Fluent Essays

Reading: Chapters 2, 3, 4,5, 6 (no 1) Question:  In your opinion, what were the three most important impacts of European exploration/exploitation/colonization on California’s indigenous peoples? Make sure you include an explanation of why you came up with your answers. Write three paragraphs with specific topics and exact details in your discussion. (250-350 words). (Remember, three paragraphs, one topic per paragraph). C A L I F O R N I A raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page i raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page ii C A L I F O R N I A An Interpretive History TENTH EDITION James J. Rawls Instructor of History Diablo Valley College Walton Bean Late Professor of History University of California, Berkeley TM raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page iii CALIFORNIA: AN INTERPRETIVE HISTORY, TENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2008, 2003, and 1998. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QFR/QFR 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN: 978-0-07-340696-1 MHID: 0-07-340696-1 Vice President & Editor-in-Chief: Michael Ryan Vice President EDP/Central Publishing Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Publisher: Christopher Freitag Sponsoring Editor: Matthew Busbridge Executive Marketing Manager: Pamela S. Cooper Editorial Coordinator: Nikki Weissman Project Manager: Erin Melloy Design Coordinator: Margarite Reynolds Cover Designer: Carole Lawson Cover Image: Albert Bierstadt, American (born in Germany), 1830–1902 Valley of the Yosemite, 1864 (detail) Oil on paperboard 30.16 × 48.89 cm (11 7/8 × 19 1/4 in.) Museum of Fine Arts, BostonGift of Martha C. Karolik for the M. and M. Karolik Collection of American Paintings, 1815–1865 47.1236 Buyer: Susan K. Culbertson Media Project Manager: Sridevi Palani Compositor: MPS Limited, a Macmillan Company Typeface: 10.5/12 Times Roman Printer: Quad/Graphics All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rawls, James J. California : an interpretive history / James J. Rawls, Walton Bean.—10th ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-340696-1 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-340696-1 (alk. paper) 1. California—History. I. Bean, Walton. II. Title. F861.R38 2011 979.4—dc22 2010040708 www.mhhe.com TM raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page iv v About the Authors JAMES J. RAWLS, an instructor of history at Diablo Valley College, received his B.A. in history from Stanford University. He was awarded an M.A. and Ph.D. in history from the University of California, Berkeley, completing his doctoral dissertation under the guidance of Walton Bean. Dr. Rawls also has taught as a visit- ing associate professor at the University of California, Berkeley. He serves as the Reviews Editor of California History, the journal of the California Historical Society. He is the author of Indians of California: The Changing Image, Chief Red Fox is Dead: A History of Native Americans since 1945, and California Dreaming; coauthor of Land of Liberty: A United States History, California: Adventures in Time and Space, and California Vistas: Our Golden State; editor of New Directions in California History: A Book of Readings and California History: Teaching with Primary Sources; and coeditor of A Golden State: Mining and Economic Develop- ment in Gold Rush California and California: A Place, A People, A Dream. His articles and reviews have appeared in such publications as Journal of American History, Pacific Historical Review, and American Indian Quarterly. The late WALTON BEAN was, for more than 35 years, a member of the University of California, Berkeley, faculty where he taught undergraduate courses in California history and graduate courses in California and twentieth-century United States history. His highly acclaimed book, Boss Ruef ’s San Francisco, won the Common- wealth Club of California’s gold medal and the annual prize of the Pacific Coast Branch of the American Historical Association. He received his A.B. and M.A. from the University of Southern California and was awarded his Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley. raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page v Crescent City Sacramento Napa San Francisco San Jose Monterey San Luis Obispo Palm Springs San Diego LAKE TAHOE N Santa Cruz Long Beach SISKIYOU MTS. Eureka MT. SHASTA Pit R iver Shasta LakeTrinity R. Kl am at h R. Eel River Sacram ento R . Fe at he r R . Yuba R. Amer ican R . Clear Lake Mok elum ne R . Berkeley Oakland HaywardSan Mateo Redwood City Palo Alto Stockton Modesto Merced Salinas Fresno Bishop Hanford St an isl au s R . Me rce d R . Mono Lake Kin g's R.San Joaquin R. Salinas R. Ke rn R . Riverside Delano Santa Maria Bakersfield Santa Barbara Ventura Barstow San Bernardino Anaheim Santa Ana San Clemente Oceanside La Jolla Needles Blythe El Centro MOJAVE DESERT D EATH VA LLEY Huntington Beach Pasadena Los Angeles Salton Sea C ol or ad o R iv er O W E N 'S V A LLE Y I M PERIAL VALLEY Ukiah Santa Rosa Redding MT. LASSEN Susanville Oroville Marysville Chico FORT ROSS S I E R R A N E V A D A Red Bluff San Rafael raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page vi vii Contents Preface xv PART ONE CALIFORNIA BEGINNINGS 1 Chapter 1 Geography and History 2 The Origins of California 2 Regional Diversity 5 The Climates of California 8 Chapter 2 The Original Californians 11 Food and Population 12 Aspects of Material Culture 14 Location, Linguistic Groups, Tribes 15 Social Culture 16 Chapter 3 European Exploration and Founding 22 The Finding and Naming of California 22 Cabrillo and Alta California 23 Francis Drake and Nova Albion 25 The Manila Galleon and the California Coast 27 Vizcaíno and Monterey 28 Spain’s Indian Policies 29 The Mission as a Frontier Institution 30 Gálvez and the Plan for Alta California 32 The Franciscans and Father Serra 33 The Sacred Expedition 35 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page vii viii Contents Chapter 4 Outposts of a Dying Empire 40 Bucareli, Anza, and the Founding of San Francisco 40 Neve and the Pueblos of San José and Los Angeles 42 Native Resistance 45 The Impact of the Missions 48 Attempts at Reinforcement 52 Exploration of the Central Valley 53 The Coming of the Russians 54 The Last Years under the Spanish Flag 55 Chapter 5 A Marginal Province of a Troubled Republic 58 Government and Politics in Theory and Practice 58 The Secularization Problem 60 From Echeandía to Figueroa 61 Figueroa and Secularization 63 Alvarado and Provincial Autonomy 65 The Heyday of the Rancheros 66 Chapter 6 American Infiltration 72 The Yankee Traders 72 The Beaver Trappers 74 Early Settlers 76 Covered Wagons, 1841 to 1846 79 PART TWO THE RUSH FOR RICHES 83 Chapter 7 The American Conquest 84 Overtures, Diplomatic and Undiplomatic 84 Plans of the Polk Administration 86 John Charles Frémont 87 The Bear Flag Revolt 90 The Mexican War and California 92 Chapter 8 The Gold Rush and Economic Development 98 Marshall’s Discovery at Sutter’s Mill 98 The Forty-Eighters 99 The Forty-Niners 102 The Diggings 106 Early Mining Methods 107 Mining Camp Law 108 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page viii Contents ix From an Adventure to a Profession 110 An Economic Multiplier 111 The Historical Significance of the Gold Rush 112 Chapter 9 A New State and Frontier Politics 117 Military Governments 117 The Constitutional Convention and Its Problems 118 The First Legislature 122 The Admission of California to the Union 123 The Feud between Broderick and Gwin 124 Movements for State Division 126 California and the Civil War 127 Chapter 10 Crime and Punishment 130 The Nature of Vigilantism 130 The Hounds in San Francisco 132 The San Francisco Committee of 1851 133 Statewide Vigilance 134 The San Francisco Committee of 1856 135 Chapter 11 Racial Oppression and Conflict 140 Treatment of Mexican Miners 140 Land-Title Troubles 141 The Act of 1851 and the Land Commission 144 Early Discrimination against the Chinese 145 The “Indian Question” 148 Episodes in Extermination 150 Decline and Exploitation 153 Blacks Enslaved and Free 154 Chapter 12 Culture and Anarchy 158 Newspapers and Literary Magazines 158 Writers of the Fifties 159 Bret Harte 162 Mark Twain 162 Joaquin Miller 164 Ina Coolbrith 164 Churches and Schools 165 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page ix x Contents PART THREE THE RAILROAD ERA 167 Chapter 13 Building the Central Pacific Railroad 168 Early Transportation 168 Judah and the Conception of the Central Pacific 169 Enter the Four “Associates” 170 Federal and State Support 172 Difficulties and the Death of Judah 174 Solving the Problems of Construction 175 Chapter 14 The “Terrible Seventies” 179 The Onset of Depression 179 Transportation Monopoly 180 Land Monopoly 184 The Comstock and Overspeculation 187 Chapter 15 Political Turmoil and a New Constitution 191 The Increase of Anti-Chinese Sentiment 191 The Workingmen’s Party of California 194 The Constitution of 1879 197 The Frustration of Reform 198 Chinese Exclusion and Segregation 199 Chapter 16 Economic Growth 201 The Wheat Bonanza 201 Wines 202 The Citrus Industry 203 The Rise of Southern California 206 Water and Land 208 Electric Railways and Urbanization 210 Chapter 17 Culture and Oligarchy 214 Henry George 214 Ambrose Bierce 215 Frank Norris 216 Jack London 218 Hubert Howe Bancroft 220 Lords of the Press 222 The Arts and Architecture 223 Schools, Colleges, and Universities 225 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page x Contents xi Chapter 18 Politics in the Era of Railroad Domination 230 The Colton Letters 231 The Huntington-Stanford Feud 232 Los Angeles Fights for a Free Harbor 232 The Funding Bill 233 The Southern Pacific Machine 234 William F. Herrin 236 Failure of Nineteenth-Century Reform Movements 237 PART FOUR MODERNIZATION AND ITS DISCONTENTS 239 Chapter 19 Labor and Capital 240 Backgrounds of the California Labor Movement 240 The Rise of Unions in San Francisco 241 The Triumph of the Open Shop in Los Angeles 244 Agricultural Labor: Unorganized and Disfranchised 246 The IWW 248 Chapter 20 The Roots of Reform 252 Boss Ruef and the Union Labor Party 252 The San Francisco Graft Prosecution 254 The Good Government Movement in Los Angeles 257 The Lincoln-Roosevelt League 258 Chapter 21 The Republican Progressives in Power 263 Regulation, Efficiency, and Finance 264 Political Reform 265 Woman Suffrage 266 Public Morals 269 The Progressives and Labor 270 The Anti-Japanese Movement 274 The Decline of Progressivism 277 Chapter 22 The Triumph of Conservatism 281 The Rise and Fall of the Socialist Movement 281 The Mooney Case 282 The Criminal Syndicalism Law 284 The Decline of Organized Labor 286 The Collapse of the Democratic Party 287 The Continuing Decline of Republican Progressivism 287 The Federal Plan for Reapportionment 289 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xi xii Contents Chapter 23 New Industries for Southern California 291 Origins of the Oil Industry 291 The Oil Boom of the Twenties 294 The Automobile Revolution 295 The Movies Discover California 297 The Rise of “The Industry” 298 Chapter 24 Controversies over Land and Water 303 The Yosemite and John Muir 303 The Hetch Hetchy Controversy 306 The Owens Valley–Los Angeles Aqueduct 307 The Boulder Canyon Project 309 The Colorado River Aqueduct 312 The Central Valley Project 314 The 160-Acre Limit 315 PART FIVE THE STATE AND THE NATION 317 Chapter 25 The Great Depression 318 “Sunny Jim” 318 Social Messiahs 320 Depression and Deportation 321 Labor Strife 322 Upton Sinclair and EPIC 325 From Merriam to Olson 328 Chapter 26 Cultural Trends 331 Robinson Jeffers 331 John Steinbeck 332 William Saroyan and Other Writers 335 William Randolph Hearst and Other Journalists 336 The Arts 337 Architecture 339 Chapter 27 Wartime Growth and Problems 343 The Impact of Federal Spending 343 Wartime Shipyards 345 “Americans All” 345 The Rise of the Aircraft Industry 348 The Relocation of Japanese Americans 350 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xii Contents xiii Chapter 28 Politics California Style 357 Nonpartisanship Favors the Republicans 357 Filling the Void 358 The Governorship of Earl Warren 361 The Spurious Issue of “Loyalty” 362 The Governorship of Edmund G. Brown 366 Extremists, Right and Left 368 Chapter 29 Industrialized Agriculture and Disorganized Labor 372 Green Gold 372 The Empire of Agribusiness 373 “Farm Fascism” in the 1930s 374 The Rise and Fall of the Bracero Program 376 Unionization Breaks Through 378 Equal Protection of the Laws 381 Chapter 30 Diversity and Conflict 384 California Indians 384 Asians 388 African Americans 390 Latinos 395 Gender Matters 399 PART SIX THE CHALLENGE OF CALIFORNIA 403 Chapter 31 A Season of Discontent 404 The Growth Rate: Peak and Slowdown 404 Transportation 406 Reapportionment 407 Education 409 Campus Turmoil 410 The Hippie Movement 414 Black Radicalism 415 The Decline of Radicalism 416 Chapter 32 Culture and Identity 418 Literature 418 Painting and Sculpture 424 Architecture 428 Music 430 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xiii xiv Contents Chapter 33 Recent California Politics 435 The Conservative Revival 435 The Era of Limits and Beyond 438 The Politics of Resentment 441 The Perils of Moderation 444 The Politics of Personality 449 Chapter 34 The Environment and Energy 460 Regional Protection 460 Biodiversity 464 Growth Control 465 Air Pollution and Global Warming 466 Water Resources 470 Toxic Wastes 473 Renewable Energy 474 Nuclear Power 477 Petroleum Dependency 478 Chapter 35 The New California Economy 482 The Sunbelt Shift 482 The Pacific Rim 483 Post-Industrialism 486 High Technology 487 The Internet Revolution 489 The Arsenal of America 491 Tourism 493 Entertainment 495 Agriculture 496 Chapter 36 Contemporary California Society 500 Transportation 500 Housing 503 Education 506 Health Care 512 Criminal Justice 515 The New Californians 518 Index 527 raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xiv xv Preface California is more than just another state. It is also a dream, a fantasy, a state of mind. This California of our collective imagination draws its power from universal human needs. Founded on expectation and hope, it promises to fulfill our deepest longings for opportunity and success, sunshine and beauty, health and long life, freedom, and even a foretaste of the future. Two of the logical consequences of this dreamlike image of California have been growth and diversity. Throughout its history, the Golden State has attracted from across the country and around the world millions of newcomers pursuing the California dream. Today California is by far the most populous state in the union, home to about one out of every eight persons living in the United States. California is also the nation’s most ethnically diverse state. Ethnic minorities make up over half of the state’s burgeoning population of more than 38 million; in other words, every Californian now is a member of one minority group or another. For many Californians, the dream of a better life has been realized. California is the nation’s wealthiest state, ranking first in industrial and agricultural production. It leads in high technology and is home to the nation’s entertainment industry. If California were a separate country, it would rank eighth among the nations of the world in gross domestic product. Other Californians have found the dream denied. Running through the state’s history is a bitter strain of conflict. On its way to greatness, California has been bur- dened by a legacy of racism and nativism, episodes of discrimination and exclusion, a sometimes violent struggle between labor and capital, and an intense contest over the state’s land and water resources. In recent years, problems such as pollution, in- come inequality, and a deteriorating infrastructure have caused deep concern among many Californians. This concern has been compounded by a widespread distrust of government. As frustration deepened in the early twenty-first century, thoughtful observers questioned whether the state would be able to meet the ongoing chal- lenges of growth and diversity generated by the California dream. raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xv xvi Preface First published 45 years ago, California: An Interpretive History has become the standard in the field. The tenth edition retains all the strengths of the earlier editions. It provides a comprehensive survey of the state’s cultural and social affairs, along with an account of its political and economic history; it appraises the state’s virtues and accomplishments, as well as its faults and failures. Original interpretations are offered of California’s most controversial and persistent problems. To guide the reader through the interpretive narrative, the text is divided into six sections, each of which begins with an overview of the chapters ahead. This divi- sion provides a sense of interpretive cohesion, giving the reader a broad perspective on the various eras of state history. Likewise, each chapter opens with a brief intro- ductory section, previewing the material to be covered. The preparation of the tenth edition has been guided by the assumption that the main body of the text remains sound. Thus, as in previous editions, the earlier chap- ters have not been changed significantly in either content or sequence. New schol- arship in the field has been included wherever relevant; and minor changes have been made to smooth the narrative and define unfamiliar terms. Throughout the text, greater attention has been paid to the diversity of California’s population—in matters of race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. Most particularly, new “voices” from the historical record have been added to enliven the prose and allow the reader to identify more readily with the events being described. New illustra- tions have been added, and the selected bibliographies at the end of each chapter have been updated. The last of the six units, “The Challenge of California,” has been substantially revised to reflect the most recent developments in the state’s dynamic political, eco- nomic, cultural and social history. The political narrative encompasses the second term of the Schwarzenegger administration and the advent of new leadership in the election of 2010. Additional interpretive material focuses on a wide range of topics—the collapse of the housing bubble and subsequent mortgage meltdown, the ongoing structural deficit in state finances, the debate over health-care reform, racial disparities in public education, protests against increased fees in higher education, the reform of state water policy, the renewed search for alternative fuels, and the passage of landmark global-warming legislation. Also now available for students and instructors is an expanded and updated Website, www.mhhe.com/rawls10e. The site includes student quizzes and exercises. Instructors may download from the site dozens of historic photos, paintings, broadsides, and other documents from the collections of the California Historical Society. These images are password protected; instructors may use the downloaded images to create PowerPoint classroom presentations. The site also includes an Instructor’s Manual with objective and essay questions for each chapter as well as suggested lecture topics and audio- visual resources. I have benefited from the advice and assistance of many individuals in the prep- aration of this book. My greatest debt is to Eugene C. Lee, former Director of the Institute of Governmental Studies at the University of California, Berkeley, who generously read and commented on the new material in the latter chapters of this edition. Likewise, for many kindnesses, I am indebted to Professor Charles raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xvi Preface xvii Faulhaber, the Director of the Bancroft Library at UC Berkeley, and to David Crosson, the Executive Director of the California Historical Society in San Francisco. I also acknowledge the assistance of the late Ted K. Bradshaw, James D. Hart and James J. Parsons, all of the University of California, Berkeley. Special thanks to my father, Jabus W. Rawls, who provided valuable technical support, and to the Honor- able Allen G. Minker for his helpful suggestions on recent California politics. Others who have contributed to the book’s improvement are Ricardo Almeraz, Allan Hancock College; Art R. Aurano, Antelope Valley College; Gordon Morris Bakken, California State University, Fullerton; Jacqueline R. Braitman, University of California, Los Angeles; Gregg M. Campbell, California State University, Sacramento; Stephen Cole, Notre Dame de Namur University; Vanessa Crispin- Peralta, Westmont College; Kathryn Wiler Dabelow, Pasadena City College; Raymond F. Dasmann, University of California, Santa Cruz; David Eakins, San Jose State University; Robert L. Fricke, West Valley College; Joel Goldman, San Francisco State University; Gerald Haslam, California State University, Sonoma; Deanna Heikkinen, Lake Tahoe Community College; Robert V. Hine, University of California, Riverside; James D. Houston, University of California, Santa Cruz; Linda Ivey, California State University - East Bay; Kenneth Kennedy, College of San Mateo; William King, Mt. San Antonio College; Dan Krieger, California Poly- technic State University, San Luis Obispo; Gary F. Kurutz, California State Library; Anne Lindsay, California State University at San Bernardino; Ward M. McAfee, California State University, San Bernardino; Delores Nason McBroome, Humboldt State University; Shirley Ann Wilson Moore, California State University, Sacramento; Spencer C. Olin, Jr., University of California, Irvine; Donald H. Pflueger, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona; Robert Phelps, California State University - East Bay; Brian Plummer, Azusa Pacific University; Narges Rabii, Santiago Canyon College; Margaret E. Riley, Las Positas College; Allan Schoenherr, Fullerton College; Mark Sigmon, San Francisco State University; Ray Stafanson, Chabot College; James Steidel, Cañada College; Mark S. Still, College of San Mateo; Gregory H. Tilles, Diablo Valley College; Bonnie N. Trask, Fresno City College; Jules Tygiel, San Francisco State University; Mary Jo Wainwright, Imperial Valley College; James C. Williams, California History Center, DeAnza College; Jerry Williams, California State University, Chico; and Charles Wollenberg, Vista College. My students at Diablo Valley College have continued to share with me their enthusiasm for California history, and to them I am especially grateful. James J. Rawls raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xvii For Linda raw06961_fm_i-xviii.qxd 12/24/10 7:59 AM Page xviii 11 G rowth and diversity have been at the heart of California since its earliest beginnings. Through eons of geologic time, the land itself grew as disparate bits of migrating terrain attaching themselves to the continent’s western edge. By the time of human settlement, the present boundaries of California encompassed North America’s greatest variety of landforms and climate zones. The land was teeming with a vast array of flora and fauna. Likewise, the first people to inhabit California were nothing if not diverse. Few places in the world supported a greater variety of cultures. Native Californians spoke dozens of languages; they thrived and flourished in each of the state’s varied ecolog- ical niches, successfully adapting to and inevitably transforming their surroundings. Long before European contact, California was one of the most densely populated regions in North America. The arrival of European empire-builders in the late 1700s added to the diversity of California. Spaniards began the process of colonization, intent on controlling and transforming the native people. Efforts at enforced acculturation—most especially in the Spanish missions—led to bitter conflicts and left an enduring legacy. The Spanish- speaking settlers themselves were a diverse lot, including people of mixed European, Indian, and African ancestry. With the achievement of Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, California also became home to a substantial minority of English- speaking settlers from a restless and ambitious nation to the east. PART ONE California Beginnings California Indians under guard at the Spanish presidio in San Francisco, 1816. (Courtesy of the California Historical Society, Templeton Crocker Collection, FN-25092.) raw06961_ch01_001-010.qxd 12/24/10 7:26 AM Page 1 2 C H A P T E R 1 Geography and History California is a notoriously extraordinary place. Its natural charms are of mythic proportions—the grandeur of Yosemite, the dark mystery of the redwoods, the incomparable coastline, the sun-drenched skies. These qualities have contributed mightily to the dreamlike image of California that resides in our collective imagi- nation. Yet these natural qualities—and many more—also have played an important role in the historical development of California. The Origins of California The earliest attempts to account for the origination of California were made by the first peoples to live in the area. The Indians of California developed a wide variety of creation stories, each with its own unique features and cast of characters. Widely differing versions of creation flourished even within individual communi- ties. The native people recognized the unlikelihood of agreement on matters of such importance: “This is how we tell it; they tell it differently.” Earth scientists today use the theory of plate tectonics to explain the origins of California. Tectonics is the study of forces deep within the earth that give shape to surface features such as mountains and ocean basins. The earth’s crust and upper mantle consist of about 20 enormous plates that lurch and grind against one another, moving at the rate of a few inches a year. (Why the plates are moving is one of the least understood and most debated parts of the theory.) The largest of the plates is the Pacific Plate, underlying about two-thirds of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Plate’s collision with the North American Plate is at the heart of the plate tectonics theory of the creation of California. “For an extremely large percentage of the history of the world, there was no California,” writes John McPhee, author of Assembling California (1993). Accord- ing to McPhee, the western edge of the North American continent once was far inland, C H A P T E R 1 raw06961_ch01_001-010.qxd 12/24/10 7:26 AM Page 2 CHAPTER 1 Geography and History 3 about where the Rocky Mountains are today. California began to emerge as the eastern- most part of the state rose out of the primordial sea, carrying upward ancient ocean-floor sediments. Then, over millions of years, other parts of California began to assemble, a piece at a time. Fragments of the earth’s crust arrived individually and in massive conglomerates, docking, or joining, themselves to the continent. The main event was the collision of the eastward-moving Pacific Plate and the westward-moving North American Plate. As the plates collided, the Pacific Plate subducted, or descended, beneath the continent’s edge. The leading edge of the Pa- cific Plate plunged deep into the earth and began to melt. The resultant molten rock eventually cooled to form the granite core of the Sierra Nevada mountains. Erosion later removed the surface rock, uncovering the granite below. With the weight of the overburden removed, the mountains became uplifted along faults, or deep cracks. In the enormous heat generated by subduction, metal-rich compounds dissolved into solutions and were injected into the fissures of the rocks being formed above. Dif- ferent combinations of minerals at different levels precipitated to form deposits of copper, lead, tungsten, silver, and gold. Subsequent dockings of Pacific Plate material doubled the width of California. Geologists have identified rocks in this material that came from the entire Pacific basin, encompassing origins stretching over half the surface of the earth. Thus, em- bedded in the physical structure of California was a powerful metaphor for the later cultural and ethnic diversity of what became the Golden State. As the Sierra Nevada rose in the interior, the western edge of the continental plate nosed out along the ocean floor. Sedimentary rocks and ocean-crust material were churned up and piled in great confusion along the continent’s edge, forming a low-lying range of mountains along the California coast. Between the newly formed Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada lay a deep trough that slowly filled with volcanic debris and sediments eroded from the surrounding mountains. After more than 100 million years of accumulated fill, this intermontane trough …