhyaksha and Velgach (2009).
However, some scholars have seen interference of family on
work is not moderated by gender, indicating both genders
have similar work-life balance issues (Hill, Hawkins, Ferris,
& Weitzman, 2001; Wesley & Muthuswamy, 2005). Other
demographic factors like age, marital status and personality
type too have been researched to have influence on the work-
life balance.
22 Journal of Strategic Human Resource Management Volume 5 Issue 2 June 2016
Family and Work Related Factors
The family and work related factors have been studied to have
influence on one’s work-life balance. Among the family factors,
the important variables relationships studied which contribute
on work-life balance; number of dependents, spousal support,
partners work-hours and parental responsibilities. There are
significant researchers highlighted that supportive family
environment help in managing work-life balance. Family
support especially the support from one’s spouse creates
less conflict in between work and family Frone et al. (1997).
The environment in which employees work too have been
the focus of work-life balance researchers. A relationship
has been sought between variables i.e. work-hours, role
conflict, task freedom, work-schedule flexibility etc. which
have greatly impacted employees’ work-life balance. Studies
by Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose, Rabinowitz, and
Beutell (1989), Voydanoff (2004), Butler, Grzywacz, Bass,
and Linney (2005) have revealed that with more employee
friendly policies reduced episodes of conflict resulting in
better work-life balance.
Outcome of Work-Life Balance
The consequences of work-life balance/conflict on important
organisational efficiency measures like productivity,
organisational commitment (OC), orgranisational citizenship
(OCz), organisational performance, job satisfaction,
intention to leave/quit, stress, health, life satisfaction, and
career satisfaction have been studied. Considerable group of
researchers have found positive relationship between work-
life balance and variables of job satisfaction, OC, OCz,
and productivity whereas negative relationships between
work-life balance and variables viz intention to leave/quit,
stress and health. Duxbury and Higgins (2001) found that
employees who experience higher conflict in work-overload,
family to work-interference and work-to-family interference
had less organisational performance and low quality of life.
Also, the stress levels, cases of burn-out and weak physical
and mental health were high in those employees. However,
the relationships were moderated by family and work-related
variables experienced by an individual. The more supportive
family and work environment, the better the work-life
balance leading to higher rating of organisational efficiency
measures for an individual. Bhargava and Baral (2009) found
supportive family and work factors lead to enrichment leading
to higher cases of job satisfaction, affective commitment and
organisational citizenship behaviour.
Strategies of Individuals and Organisation Policies
Work-life balance/conflict researchers are coming up
with evidences on strategies adopted by individuals and
organisations to maintain personal affairs and work. The
policies and initiatives regarding work-life balance by the
organisations go a long-way to facilitate it. The individual
strategies are in the shape of compromising/negotiating
the family or work. The help from family members and
colleagues at work are helpful to build and sustain balance
between two domains. In order to manage work-family
conflict, individuals mobilise support from family/work
domain to reschedule activities (Powell & Greenhaus, 2006).
Organisations too are realising their role to enhance work-
friendly policies. The pressure has increased on employees
to deliver unmatched service 24x7 with ever-increasing
competition. The employees as a result have been at work
even after normal work-hours thanks to revolutionizing
technology. Also, there is more diversity in organisations
including increasing involvement of women workforce. A
sizable proportion of women in the workforce especially at top
execution position are attached with policies as job sharing,
child care and flexi-time (Galinsky & Johnson,1998).As a
result, the employees of today highly value firms providing
suitable policies on wok-life balance. So many new
innovative strategies/policies adopted from organisations
include flex-timing, job sharing, telecommuting, compressed
working week to maternity benefits, parental leave, paternity
leave, onsite day care, emergency child care, elder care
arrangements.
Organisations are providing policies parental leave, study
leave, flexi-time, part time working, job sharing, emergency
leave, and extra maternity leave in order to recruit and retain
the best talent (Maxwell & McDougall, 2004). The work-life
balance benefits not only employees but organisations too,
reap benefits in the long-run. Organisations provide work-
life balance policies due to legal requirements, the business
benefits and employee well-being (Dex & Scheibl, 2001).
Healthcare employees were seen to have lower work- family
conflict, job dissatisfaction, depression and blood pressure
because of supportive work-life balance practices-flexible
scheduling and supportive supervisors (Thomas & Ganster,
1995). Organisations are benefitted too where employees
perceive supportive work-life balance policies as improved
their job satisfaction and reduced intention to leave (Forsyth
& Polzer-Debruyne, 2007).
Technology and Work-Life Balance
Researchers have specially seen impact of technology
on the work-life balance at the beginning of 21st century.
Technological innovations have increased the pace and
accuracy of work for employees. Mobile technologies bring
flexibility to employees in the shape of controlling speed,
location, and time of day (Towers, Duxbury, Higgins, &
Thomas, 2006; Middleton, 2008). There is considerable
number of studies indicating the technological innovations
Work Life Balance: A Conceptual Review 23
have greatly increased the work-efficiency of workers.
Technology provides potential for productivity and efficiency
as perceived by employees (Towers et al., 2006).
But, on the negative side, technology has made employees
contactable without in office. Technology has generated
sense of feeling with employees as never being off
from work due to increased expectations (Towers et al.,
2006). Many studies have shown that stress, anxiety and
psychological well-being has been greatly affected due to
mobile technologies. The stress level within employees has
increased due to feeling of being controlled with technology
Green (2002) has lengthened work day, therefore impacting
the family life (Hill et al., 1996).
So, researchers have come up with evidences where
technological innovations have impacted work-life balance.
Both positive as well as negative impacts of technology on
the work-life balance have been researched. The positive
effect on work-life balance has been in the shape of work
efficiencies which have added resources in the work
environment for employees. On the negative side, the
workers stress and anxiety levels have increased affecting
his physiological and psychological health.
Discussion
The review of literature indicates the progress in the concept
of work-life balance. From mere issue of balance between
family and work for women, it has seen involvement of
males and other sub-groups. There is considerable number
of studies highlighting conflict issues in the shape of work-
life conflict. Both directions of work-life conflict have been
studied.Research studies are focused to investigate conflicts
in work and life (family) among groups viz. couples, single,
and same sex couples. In certain cultures, supporting
role fromfamily domain has helped to manage the work
obligations. The skill, knowledge and experience have
enriched the employee’s role in the other domain.
The most important contributing factor which has brought
work-life balance issue on the limelight is the colossal upscale
of technological innovations. The boundary between work
and life has got blurred result of virtual office and mobile
technologies. So, employees have seen a merge of both
boundaries. The important for employees is to differentiate
between work time and personal time. The researchers are
suggesting techniques such as yoga, gym and break time
to manage work-life conflict emerged due to technological
innovations.
A balanced work-life benefits not only employees but
organisations too benefit. Since relationships have been seen
between work-life balance and organisation effectiveness
measures viz. productivity, organisational citizenship,
organisational performance etc. which presses organisations
to provide policies which enhance employee’s work-life.
The work-life balance/conflict is an issue which is valued
highly by employees of today. They expect organisations
to provide environment and policies which enhances their
balance of personal life and work.
Conclusion
Work-life balance is relevant in today’s technological
world where expectations are rising from employees to
adopt customer orientation. In the coming future, the issues
of work-life balance/conflict are going to upscale due to
lessening of boundaries between work and life (family).
The work-life merge has already set its foot for employees
where due to technology, time between personal life and
work is difficult to segregate. The governments of nations
are now realising value of highly motivated citizen who can
be asset for the nation. There are various minimum statutory
laws which direct organisations to provide certain minimum
benefits to employees. It’s high time for the nations to gear
up to realize the full potential of their most valued resource
in the shape as human resource.
Scope for Future Research
The researchers have still gray areas to investigate in the
understanding of the concept of work-life balance. Most
studies have been done in advanced countries especially US;
there is scope to investigate work-life balance in culturally
different area. Studies have been mostly done on broader
groups like women; a more valid study can be done with
focus on narrower group.
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Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 539–545
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / c o m p h u m b e h
The personal experience of online learning: An interpretative
phenomenological analysis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.015
0747-5632/� 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 8991312 (home), mobile: +30 6938281602.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Symeonides), [email protected]
(C. Childs).
Roberta Symeonides a,⇑, Carrie Childs b
a Samou 1a Street, Dilofou, Vari, Athens 166-72, Greece
b College of Life and Natural Sciences, University of Derby, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 19 June 2015
Keywords:
Online learning
Personal experience
Interpretative phenomenological analysis
(IPA)
a b s t r a c t
Student interaction is critical to online social cohesion and collaborative learning. However, online learn-
ers need to adjust to the computer mediated communication (CMC) medium of the online environment.
This study explores online learners’ experiences of asynchronous text-based CMC using an interpretative
phenomenological analysis of interviews with six online students. The analysis revealed that the
constraints of written communication and lack of human interaction causes difficulties in adjusting
and coping with the online learning environment. Four major themes were identified: the inability to
express one’s self fully; difficulties establishing relationships; comparing one’s self to others and the
written word as an ineffective learning medium. The study’s findings highlight a need for better student
and tutor collaboration to facilitate a safe and interactive environment. Effective academic and social
support can enhance online learning, improve student satisfaction and encourage students to persist with
their learning.
� 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Advances in communication technology have led to a surge in
the number of individuals taking online courses. With the flexibil-
ity of online courses comes a greater responsibility for learners to
be self-directed. Online learning, where computer technology com-
munication (CMC) is used as the primary learning medium, differs
to face-to-face learning environments in some fundamental ways.
For students the experience of learning online, within an unfamil-
iar environment, demands personal adaptability and coping skills.
Many students may enroll in online courses without any guidance
and may learn just enough about the online environment to com-
plete the course-learning the new skills required is not an easy task
(McGilvray, 2014).
Tutor moderated asynchronous discussion, which typically
takes place via discussion board forums, is a main feature of online
learning. Learners ‘sign on’ at times of their choosing using the
computer as a ‘meeting place’. However, life in such a ‘written
world’ gives rise to many unfamiliar problems. Written communi-
cation violates many deeply ingrained assumptions about commu-
nication, creating difficulties in establishing one’s own identity
(Feenberg, 1989). Void of elements of speech such as intonation
and non-verbal cues makes conveying how we feel and who we
are problematic (Pennebaker, Mehl, & Niederhoffer, 2003). The
issue of online student identity is not well recognized in the peda-
gogical literature, which until recently has focused mainly on
aspects of instructional design (e.g. Sims, 2014), learning outcomes
(e.g. Keramati, Afshari-Mofrad, & Kamrani, 2011) and student sat-
isfaction (e.g. Kuo, Walker, Schroder, & Belland, 2014). However as
Oztok, Lee, and Brett (2012) note, identities play an important role
in online learning practices and a more refined understanding of
identity is needed to address the relationship between the concept
of identity and learning.
There has been an increasing trend for research to focus on the
role of student interaction in relation to collaborative learning to
establish a ‘community of inquiry’ for constructing, sharing and
understanding of knowledge ((Betts, 2009; Rouke, Anderson,
Garrison, & Archer, 2001; Shea et al., 2014). The need to provide
shared learning spaces and tools for collaboration is well docu-
mented (e.g. Häkkinen & Hämäläinen, 2012). This body of work
is underpinned by constructivist learning theory, which under-
stands knowledge as constructed by learners through social inter-
action with others. As Shea (2006) notes, within online learning
there has been a philosophical shift from objectivism to construc-
tivism and a pedagogical shift from direct instruction to the facili-
tation of collaborative learning (Jones & Brader-Araije, 2002). It has
been suggested that the online environment is an effective plat-
form for promoting constructivist learning as it meets needs for
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540 R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 539–545
students to access academic coursework at any time while
enhancing communication skills (Schell & Janicki, 2013).
However constructivism’s focus on group activities that facilitate
collaborative learning via peer–peer interactions may present
challenges for the online learning environment (Huang, 2002).
Effective student interaction is critical to constructivist learning
success as ‘‘effective and lasting learning takes place for the
individual when engaged in social activity with a range of others’’
(Pritchard & Woollard, 2010, p. 7).
Discussion forums aim to cultivate a social environment for stu-
dent interaction, collaboration and exchange of ideas, establishing
a ‘community of enquiry’ fostering a sense of belonging to reduce
feelings of alienation associated with online learning (Rovai &
Wighting, 2005; Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004). Participation
in discussion forums serves a dual purpose – to enhance learning
and provide support (Davies & Graff, 2005). Frequent student inter-
action has been associated with increased satisfaction (Gilbert,
Morton, & Rowley, 2007; Perez-Prado & Thirunarayanan, 2002).
However, frequency of interaction as an outcome measure pro-
vides little insight into the experience of interacting and the
importance of this for learning experience. As Gilbert et al. note
in-depth qualitative interviews may provide richer insights ‘‘and
answers to ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions’’ (p. 571). There has also been
criticism of over reliance on the instructional design, technological
and cognitive aspects of learning with little attention to emotional
aspects (MacFadden, 2007; Montero & Suhonen, 2014; Zembylas,
2008). If approaches do not provide any details of the particular
nuances of any one individual’s experience little is known about
the role of students’ feelings, thoughts and experience in the pro-
cess of their interaction and learning. Failing to explore these
‘‘can only offer an incomplete view of the learning experience’’
(Montero & Suhonen, 2014, p. 165). A philosophical shift to focus
on students as experts of their own experience is necessary. A phe-
nomenological approach can illuminate this process to gain a dee-
per understanding of human interactions (Hignett & Wilson, 2004)
and users’ needs (Bogner, 1998) in order to understand how indi-
vidual learners experience their learning.
2. Methodology
2.1. Data collection
The dataset comprises semi-structured interviews with six
mature online students. Participants were aged between 29 and
52 years of age at different stages of their Master’s degree pro-
gramme. A request for participants was emailed to all students
on the same programme and participation was voluntary.
Purposive homogenous sampling was employed to obtain a closely
defined group for whom the experiential research question is sig-
nificant. The interviews were conducted using Skype™ online tele-
phony. Interviews lasted approximately 60 min. All names are
pseudonyms.
2.2. Analysis
Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) provides a
means of explicating how participants make sense of their personal
and social world and the meanings that particular events and expe-
riences hold for them (Smith & Osborne, 2008). Its philosophical
underpinnings are within phenomenology, symbolic interaction-
ism, hermeneutics and idiography (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin,
2009). Developing from the work of Husserl, phenomenological
psychology rejects the notion that one can construct an objective
‘truth’ about an experience; rather the focus is an individual’s per-
sonal perception or account. One cannot construct an objective
third person account as there is something indispensable in
first-person experience – ‘‘what it is like’’ for the individual to have
such an experience (Summa & Giuffrida, 2013). As such, there is no
attempt to construct an objective truth about an experience, rather
individuals’ experiences, understandings, perceptions and
accounts are honoured (Reid, Flowers, & Larkin, 2005). As IPA is
concerned with the subjective account and meaning of an experi-
ence (Brocki & Wearden, 2006) this allows one to appreciate the
perceptions and understandings of a particular group, rather than
prematurely make more general claims (Smith & Osborne, 2008)
which may lead to false assumptions and misunderstandings.
Although IPA is an idiographic mode of inquiry the importance of
theory is recognized. It is useful to judge IPA in terms of vertical,
rather than horizontal generalizability. While horizontal generaliz-
ability aims to demonstrate that findings are applicable across set-
tings, vertical generalizability is concerned with building
interpretative theory. Findings should be judged in terms of their
ability to enhance understanding and insight, to contribute to
existing theory and to generate new hypotheses and research
questions (Johnson, 1997).
The analytic process was as follows: (a) interview transcripts
were read and reread a number of times to establish a general feel-
ing of participants’ accounts; (b) exploratory comments were made
and emergent themes were identified and organized; (c) attention
was focused on the themes to define them in detail and establish
inter-relationships and (d) the themes were organized to make
consistent and meaningful statements of the meaning and essence
of the participants’ experience grounded in their own words
(Smith et al., 2009).
3. Results
The overarching theme was difficulties experienced in relation
to written communication within the online learning environment.
Participants struggled as they felt written communication was ‘not
real’ and ‘unnatural’ and often felt vulnerable when ‘talking’
publically on discussion forums. The analysis shows some of
their attempts to adjust to the online environment, but uncertainty
and ambiguity pervades. Four major themes were identified: (1)
the inability to express one’s self fully; (2) difficulties in
establishing relationships; (3) comparing one’s self to others and
(4) the written word as an ineffective learning medium. Each
theme is intrinsically interwoven and pivotal to written communi-
cation. These themes are presented below, with illustrative
extracts.
3.1. Inability to express yourself fully – ‘it’s not necessarily me at all’
The first theme encapsulates participants’ sense of loss of
human interaction. The online environment, void of human senses
meant that participants felt that interaction was dehumanized,
unnatural and ‘not real’. As participants struggled to adjust, feel-
ings of frustration and uncertainty prevented them interacting in
a way they were accustomed to. This meant they were often reluc-
tant to communicate. Their accounts reveal their attempts to cope
with these difficulties and strategies to overcome them.
‘all you have now is the way they write in the forum and the
picture. So you may well have seen, if you’ve checked my intro-
ductory post on the forum, you’ll have seen my picture and
you’ll have also have read the post and I think that comes across
as rather hard, as a bit stiff – it’s not necessarily me at all, but
that’s the way the picture looks and I tend to write a little
directly I don’t – so again does that actually represent the
way the people are?’
[Paul]
R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 539–545 541
Paul, a novice online learner was shocked and disorientated as
he felt robbed of the important aspects of face-to-face communica-
tion. His sense of bewilderment and frustration are apparent as he
struggles to portray his own identity and understand others’. As he
struggles to overcome his difficulties his sense of loss and hope-
lessness prevail as he is unable to recognize himself as ‘me’ and
establish himself as a member of the student group.
‘em it’s not human, not as human Yep? Because you’re missing
out that face-to-face communication. I think with being face to
face you’ve got the advantage of, you kind of, there’s more – when
you’re face to face because you’re face to face there’s more inter-
action. It’s like a natural interaction and its there in abundance,
whereas online you’ve got to force yourself to interact yeah?
[John]
Other participants who were more experienced with the online
communication also struggled to communicate effectively. John’s
notion of face-to-face communication as natural and effortless
contrasts with the unnatural and stark online environment where
he has to ‘force’ himself to interact.
‘I pick up on people’s actual thoughts better when you get body
language rather than in a text it doesn’t give you the feeling of
the person’
[Janet]
Janet feels that written communication is not as sincere as
face-to-face communication where the subtle aspects of communi-
cation give her an in-depth understanding of the person’s character
not possible with written communication.
Not being able to naturally express one’s self negatively influ-
enced participants’ interaction with others. Participants felt con-
strained and were concerned about causing offense, being
misunderstood, which led to feelings of isolation and not belonging
to the student community. These difficulties recur throughout the
participants’ accounts as a barrier to establishing meaningful
relationships.
3.2. Difficulty in establishing relationships – ‘you don’t really know,
sometimes, who you’re talking to’
Participants’ accounts reveal importance placed on interacting
with other students to provide a support network. Participants felt
frustrated that some students did not reveal their ‘real’ identity.
The lack of human interaction and sincerity associated with writ-
ten communication meant that participants felt they were inter-
acting with strangers.
‘One or two of the students have chosen just to use their own
student number or a pseudonym, so you don’t really know,
sometimes, who you’re talking to’.
[Paul]
Paul was disappointed and frustrated that communication was
‘staid’ and ‘virtually non-existent’ and became more frustrated
when other students held back and did not reveal their true iden-
tity. He was unable to ‘read’ them and saw their lack of openness as
a barrier to establishing relationships.
Whilst the discussion forums aim to provide a ‘meeting place’
for student interaction some participants felt exposed ‘talking’
publically on the forum.
‘it’s kind of nerving, you have to get into it so to speak [. . .] the
fact that you are basically talking to a stranger, on air if you like
through the airways [. . .] In a funny sort of way it kind of feels
unnatural because you’re not face to face, you can’t be face to
face.’
[John]
John’s feelings of exposure could be equated with public speak-
ing where the audience is often strangers, physically far removed
and unresponsive. The notion of communication as unnatural per-
sists as John’s reluctance to interact reveals his feelings of alien-
ation in his reference to classmates as strangers. His narrative
portrays his sense of frustration and loss as he is deprived of nat-
ural ways of communicating and struggles to cope with the imper-
sonal online environment. Sarah also wants to establish herself as a
member of the student community but is unable to identify with
some people. She differentiates between different types of
students.
‘the kind of hard core students that you see on the forum, you
know what I mean, continually posting massive, massive posts
and out shining the rest of us’
[Sarah]
Sarah does not want to identify with the very studious and cap-
able ‘hard core’ group of students who she perceives as threatening
and domineering. She instead identifies with more laid-back stu-
dents like herself in order to establish her own identity and her
place within the student community to gain a sense of belonging.
To overcome the difficulties with establishing relationships
using written communication some participants sought other
means of communicating-talking on the telephone and meeting
at conferences or university open days. This allowed some partici-
pants to establish purposeful relationships in the ‘real world’.
‘He wasn’t just a pseudo name on the forum. I’d met him in per-
son and knew who he was so I could just pick up the phone and
talk to him.’
[Janet]
Janet values her relationship with this student – their relation-
ship had been founded in the ‘real world’. Her real world is tangible
and provides an environment where people are authentic, honest
and open in contrast with the pseudo ‘course world’. Her relation-
ship with him is her ‘mini-support network’ as they support each
other at stressful times during their years as online students. In
this way Janet could depend on him for support and avoid interact-
ing with others.
‘. . . and I did find, you know, that even just people saying that
they’re struggling as well probably gives you an idea of where
everybody else is at and maybe you’re not on your own strug-
gling or something.’
[Fiona]
Fiona had not established any close relationships with other
students but found other students’ self-disclosures on the forum
a valuable source of comfort and reassurance. As a private person
who felt she should be able to ‘get on with it’ she was reluctant
to disclosure her difficulties in coping and appreciated and recog-
nized other students’ courage in publicizing their own struggles.
She found their admissions a relief – she was not the only one
struggling which helped alleviate her own anxiety and helped
her cope.
‘It puts you on an even keel and that’s sort of it’s in some ways
is, I wouldn’t say comforting, but it’s good to know that you’re
not just struggling yourself.’
[John]
John also had not established relationships with other students.
He also found reading other students’ disclosures on the forum a
source of relief. This process provided him with a readily available
and accessible source of support and encouragement without the
need to ‘force’ himself to interact while still being able to
share in other students’ experiences. All participants expressed
542 R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 539–545
experiencing stressful times during their studies and conclusively
used the forum as a source of encouragement and reassurance.
However, student interaction varied and the depth and frequency
was reflected in their different types of relationships with some
students being more willing to self-disclose and express their
struggles publically on the forum while others were more reluctant
or chose to ‘lurk’ out of sight. Even though participants found the
forum a source of support, a sense of not belonging to the student
community prevails which is reflected in participants’ accounts as
reference to fellow students as ‘they’, ‘people’ or ‘strangers’.
Common struggles and shared experiences with other students
were a more frequent source of support than tutor support.
Participants relied primarily on their tutors for academic sup-
port but there is an underlying need for tutors to recognize partic-
ipants’ psychological needs. Participants valued tutors’ input and
feedback on discussion forums as a means of developing and for-
mulating their ideas and framing their knowledge. ‘Having the
tutors there have helped me formulate my ideas and sort of look
at [. . .] from a wider aspect.’ (Janet). However, participants were
often unsure when and whether to approach their tutors for extra
support. Most participants communicated privately by email with
tutors when they needed extra guidance, but there was a general
feeling of trepidation ‘because you don’t want to trouble anybody’.
Participants sometimes felt they should be able to ‘get on with it’
by themselves.
Written communication had been a barrier to Sarah establish-
ing relationships with tutors, but her feelings changed after a
face-to-face meeting.
‘I think, having a face that I can place to the name and also
knowing the personality [. . .] and chatting and knowing that
actually they are quite approachable. I feel that I can approach
them about anything and they won’t judge me or think I’m stu-
pid. But prior to that I probably was a bit – well I was – a lot
more hesitant.’
[Sarah]
Sarah’s relationship with her tutors in the written world was
based on mistrust and a misconception that they would judge
her or think her ‘stupid’ if she asked for help. Her face-to-face
meeting meant she could communicate in a way she was accus-
tomed to. This allowed her to see her tutors as genuine and trust-
worthy people with whom she could establish a relationship. After
this her feelings towards her tutors changed and she felt more con-
fident and safer interacting with them. Fiona had a similar experi-
ence following a telephone conversation with one of her tutors for
the first time. In her narrative she reflects on a time when she was
struggling to cope:
‘in the past when I was struggling a bit it would have been more
useful to have a conversation and hear a voice erh, erh, that
might have been a better way of dealing with it. I think you sort
of have this impression that they’re you know, that maybe
aren’t as human, but they obviously are.’
[Fiona]
Fiona needed her tutor’s comfort and reassurance at a time
when she was having difficulties coping but was reluctant to dis-
close her feelings to them. Fiona’s perception of her tutors as not
only strangers but not ‘as human’ portrays her deep sense of isola-
tion and lack of tutor support.
Christine portrayed a different experience. She was not as
apprehensive as other participants about seeking extra help and
guidance from her tutors, although she did this privately by email.
‘They seem to – they kind of encourage it so, erm, if they’re
offering I’m gonna use it’.
[Christine]
Christine enjoyed interacting on the forum with other students
and valued her tutors’ academic support and ‘a pat on the back
when you get a concept right’. Christine’s geographical location
meant that meeting her tutors face to face was not possible.
3.3. Comparing one’s self to others – ‘I tend to erm, maybe lose a bit of
confident if I’m with a lot of people that appear to be doing a lot better
than I can do’
Participants actively sought to establish their identity as stu-
dents within the community by comparing themselves to others.
These comparisons often left participants with a sense of
self-doubt – they felt other students were more qualified or expe-
rienced than them.
‘They’ve all got a lot of experience in various different things
and sometimes you worry about putting your neck on the line
don’t you and looking a little bit silly, but em, you know, I’m
happy to do that, but you know, I’d like not to look silly if
possible’.
Sarah, who was younger than some of the other students, felt
her contributions to the forum would not be as valuable. The forum
posed a personal risk to her and her sense of trepidation made her
reluctant to post on the forum unless she felt it was ‘worth
sharing’.
‘I look up to a lot of them because they are, I find them quite
intelligent and it’s a kind of, they give me like a standard to
or a level to work with yeah? So there is a lot of respect there
from that point of view.’
[John]
John’s sense of inferiority is accentuated by his feeling that his
classmates are strangers who appear more intelligent than him.
His benchmark comparison ‘to look up to’ suggests a lack of
self-confidence. These feelings prevented him from establishing
himself as a valuable member within the student community.
‘I tend to erm, maybe lose a bit of confident if I’m with a lot of
people that appear to be doing a lot better than I can do’
[Fiona]
Fiona discusses a similar experience. Her lack of confidence and
feelings of being undermined by other students is a barrier to her
interacting.
Participants’ self-doubts posed a personal risk of embarrass-
ment when discussing and sharing academic issues with other stu-
dents. However, when students shared their personal struggles and
anxieties this helped alleviate these feelings temporarily but per-
sistent feelings of self-doubt led to a reluctance to ‘put your neck
on the line’ in front of others.
3.4. Written communication as an ineffective learning medium –
‘knowing whether you know what you know or whether you’re kind of
way off the mark’
Participants’ narratives revealed that all felt online learning was
‘a struggle’ and ‘hard work’. Janet describing it as ‘a necessary evil’
while John felt frustrated that his efforts went unrecognised.
Participants felt uncertain of their understanding of the academic
material and assignment requirements, some attributing the prob-
lem to their own weaknesses and others to ambiguous guidelines.
This uncertainty peaked towards the end of modules and up to and
including the assignments. Online learning with lack of
face-to-face interaction was portrayed as not ‘true learning’, more
ambiguous and somehow incomplete.
R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 539–545 543
Janet and Sarah found reading the material off the screen diffi-
cult and discuss how reading printed copies ‘goes in better’.
‘there will be things that I don’t fully understand but I’ve man-
aged to cuff it so far em, you know, had I been in a more
face-to-face environment, I’m pretty sure that even just chat-
ting to other peers, we’d have kind covered the bases and dis-
covered where our little holes are and kind of filled them in
for each other’.
[Sarah]
Sarah felt fraudulent and concerned that compared to
face-to-face learning her online learning was incomplete and
lacked true understanding as she was unable to informally talk
things through with others. When discussing face-to-face learning
her reference to other students as ‘peers’ reveals her ease in iden-
tifying with others face-to-face, in contrast to the online environ-
ment. The inability to informally and spontaneously talk things
through meant participants often harboured feelings of
self-doubt and ambiguity in relation to their assignments. They
were often unsure whether they had fully understood.
‘you’re really trying to pull everything together and just hope
that you’re heading in the right direction. [. . .] ‘I miss it about
getting the answers right away I think is what I miss. Having
the discussions right away to kind of put you on the right track.
Or not even put you on the right track but just to say I’m grasp-
ing some of this and you’re in the right direction.’
[Christine]
Christine portrays serious doubts about her understanding
compounded by the lack of immediate …
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2017, Vol. 26(2) 202 –215
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Non-Traditional Research
Introduction
You are about to sit down to dinner with family. Your phone
begins ringing. Your spouse shoots you a look that says
“don’t answer that.” However, you want to appear available,
helpful, and competent, so you take the call in another room,
leaving your place at the table. You are at work, and you
receive a text from your daughter’s school—she is sick and
needs picked up. Can you be there in 30 min? On the way,
there your Facebook messenger tone sounds—probably
someone from your intramural basketball team trying to
finalize your availability for the weekend.
Sound familiar? This constant overlap of our various obli-
gations is the new normal. Aided by developments in tech-
nology, today’s employees can “tune in” to multiple life
facets simultaneously. As organizational researchers, we are
only beginning to understand the need to extend previous
work–life balance research as the complexities of our obliga-
tions grow and often collide with each other (e.g.,
MacCormick, Dery, & Kolb, 2012). The purpose of this
study is to analyze what the “best” and “worst” companies
do differently in terms of this increased complexity, and to
assess the accompanying employee reactions. Furthermore,
we seek broader theory that better accounts for the frictions
underlying the various life facets of today’s employee. In
sum, we contribute to the existing work–life balance litera-
ture using the notion of hyperconnectivity to explain that bal-
ance suggests a state of being that is no longer attainable.
Instead, we introduce the term work–life flexibility as a more
accurate assessment of the phenomenon and propose com-
plex systems theory as an alternative framework for the
work–life balance literature.
When Time Collides: “Balance” and
Hyperconnectivity
More than 60 years ago, it was thought that work and life
should be completely separate. In fact, the thought of the two
merging was believed to be absurd (Dubin, 1956). Research
on the merging of work and life gained momentum in the
seventies and eighties as more women took prominent roles
in the workplace (Crouter, 1984). Practitioners and research-
ers alike began seeing the effects of the growing role conflict
among employees between their work roles and the various
roles outside work (Beutell & Greenhaus, 1982; Burke, Weir,
& Duwors, 1980; Kopelman, Greenhaus, & Connolly, 1983;
Locksley, 1980; Pleck, Staines, & Lang, 1980). In looking
for a solution, many suggested that the conflict between
675414 JMIXXX10.1177/1056492616675414Journal of Management InquiryRoss et al.
research-article2016
1New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, USA
2Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, USA
Corresponding Author:
John P. Ross, Department of Management, New Mexico State University,
MSC 3DJ, P.O. Box 30001, Las Cruces, NM 88001, USA.
Email: [email protected]
It Was the Best of Times; It Was the
Worst of Times: The Expiration of
Work–Life Balance
John P. Ross1, Melissa L. Intindola2, and David M. Boje1
Abstract
The importance of work–life balance has increased dramatically in recent years. Hyperconnected employees are struggling
to balance the “spillover” between internal work and external life demands. We questioned whether there was a difference
in organizationally supported work–life balance at Fortune Magazine’s “Best Places to Work For” versus Wall St. 24/7’s
“Worst Places to Work.” We analyzed 1,100 unsolicited, open-ended employee reviews from a major career web site and
conducted a contextual analysis of the differences between the “best” and “worst” places to work. Our findings show clear
differences in the time benefits offered and governance structures used to support these benefits. Our findings also reveal
that employees today are not seeking “balance.” Instead, they are seeking “work–life flexibility,” a new, complex way of
looking at the employee today. Findings are discussed and implications for work–life flexibility are provided.
Keywords
work–family conflict/management, work–life conflict/management, qualitative research, content analysis
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Ross et al. 203
home and work would reach a better balance if work sched-
ules were more flexible (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985).
Research-backed benefits such as job sharing, employee-
assistance programs, and child/elderly care began to garner
attention (Cascio, 1998; Hobson, Delunas, & Kesic, 2001;
Marshall & Barnett, 1994). By 2004, approximately 28% or
more than 30 million U.S. employees had the ability to
manipulate workday start and end times. The percentage is
believed to be far greater when additional flexible time such
as personal time, flex time, vacations, and unpaid leave are
taken into account (Gangwisch, 2014; U.S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005). Although flexible
schedules and other life assistance benefits are certainly
important in helping with balance, balance itself is in the eye
of the smartphone holder.
Smartphones, laptops, and other portable communication
devices have exacerbated the work–life balance issue.
Employees cannot seem to go through a workday without
staying connected to the outside world (D’Abate, 2005), but
the definition of “outside world” seems to be the cause of con-
cern. The outside world seems to be defined as whatever world
of which the employee is not currently a part. Thus, being con-
stantly connected to the outside world while in the workplace
can be seen as a big problem, but the reverse is also true. As
employees leave work and return to their “outside” lives, they
are bringing work with them. This “job creep” (MacCormick
et al., 2012) occurs when a person’s job spills over into other
portions of life. Modern technology has made “job creep” the
norm. In a study conducted by Neverfail in 2012, 83% of pro-
fessionals reported checking their email after leaving work,
and 66% bring work with them on vacation. More than 50%
read emails during meals with family and friends (Flipping the
Switch, 2012). Constant access to work can result in exces-
sively engaged employees who are more likely to burnout,
defined here as experiencing extreme emotional, physical, and
cognitive exhaustion, than those who have a recovery period
from work tasks (Schaufeli, Leiter, & Maslach, 2009;
Trougakos, Beal, Green, & Weiss, 2008).
It seems when life encroached upon work, that work
encroached back on life. And yet a third piece of this topic is
the oft neglected “other” obligations employees face—to
friends, volunteer groups, and so on . . . The constant thread
in all of these anecdotes is the simultaneous access the
employee has to all facets of life, a concept known in the
information technology literature as hyperconnectivity.
Hyperconnectivity refers to the various means of commu-
nication and interaction available to individuals today, as
well as the impact of these means on personal and organiza-
tional behavior (Fredette, Marom, Steiner, & Witters, 2012).
Attributes of hyperconnectivity include (a) always on—tech-
nological advances in the form of broadband Internet and
mobile devices allow individuals to be connected to every-
thing, all the time; (b) readily accessible—the size of tech-
nology has shrunk such that individuals now hold maximum
computing power in the palm of their hands; (c) information
rich—round-the-clock news, “live feeds,” and the like create
a culture in which one can never be completely knowledge-
able—there is always some new information to be gained by
being connected; (d) interactive—individuals can now offer
their opinions on everything from the banal to the controver-
sial; (e) not just about people—machine-to-machine commu-
nication has created an environment in which devices can be
linked; and (f) always recording—individuals now have the
opportunity to document their lives, and the lives of anyone
they wish, daily (Fredette et al., 2012). Hyperconnectivity is
increasingly cultivated by the presence of Millennials in the
workplace. The first generation to grow up in a hypercon-
nected environment, they expect constant connections with
their coworkers, colleagues, families, and the like (Fredette
et al., 2012).
Organizational Response
The organization’s response to hyperconnectivity will play
an important role in individual-level outcomes such as emo-
tional labor (Hochschild, 1979), performance, and job satis-
faction (Grandey, 2000; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1989), as well as
organizational-level outcomes such as recruitment and reten-
tion, strategic goal setting, and profit.
Research to date has focused on how organizations can
curtail hyperconnected behaviors in the workplace, as they
constitute an ethical violation tantamount to theft of time on
the part of employees and may have dangerous repercussions
(cf. Young, & Case, 2004 ; Greengard, 2000; Stanko &
Beckman, 2015). This was the subject of a study by D’Abate
(2005), whose qualitative results suggested 77% of employ-
ees make personal calls at work, 67% send and receive per-
sonal emails, 30% make personal appointments during work
time, 27% pay personal bills, and another 27% are planning
weddings, errands, and vacations at work as well as entertain-
ing family that stops in for a visit! The technological advances
prevalent in today’s workforce make such activities possible.
Other organizations may allow the connectivity with efforts
to help employees manage it. Research in this area includes
support for the strategic provision of resources to employees
to allow them to fulfill personal obligations (Kirchmeyer,
1995), specific recommendations for increased supervisor
support (Blanch & Aluja, 2012), enhanced employee–
employer communication (Clark, 2000), and strategic efforts
by senior management to model and reward functional forms
of work engagement (MacCormick et al., 2012).
In sum, although previous research has well-established
issues of “spillover” and current research has begun to exam-
ine spillover’s reciprocal effect on time at home, discussions
of the work–life merger more generally neglect two issues
the current study attempts to address. First, what do employ-
ees report as valuable in managing their multiple obliga-
tions? Second, to our knowledge, no studies exist that analyze
204 Journal of Management Inquiry 26(2)
anonymous third-party data in an attempt to understand what
employees value in helping to navigate their different obliga-
tions, in their own words and without the threat of social
desirability bias or predefined scale items. This is important
because reporting anxiety is reduced when the report is anon-
ymous increasing the likelihood of an accurate report being
made (Ayers & Kaplan, 2005; Kaplan & Schultz, 2007).
Also, predefined scale items limit the range of response
someone might normally give if they could express them-
selves regarding what is most important to them.
We sought answers to both of these gaps in the form of a
qualitative analysis of anonymous online employee
reviews—what are the “best” companies doing differently
from the “worst” companies with regard to an employee’s
countless obligations? The purpose of this qualitative
research is to better understand today’s hyperconnected
employee by considering what employees expect from their
organizations. This will extend the existing work–life bal-
ance literature by providing a better understanding of the
employee of today. Specifically, this study provides research-
ers an alternative theoretical framework for scholarship in
the work–life field while exploring the practical challenges
and rewards of operating in today’s hyperconnected organi-
zational contexts.
The remainder of this article is organized as follows. First,
we describe the content analysis software used, including its
relevance to this qualitative research as well as its previous
uses in the literature. Next, we outline the text samples
selected for analysis. Based on our results, we identify emer-
gent themes and explain how these themes suggest a more
appropriate extension of work–life “balance” to work–life
“flexibility.” Finally, we discuss implications of our findings
for the organization as well as the individual, and conclude
with directions for future research.
Method
We chose to undertake a qualitative analysis of work–life
complexity in part because of the novelty of the context. If
hyperconnectivity is indeed changing the very way we con-
ceptualize notions of “work,” “life,” and “balance,” it is
important to capture accounts of these changes in a pure,
participant-driven form. This “thick description” (Geertz,
1973; Ponterotto, 2006; Ryle, 1949) allows us to give voice
to our participants by analyzing employees’ own accounts of
their organizations. Furthermore, the work–life literature has
been criticized for an overemphasis on empirical work with
only moderately correlated results (Grzywacz & Marks,
2000), suggesting that perhaps a fuller analysis warrants a
qualitative method. We selected Leximancer as a qualitative
analysis tool to assist in generating themes from the data.
Leximancer is a content analysis software used by several
recent publications in notable journals for the use of analyz-
ing written text for meaning and identifying key concepts (S.
Chen & Bouvain, 2009; Gapp, Fisher, & Kobayashi, 2008;
Kabanoff & Brown, 2008; Wilden, Devinney, & Dowling,
2013). For example, S. Chen and Bouvain (2009) used
Leximancer to compare communications between several
companies and the world regarding their corporate social
responsibility. In a similar setting, we chose Leximancer
because of its formulaic technique for analyzing and visual-
izing complex textual data between employees from various
companies. The algorithm analyzes word frequencies, con-
nections, and co-occurrences among words and phrases
(Smith & Humphreys, 2006). It then produces a visual depic-
tion of the conceptual and relational text analysis in the form
of a concept map. In our case, this concept map will allow us
to analyze common text themes used by employee reviewers
in our sample (Wilden et al., 2013).
Leximancer has a number of strengths over other content
analysis software. First, Leximancer does not require a con-
sistent string of words to appear in the text to identify themes
(e.g., “a great perk was . . . “); instead, Leximancer’s algo-
rithm “reads” the text and identifies the relevant concepts,
allowing for an automated coding process (Cretchley,
Rooney, & Gallois, 2010). Second, Leximancer demon-
strates its reliability through its stability. This feature is
attributable to Leximancer’s unique algorithm. The consis-
tency of this algorithm allows for replication when the same
parameters are in place (Cretchley et al., 2010; Smith &
Humphreys, 2006). This means future researchers could eas-
ily reproduce our concept map, given the parameters we used
to generate it. Such ease of use can help avoid problems of
expectation biases possible in manual coding techniques,
such as those associated with intercoder reliability (Smith &
Humphreys, 2006; Wilden et al., 2013).
The concept map consists of circles representing themes
drawn from the analyzed text. The darker the circle, the more
important, or more discussed, the theme. The closer the cir-
cles are to each other, the more related the themes. Those that
are not touching and far apart represent themes discussed
separate from each other. Those that are overlapping repre-
sent themes that were sometimes discussed together. Inside
the theme circles are relevant concepts. The proximity of two
concepts shows a semantic link to one another (Campbell,
Pitt, Parent, & Berthon, 2011; Smith & Humphreys, 2006).
The amount of themes and concepts that appear on a map can
be numerous. Leximancer provides a sliding scale allowing
users to view only a specified percentage of the results. For
our study, we set both the theme and concept scales to 50%.
This setting indicated to Leximancer that we only wished to
see the top 50% of the themes and concepts. Reducing the
amount of themes and concepts allows for a less cluttered
view and the ability to focus on the top themes and concepts
discussed in the text.
Once the reviews were uploaded, a few parameters were
adjusted to account for study relevance. For example, origi-
nal results produced themes and concepts centered on words
Ross et al. 205
that were not employee-provided words or useful to our
study. These words were names of companies or parts of the
review that were not written by the reviewer (e.g., the words
“helpful” and “review” in “Did you find this review help-
ful?” that were listed after every review). We removed those
words to prevent them from distracting from the employee’s
actual review. Next, we combined words that were used in
similar ways (employed, employment; employee, employ-
ees; learn, learning, learned; boss, supervisor, supervisors;
etc.). This provided us with a Leximancer dictionary that
would be used to develop themes and concepts when search-
ing through the more than 1,100 reviews comprising more
than 80,000 words.
As with any archive data, it is possible that manipulation
might occur. We do not feel this influences the data for two
reasons. First, it was a third party that identified the best and
worst companies. The motive for Indeed.com participants to
praise or degrade the company is low as no harm or benefit
will come to the company or the employee because of their
comment. Second, the point of our study was not to analyze
gossip, but the existence of a work–life “balance” culture.
Thus, we felt the risk of data manipulation was minimal for
this study.
“Best” and “Worst” Companies to
Work for
Sample Selection
Several decisions had to be made during the data-gathering
process. The authors randomly selected five of the “best” and
“worst” workplaces appearing on “Fortune’s Best Companies
2014” and “24/7 Wall St.’s 2014 Worst Places to Work,”
respectively. However, following initial data gathering, it
became apparent that more complex data decisions would
have to be made. The five randomly selected “best” places to
work only provided 375 reviews, and 81% of those came
from three companies widely known for having excellent
perks (Google, Edward Jones, and Quicken). Therefore, the
decision was made to cast a wider net to avoid an unfair
skewing of the results centered on the aforementioned com-
panies. Two additional companies were randomly selected
(Salesforce.com and Intuit) and added to the data, bringing
the total number of reviews from seven companies to 479.
This reduced the overrepresentation of Google, Edward
Jones, and Quicken by 19%, which we believe provides a
better sample.
Next, the authors assessed the textual data from the five
worst places to work and discovered that these reviews
totaled 706. None of the companies on the list was known by
the researchers as being particularly horrible or great, and the
reviews were fairly evenly dispersed among the three com-
panies. The five unused companies on the list were also retail
companies; we did not feel that adding additional companies
would add to the data. Therefore, we moved forward with
seven companies from the best places to work and five com-
panies from the worst places to work.
Sample Characteristics
Our final sample consisted of 100% of the 2014 Indeed.com
reviews for seven of the top 10 companies listed in the
“Fortune’s Best Companies 2014” (N = 479). Fortune’s “100
Best Companies to Work for in America” has been used in
management studies for many years. Employees from
selected companies are asked to fill out a 55-item attitude sur-
vey called the Great Place to Work® Trust Index©. This
index measures respect, camaraderie, fairness, pride, man-
agement, and other attitudes in the workplace. This comprises
two thirds of their score. The remaining one third of the score
is derived from a second survey measuring the benefits, train-
ing, recognition programs, and so on. Surveys are completed
yearly. The companies from the list that were randomly
selected for this review included Google, SAS, Edward Jones,
Quicken Loans, Genentech, Salesforce.com, and Intuit. Table 1
provides a detailed description of these companies.
Textual data were collected from open-ended reviews cre-
ated by employees on Indeed.com. Collecting online reviews
for analysis is a common practice in the hotel-, restaurant-,
and tourism-management fields (e.g., Chatterjee, 2001; Duan,
Gu, & Whinston, 2008; Ye, Law, & Gu, 2009). We reason that
seeking out independent, open-ended, and anonymous
reviews should enhance the integrity of the data, as these
reviews are neither solicited by the company nor part of the
consideration process Fortune uses in selecting its “Best
Companies to Work For.” In addition, Indeed.com is currently
the Number 1 job site in the world with more than 140 million
average monthly users (according to the Indeed.com press
room) and has an extensive collection of current reviews for
nearly every company on the Fortune 500 list.
Analyzed following the same criteria as above, we next
looked at 706 reviews from “24/7 Wall St.’s 2014 Worst Places
to Work” list (Frohlich, & McIntyre, 2014). This list was cre-
ated by reviewing the Glassdoor.com reviews of the Fortune
500 companies with the worst reviews. The “Worst Places to
Work” list has received a tremendous amount of attention and
is often republished in such widely read publications as Time,
Huffington Post, Fox News, and Yahoo! Finance. A descrip-
tion of these companies can be found in Table 2.
Before we proceed, it is important to highlight the differ-
ences between the companies. Those in the top places to
work are mostly tech companies. Those in the worst places to
work are mainly retail. Although this difference may signal
possible discrepancies in analysis, we argue that the differ-
ences further aids in the generalizability of our analysis.
Professional employees are not the only ones in need of
work–life improvements. In fact, it may be that retail hourly
employees are in more need of work–life improvements than
206 Journal of Management Inquiry 26(2)
their higher skilled counterparts, as hourly employees are
often attempting to balance more than one job along with
their other life demands (M. Chen, 2014; Villano, 2011).
Furthermore, hourly jobs still expect their employees to be
available to cover for sick employees or to stay late if the
retail location is busy. Hourly management is expected to
stay late and work long hours to “get ahead” in the organiza-
tion (Zemke, Raines, & Filipczak, 2000). Therefore, we
acknowledge the different industries represented in our sam-
ple, but argue that this could also be considered a strength of
our analysis.
In conducting a contextual analysis, we used Leximancer
to identify the dominant themes and concepts in both the best
and worst places to work. We then referred back to the data
frequently for further understanding of the significance of
the Leximancer results. In comparing the two Leximancer
mappings and through an extensive analysis of the reviews,
two major differences stood out as obvious distinctions
between the best and worst companies to work for: time ben-
efits and work–life governance structures. We discuss each
of these in turn below.
Results
Time-Benefits
In the Leximancer mappings (Figures 1 and 2), the circles
represent the major themes with the dots representing major
concepts within the themes. The darker the circle, the more
prevalent the theme. The line connecting the concepts repre-
sents the concept mapping or the way the message unfolds.
To conduct the analysis, we first used the mappings as a
guide, then referred back to the actual reviews to verify our
findings. For example, in Figure 2, the dots and correspond-
ing terms represent reviews from the worst places to work
report management as a major theme. Inside the manage-
ment theme, we see that when people discussed manage-
ment, they also tended to discuss their week, then their hours
followed by their pay. In other words, employees at the worst
places to work tend to link their pay to the hours they worked
each week, as assigned to them by management. In another
example, Figure 1 with the “best” places to work speaks
about management as well, but instead of being linked to
hours and pay, it is linked to team and team is linked to work.
In these reviews, most people discussing management
referred to the management team instead of just their manger
and how the team worked together to accomplish a task.
Immediately we noticed a major difference between the
“best” and “worst” companies in the provision of employee
benefits. The best places to work had a theme dedicated to
benefits, and it was one of the darkest circles indicating a
more prevalent theme. The worst places to work did not
mention benefits as a theme or a relevant concept. It is miss-
ing from the discussion. This is a significant finding because
were the word benefits or anything related to be used fre-
quently, then it would appear as its own separate theme or at
least a concept. Instead, we see that it is not even common
for employees at the worst companies to consider.
Company-provided benefits have been discussed fre-
quently in management research (Edwards, 2001; Kossek,
Pichler, Bodner, & Hammer, 2011). In the late 1980s, with
the increase of women in the workplace and dual income
families, many companies began to focus on making their
organizations more family-friendly (Robbins, & Judge,
2015). Many on-site benefits began to show up in the work-
place including gyms, child care, and on-site laundry
Table 1. 2014 Fortune’s Best Companies to Work For.
No. Company Rank Founded Industry Employees Sector
1 Google 1 1998 Media 42,162 Public
2 SAS 2 1976 IT-software 13,884 Private
3 Edward Jones 4 1922 Financial services—Investments 39,932 Private
4 Quicken Loans 5 1985 Financial services—Banking 8,386 Private
5 Genentech 6 1976 Biotechnology 12,010 Private
6 Salesforce.com 7 1999 IT 10,298 Public
7 Intuit 8 1983 IT-software 8,925 Public
Table 2. 2014 Wall St. 24/7’s America’s Worst Companies to Work for.
No. Company Rank Founded Industry Employees Sector
1 Children’s Place 10 1989 Apparel retail 16,500 Public
2 Family Dollar 9 1959 Discount retail 58,000 Public
3 hhgregg 8 1955 Electronics retail 6,100 Public
4 ADT 7 1874 Security and alarm services 17,000 Public
5 Books-A-Million 1 1917 Specialty retail 5,400 Public
Ross et al. 207
facilities (Rapoport, Bailyn, Fletcher, & Pruitt, 2002).
Studies have found that offering benefits increases overall
workplace satisfaction and commitment (Maertz & Boyar,
2011), which has been linked to higher performance, a
decrease in intent to quit, and an increase in organizational
citizenship behavior (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Meyer,
Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002). Further to this
point, a recent meta-analysis found that it is not necessarily
the type of benefits that are offered but rather the number of
benefits as employees are not likely to utilize every benefit
offered to them (Butts, Casper, & Yang, 2013). Our analysis
found benefits to be one of the main themes throughout the
reviews from the “Best Places to Work.” The word “benefits”
could be applied to many different organization-provided
benefits, but further analysis discovered that more than 80%
of the findings were referring to their time benefits or, as the
reviewers commonly called them, “perks.”
It was very hard work, but there …
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INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL
OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
AND
DISTANCE LEARNING
May 2011
Volume 8 Number 5
Editorial Board
Donald G. Perrin Ph.D.
Executive Editor
Elizabeth Perrin Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief
Brent Muirhead Ph.D.
Senior Editor
Muhammad Betz, Ph.D.
Editor
ISSN 1550-6908
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. ii
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International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. iii
Vol. 8. No. 5.
ISSN 1550-6908
Table of Contents – May 2011
Page
Editorial: itdl.org 1
Donald G. Perrin
3
How Award-winning Professors in Higher Education Use Merrill’s First
Principles of Instruction
Joel L. Gardner
Developing Trust and Openness in an Online Environment 17
Christopher J. Devers
29
Comparing Student Learning and Satisfaction between Learning
Environments in Continuing Medical Education
Cheryl Fisher and William A. Sadera
43
Distance learners’ Work Life Learning Balance
Margarida Romero
49
Internal and External Factors that Influence Adult Learners in an Online
Setting
Lara Henry
57
Managing Borderless Collaboration in Asia:
Commitment, Coordination and Communication
Juvy Lizette Gervacio
67
The Impact of Smaller and Larger Online Group Conferences on Student
Achievement
Stafford A. Griffith
81
Quality Assurance and Open Educational Resources in Online
Courseware Development and Delivery
Mohammad Issack SANTALLY
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. iv
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 1
Editorial
itdl.org
Donald G. Perrin
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Editor’s Note: Translating theory into practice is difficult without activity models, concrete examples and a
consistent strategy for observing and recording data. Dr. Gardner’s observations give strong support for
efficacy of Merrill’s first principles of instruction to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
How Award-winning Professors in Higher Education Use
Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction
Joel L. Gardner
USA
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that using Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction as part of an
instructional strategy increases learning. However, these principles are written in general terms,
and little is written about how these principles function in the real world. Knowing how these
principles are currently used in the real world would extend our understanding of the principles
and provide insight into how they can be implemented. Therefore, a study was conducted to
determine how four award-winning instructors in higher education used First Principles of
Instruction in their teaching. The instructors’ use of these principles is described and analyzed. In
addition to these principles, several additional strategies for providing effective instruction
emerged during the study, including instructor enthusiasm, compassion, organization, and
expertise. Specific methods for using these principles in higher education are explored, and
several important questions regarding the use of First Principles of Instruction are posed,
particularly related to the use of real-world problems in instruction. Suggestions for future
research and practice are also provided.
Keywords: teaching, higher education, instructional theory, first principles of instruction, instructional
principle, learning theory
Note: Names of schools and people in this article are pseudonyms.
Introduction
One current theory of instruction is Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction (Merrill, 2002, 2007,
2008), which proposes five foundational principles of instruction which, when used, are proposed
to increase student learning. Merrill states the following principles: (1) Task/Problem-Centered –
learning is increased when instruction is centered on real-world problems or tasks; (2) Activation
– learning increases when learners recall or demonstrate relevant prior learning and recall or are
given a way to organize what they will learn; (3) Demonstration – learning increases when
learners observe a demonstration in which a similar problem is solved and/or a similar task is
performed; (4) Application – learning increases when learners apply what they have learned by
solving real-world problems and/or performing real-world tasks; (5) Integration – learning
increases when students reflect on, discuss, debate, or give a presentation on what they have
learned (Merrill 2002; 2006). These principles can be converted into a cycle of instructional
activities, centered on real-world tasks and problems. See Figure 1.
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 4
Figure 1. Instruction can follow a cycle of instruction centered on real-world tasks
beginning with activation and continuing through integration.
There is some evidence that these principles increase learning. Thomson (2002) reported a study
in which an online Excel spreadsheet course using First Principles was compared with a
traditional online course teaching Excel. Basing the course on real-world tasks and using the four-
phase cycle of instruction caused a 30% student improvement in performance accuracy using
Excel, including a 41% improvement in the time taken to complete tasks (p.8). In a separate
study, Frick (2009) discovered a significant correlation between student satisfaction with a course
and the reported use of First Principles of Instruction. There is also evidence that these principles
are supported by various instructional models and theories (Gardner, 2010; Merrill, 2002; Merrill,
Barclay, & van Schaak, 2008). In addition, there is some empirical support for the individual
principles (Merrill, 2006; Merrill, Barclay, & van Schaak, 2008). Additionally, several authors
have described successful instruction that uses First Principles (Collis and Margaryan 2005;
Mendenhall, et al., 2006; Gardner, et al. 2008). Growing empirical, theoretical, and anecdotal
support for First Principles of Instruction warrants further investigation and understanding of how
these principles operate in a live instructional setting.
Study Purpose
Principles are intentionally general and to be used effectively must be tailored to specific
contexts, problems and situations (Merrill, 2002; Keller, 2008). Because these principles are
written in a general form, it can be difficult to interpret and apply these principles to a real-world
setting, and guidance on how to implement these principles is needed (Merrill, 2007). Because
effective practice can contribute to and help build theory (http://www.aect.org/), it would be
beneficial to study how these principles are used successfully by expert teachers. To date there
have been no studies that report how award-winning instructors are using Merrill’s First
Principles of Instruction in higher education. Therefore, I studied four award-winning professors
in higher education with the goal of discovering methods of instruction that adhere to Merrill’s
First Principles of Instruction. The guiding question in the design of the study is, “How do
effective, award-winning instructors at a large western university use Merrill’s First Principles of
Instruction?”
Method
The study took place at a large western university. To ensure that I studied quality instruction, I
selected four professors who had been recognized in previous years as the teachers of the year for
the entire university. This recognition is very prestigious and is awarded to one of several
http://www.aect.org/
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 5
hundred instructors for outstanding teaching at the university. Awardees are experienced
instructors who were considered and selected based on the recommendations of their peers and
the feedback of past students. It was assumed, and later confirmed, that the instructors selected
for this study effectively apply some or all of Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction. Potential
participants were identified from an online list showing past award winners on the university
website. They were contacted twice via email and were asked to participate in the study. Of the
winners for the past ten years at university, six replied to my emails. And of the six that replied,
four agreed to participate in the study and were included as participants in this study.
The Researcher
An important aspect of my relationship to these instructors was my employment as an
instructional designer in the university’s center for teaching. In this role, I supported several
departments at the university in developing and managing course content in Blackboard Vista, the
university’s Course Management System. Because I worked directly with professors at the
university, I was particularly well-positioned to gather relevant knowledge for this study.
The purpose of this study was to find out how instructors use First Principles of Instruction in
higher education. To gain a rich understanding of the instructors’ teaching strategies, I followed
the advice of Glesne (1992) and gathered data from several sources: an interview with each
instructor (which was recorded and later transcribed), an observation of the instructor in a
teaching setting, and documents provided by the professor relating to their teaching philosophy
and strategy. These documents included course syllabi, student evaluation feedback data,
assignment descriptions, peer evaluations, and emails from students. These multiple sources
provided triangulation of data for this study.
Data were analyzed using thematic analysis (Glesne, 1992; Gall, Gall & Borg, 2007). I searched
for any reference in the sources that referred to the use of any of the five First Principles of
Instruction. In addition to themes directly related to First Principles, several other themes and
patterns emerged from the data. Appendix 1 demonstrates the codes and associated themes that
emerged during the study. All documents and transcripts were coded according to these themes
and were then analyzed and are described in the following section.
Results: Instructors’ Use of First Principles of Instruction
This section describes the findings of the data, which were analyzed using thematic analysis and
grouped into categories defined by First Principles and other themes that emerged during the
study. The instructors included in this study are described to provide context for who was studied.
Instructor use of Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction is described. Themes that emerged
during the analysis but were not specific to First Principles of Instruction are also described. The
findings are presented as a description of how the instructors used each principle in the courses.
The additional themes are then presented, including examples from each instructor.
Study Participants
Dr. Linda Kelley
Dr. Linda Kelley is a professor in the department of Family, Consumer, and Human
Development. She began her career as a kindergarten teacher and has earned graduate degrees in
child development. She has worked with small children throughout her career and chose to take a
position as a professor and director of a student-teaching preschool lab because her “three favorite
populations are parents, little children and college students.”
In student evaluations, students described Dr. Kelley as “very approachable and friendly,” and
“enthusiastic.” In the class I observed, she arranged the classroom in a circle and spent time
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 6
chatting and laughing with the students before and after the class. Students described the class as
“a comfortable conversation where we could discuss anything.” The nature of her relationship
with students appears to be comfortable and enjoyable to Dr. Kelley and to her students.
Dr. Bretton Wellington
Dr. Bretton Wellington is a professor of Marketing in the School of Business at the university.
He began his studies at San Jose State where he earned a bachelor’s degree in Marketing. After
earning an MBA from Santa Clara University and a Ph. D. in Marketing from Arizona State
University, he taught briefly in Arizona and afterward took a position at the university where he
has taught for nearly 17 years. Most of his research focuses on the market diffusion of renewable
energy and clean technologies. Dr. Wellington has a confident and an engaging personality, and
peers in the School of Business who had observed his teaching described him as “”terrific in
engaging students,” “very animated and energetic,” and “enthusiastic.” My observation of his
teaching style confirms this description, and I found myself drawn into his presentation through
his use of dynamic voice inflections and witty humor.
Suzan Harrison
Suzan Harrison is an instructor in the Department of Nutrition and Food Science at the university.
She was born and raised in the community surrounding the university and earned a bachelor’s and
a master’s degree from the program at the university. Before taking a position as professor, she
worked in many positions in the field of nutrition, including an outpatient dietician at the local
hospital, a dietary manager for patients in a nursing home, and even worked with diabetics and
clients with eating disorders. After working in a research position at the university, she
transitioned from researcher to professor and now manages and organizes all of the undergraduate
introductory nutrition courses at USU. Harrison is a pleasure to talk to and many of her students
describe her as “very professional,” “extremely knowledgeable,” and “fun to listen to.”
Dr. Pradeep Sumbramony
Dr. Pradeep Sumbramony is a professor in the Department of Economics in the School of
Business at the university. He began his education at Calcutta University where he earned a
bachelor’s degree in Economics. He later earned a PhD in Economics from Chicago University
and afterward came to the university as professor. He has taught at the university for over 33
years and has received many awards for excellence in teaching and mentorship. Students
described Dr. Sumbramony as “enthusiastic,” “very entertaining,” and that he showed “genuine
care for his students.” Dr. Sumbramony had compassion for his students and worked to provide
individual guidance and attention to each of his students. One student wrote, “I admire and
appreciate (his) effort and love for teaching me.”
Instructor Use of First Principles of Instruction
The instructors’ use of First Principles of Instruction is described below. Results are presented
according to the themes associated with each principle, and discussion of the findings follows the
presentation of the findings. It is worth noting that each instructor used all of the principles,
including the cycle of instruction. The only exception was that Dr. Kelley was not observed to use
the activation principle. Instructors’ use of these principles is described briefly below. A more
detailed list of how these principles were used is by each instructor can be found in Appendix 2.
Problem/Task-Centered
All instructors used some form of real-world problems or tasks in their class. For example, in a
child development class, Dr. Kelley directed students to plan out and executing lesson plans in
the university pre-school lab. In a marketing class, Dr. Wellington directed students to assume the
role of consultants for a real-world company and perform a marketing audit for that company.
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 7
And in a nutrition class, Harrison shared real-world, personal examples of the nutrition and
development phenomena that she was teaching in lectures and directed students to track and
apply nutrition principles to their own lives.
Activation
Most of the instructors also used Activation strategies. For example, when lecturing, Dr.
Wellington referred to and built on the knowledge that students had obtained in previous
prerequisite courses. In addition, when beginning a lecture, Harrison reviewed what was
discussed in the previous class prior to lecturing on new content. And at the beginning of the class
period, Dr. Sumbramony asked questions to the students regarding previously learned
fundamental principles of economics, slowly progressing to questions about more abstract,
complex principles, and finally moved into the content of the current class.
Demonstration
The instructors also used the Demonstration principle in their courses. In Dr. Kelley’s child
development course, Students learned from other students by observing and evaluating them as
they planned out and executed lesson plans in the pre-school lab. In lectures, Dr. Wellington
provided his marketing students with many relevant examples from the popular media that
illustrate the marketing audit steps to be applied by the students. And Dr. Sumbramony used the
chalkboard to work through many examples of how to use a complex equation to solve
economics problems on the chalkboard.
Application
The application principle was also used by the instructors. For example, Dr. Kelley’s child
development students responded to real-world cases during a class discussion. Dr. Wellington’s
students performed a marketing audit over the course of a semester, including several specific
audit-specific activities. And Dr. Sumbramony’s students used a complex equation to solve
economic problems.
Integration
The Integration principle was also used. For example, after her students worked in a pre-school
lab, Dr. Kelley facilitated an in-class discussion with students on their experiences, encouraging
them to share insights with one another. Dr. Wellington described to students how the skills they
are developing will be useful in the future. And H arrison and Dr. Sumbramony constantly asked
their students “What does this mean to you?” and, “Why is this important?”
Cycle of Instruction
In addition to the principles described above, each instructor used a cycle of instruction in their
courses. For example, as student groups responded to real-world scenarios (Problem-centered
principle) provided by Dr. Kelley in class (Application principle), other students learned from
those sharing their responses (Demonstration principle). This was repeated by several groups on
several occasions. Dr. Kelley facilitated the discussion by asking questions and also provided
feedback and insights to each student group and to the rest of the class on how to improve
responses and expand their knowledge related to the scenario.
In another example, when teaching how to solve a difficult economics-related problem (Problem-
centered principle), Dr. Sumbramony first worked through the problem using a complex equation
on the chalkboard (Demonstration principle). He then presented another similar problem and had
students use the equation to solve a portion of the problem. He then gave them another problem to
solve on their own for outside of class (Application principle).
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 8
Additional Themes
In addition to the instructors’ use of Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction, several themes
emerged as I analyzed the data for this study. This section briefly describe each of these themes.
Enthusiasm
The first theme that emerged was enthusiasm. For example, Dr. Kelley describes herself as
enthusiastic about child development, and in course evaluations, students described Dr. Kelley as
“enthusiastic and very effective,” and that Dr. Kelley had “enthusiasm and love of the subjects we
studied.” Perhaps this is why one student wrote, “I always look forward to class.” I personally
found Dr. Kelley to be very engaging and enthusiastic as I interviewed her and observed her
class.
Dr. Wellington also exhibited enthusiasm as part of his teaching, and his peers describe him as
engaging, energetic and enthusiastic. My observation confirms the presence of enthusiasm in his
presentation and communication style, and I thoroughly enjoyed my interview with him. This
enthusiasm is related to what Dr. Wellington calls his “stage presence,” which he attributes to his
experience as an opera performer during his time as a student.
Dr. Sumbramony also had high levels of enthusiasm, and in my interview, I was impressed with
his ability to speak with energy and passion. Students also noted this energy, describing him as
“energetic,” “very passionate,” and that his “activity and enthusiasm are astounding.”
Knowledgeable
In addition to enthusiasm, students noted that an instructor’s knowledge and expertise were
important to effective instruction. For example, one student wrote that Dr. Kelley “had the
experience and examples to back up what she was teaching.” Others wrote that she “really knew
the subject matter” and was “well prepared” for class. This perceived knowledge of child
development gave her teaching credibility in the eyes of the students. This theme was also found
in Suzan Harrison, whose students described her as “very knowledgeable in the subject,” and that
she “really knows her stuff!”
Organization
Instructor organization was also noted as key to effective teaching. For example, Dr. Wellington
mentioned, “I like a lot of structure,” and his course syllabus reflects this structure and appears to
be very clear and easy to follow. Suzan Harrison also exhibited clear organization, and in our
interview, she acknowledged “I work very, very hard and diligently to make sure I’m organized.”
There are several components to this organization. Harrison’s students also appreciated her
organization, and wrote that they liked the “learning objectives,” and the “outlines.” One student
appreciated that, “She is consistent with the structure of the class.” Harrison’s syllabus is also
quite organized and provides students with clear structure to the course.
Humor
Humor was another theme that emerged in the study. For example, after observing Dr.
Wellington in class, one if his peers wrote “the group laughter which followed (Dr. Wellington’s
humorous comments) gave evidence of a very positive rapport between teacher and students.” Dr.
Sumbramony’s was also very humorous, and students wrote that they “loved the humor,” that
“his humor was excellent,” and that the class was “entertaining.” In the course I observed, Dr.
Sumbramony told many jokes and some of the students even made their own jokes during the
class. Reflecting on this, Dr. Sumbramony mentioned, “I create a relaxed, enjoyable atmosphere,
(even though) we are dealing with difficult, complex things.” This relaxed, enjoyable atmosphere
seems to facilitate student engagement in the class.
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 9
Compassion
Dr. Sumbramony took what he calls a “compassionate approach,” and his compassion for his
students was apparent. He provided them with individual one-on-onetime, even in courses that
have over 70 students. In these visits, he guided students through problems and assignments using
what he calls the Socratic method, asking questions that guided the students to solving problems
on their own. Students greatly appreciated this attention and were impressed with his love and
concern for their success. One wrote that “he take(s) an active stance in making sure each of us in
his class learned and understood the subject matter.” Another appreciated that he “was concerned
with each individual student and took time to help anyone who needed it.” Perhaps this is why
students wrote in their evaluations that “he has been my favorite teacher in the Econ department
by far” and that he “should definitely be the teacher of the year.” In every class, Dr. Sumbramony
sets appointments with students who are struggling and guides them through the content. He even
calls students at home if they have missed several classes. This compassion and personal interest
in each individual student certainly seems to increase student learning.
Challenging
Another theme that developed was an appreciation of a challenging course. For example,
Harrison …
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