writing - Management
4. Findings and discussions (Name(s) and student ID(s)) Between 500 - 600 words
4.1 Findings of paper 1 (Tell us about the key findings of paper 1 - write in your own wording).
4.2 Findings of paper 2 (Tell us about the key findings of paper 1 - write in your own wording).
4.3 Findings of paper 3 (Tell us about the key findings of paper 1 - write in your own wording).
4.4 Summary of the section
The Role of Social Media in Strategic Communication and Crisis Management
Ian Gillespie
Sara Isabel Lee
Brigham Young University
March 21, 2013
Abstract
The course of traditional communications in the world has been shifted by the
development of new media technology. Numerous studies have shown that the usage of social
media generates benefits, especially in the business corporation/company realm. Therefore, the
integration of social media becomes pivotal in the process of communication in business world.
This study analyzes the context of social media in strategic communication and crisis
management. By utilizing interview as the main method, researchers found that the incorporation
social media becomes prevalent because social media fundamentally influences the
implementation of strategic communication, crisis management, and brand awareness.
Keywords: Social media; strategic communication; crisis management; interview; brand
awareness; customers; company
The Role of Social Media 2
In 20
th
century society, public and private sectors managed to carefully structure the
assimilation and dissemination of information in traditional media (Donohue, Tichenor, & Olien,
1973). However, with the emergence of the internet in present-day society, there has been a shift
in controlling the process of assimilation and dissemination of information. This shift is affecting
the course of traditional communication, as Shirky (2008) asserted:
When we change the way we communicate, we change society. The tools that a society
uses to create and maintain itself are as central to human life as a hive is to bee life. The
hive is a social device, a piece of bee information technology that provides a platform,
literally, for the communication and coordination that keeps the colony viable.
[Moreover, these] tools are simply a way of channeling existing motivation. (p.17)
The course of communications in the world has changed by the development of social media.
Social media and other new media have become a remarkable phenomenon in this era
and have triggered a social, cultural, economic, and political transformation. Within “the
twinkling of an eye” people can directly know what is happening in Jakarta, Tokyo, Stockholm,
and other parts of the world because of this new media. Individuals around the world can be
connected via platforms such as Facebook, Pinterest, Twitter, and Google+. Even research in the
social sciences has a difficult time keeping pace with the advancements in communications
technology. “The rapid development of audience studies produced important insights into the
social uses of media and emphasized the active interpretation of meanings in mainstream media
texts” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011, p.23). This power of “mediascape” (Appadurai, 1996) makes
The Role of Social Media 3
McLuhan’s (1964) “Global Village” more realistic than ever.
Literature Review
Since its emergence a few years ago, numerous financial success stories can be told and
attributed to the intelligent use of social media. On the other hand, tales of social media being
used to generate dissonance between parties can also be seen in the news and individual
narratives. When organizations are affected in cases such as these, strategic communication
becomes pivotal in managing the fallout.
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to analyze and explain how crisis management – a
division of strategic communications – is being implemented by professionals to counter or
diminish the effects of negative social media postings and other detrimental news. Furthermore,
this study will contribute to the new dimensions of how social media interplays with strategic
communication and crisis management.
Social Media
Social media are part of emerging new media. Lindlof & Taylor (2011) defined new
media as “computer mediated communication,” which includes information and communication
technology (ICT) and digital interactive multimedia technology. According to Auxier (2012),
“Social media refers to the countless mobile and Internet based applications and platforms that
encourage users to share, disseminate, and create information in a social and virtual
environment” (p.1). In addition, Ahlqvist, et al. (2008) described social media as a mean of
interaction where people can create, share, and exchange information and ideas in virtual
communities and networks.
Currently some of the more popular social media platforms include Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, LinkedIn, YouTube, Tumblr, Google +, Blogger, Wordpress, etc. These Web sites
The Role of Social Media 4
have various features that allow user to make connections with friends, share information
through pictures and videos, customize blogs for journalistic purpose, etc. In short, social media
allows people to reach a wide audience through various platforms for just about any purpose. In
the business realm, numerous organizations approach and utilize social media as part of their
strategic communication.
Strategic Communication
Strategic communications has played a broad role in various disciplines. Guerrero Castro
(2012) explained that strategic communication is a theory of strategy and its implementation. He
also elaborates that strategic communication is “a mixture of diverse activities, each of which has
to a higher or lower degree structured its procedure of analysis, evaluation and control”; whereas
the strategy becomes “the science of conceiving, activating, deciding, planning, executing, using,
and guiding the media at a particular time, place and space, to achieve and to maintain the set
goals in a particular scenario” (par. 12).
Moreover, Hallahan et al. (2007) classify six specialties within strategic communications:
Management communication, marketing communication, public relations, technical
communication, political communication, and information/social marketing campaigns. Hallahan
et al. also define strategic communications as specific communication activities, “from
coordinating administrative functions to production promotion and relationship building” (p. 4),
implemented in order to fulfill a particular mission of an organization. Strategic communications
has also been used by individuals in order to achieve their goals because “only with strategy we
can communicate strategically” (Guerrero Castro, 2012).
Hallahan et al. (2007) also described how certain organizations will utilize a particular
tactic based on the desired transformation in the organization, which can integrate its synergy,
The Role of Social Media 5
effectiveness, and efficiency. In addition, strategic communication can harmonize themes, ideas,
images, and actions. Dimitriu (2012) explained that strategic communications are not only
simple messages; they are comprised of dialogues and approach, relationship building, and
becoming attuned to social and cultural sensitivities. Furthermore, Lindlof & Taylor (2011)
mentioned that strategic communication is a subfield of organizational communication which
studies the corporate life “through discursive processes such as conflict, teamwork, and
leadership” (p.28). As mentioned above, the interaction of crisis management and social media is
a specific focus of this paper.
Crisis Management
Crisis management as a subset of strategic communication is defined as “the process by
which an organization deals with a major event that threatens to harm the organization, its
stakeholders, or the general public” (ASIS International, 2009). Crisis management uses tactics
and strategies to assess and defend against potential threats (known as environmental scanning),
then analyze and respond to emergencies. Environmental scanning can include watching social
or political trends that may affect business, or attempting to maintain and negotiate certain
systems that may cause dissonance. Practitioners can then attempt to eliminate the risks of
incident or failure. In this case, it is important to identify the type of crisis in order to manage
and implement the right strategy.
Lerbinger (1997) categorized eight types of crises: Natural disasters, technological crises,
confrontations, malevolence, organizational misdeeds, workplace violence, rumors, and man-
made disasters. Nowadays, since public communication is driven by new media technology,
these types of crises can overlap within the realm of social media. For instance, misdeeds of
employees or an organization can lead to sour public sentiment, which is expressed on the
The Role of Social Media 6
internet through various social media outlets. The misbehaviors spread through online networks
rapidly and may be picked up by news outlets. Suddenly the situation has gone “viral”, and the
company has a crisis with the potential to destroy carefully cultivated relationships with key
publics. In more recent cases – some of which will be discussed below – social media
accelerated the transfer of information (accurate or not) faster than ever before.
While it is true that organizational crises can be exacerbated or even caused by the social
media revolution, this technology is also a powerful tool to increase an organizations’
effectiveness. Social media “includes blogs, social networking environments, person-to-person
and broadcast messaging, and other Web 2.0 applications… Social media use has significant
implications for emergency management practice and policy” (Palen, 2008, p.76). Palen’s
investigation of recent disasters such as the Virginia Tech shootings and the 2007 Southern
California wildfires demonstrated “the use of online social media as an emergent, significant,
and often accurate form of public participation and backchannel communication” (p.76). On the
other hand, Freberg (2012) asserted that “contemporary public relations practice, and crisis
communications in particular, is being challenged by the emergence of social media” (p. 416).
Basically, social media is built upon a “network sociality” (Miller, 2008), which is the
instrument of social bonding. The mutual symbiosis of public society is communicated through
the exchange of data information in this digital technology. This plethora of information consists
of numerous channels which allow reciprocal interaction between one person to many or many-
to-many. Therefore, Freberg (2012) stressed the need to provide reliable information in social
media especially during crisis.
Viral messages conveyed via social media could be an advantage or disadvantage to
crisis professionals because information can contain all kinds of “noise”. Depending on the
The Role of Social Media 7
background of audience members, information can also be perceived differently by individuals.
Goolsby (2010) elaborated that “a new kind of quickly formulated, powerful community has
formed as existing social media communities, news organizations, and users have converged in
social media spaces to respond to sudden tragedies” (p.7). The responses of social media
communities eventually can become a clamor that will create dissonance for other parties.
Moreover, crises predominantly arise because technology has changed the rules of mass media
broadcasting.
Goolsby (2010) also asserted that social media has become a crisis platform. Chaotic
communication can be derived from social media because social media is not only about
technology transformation, but also social behavior transformation that can be analyzed through
several cases. Three cases are described below.
Chick-fil-A Public Relations Crisis of 2012
During an interview with The Baptist Press in July of 2012, Chick-fil-A’s president and
chief operating officer Dan Cathy was asked if his position was indeed anti-gay marriage. His
response: “Well, guilty as charged” (Blume, 2012). He reiterated the position a short while later
on “The Ken Coleman Show” when he said that attempting to redefine marriage would invite
“God's judgment on our nation when we shake our fist at Him and say, ‘We know better than
you as to what constitutes a marriage’” (Collier, 2012).
A media frenzy ensued, with celebrities such as Miley Cyrus, Lindsay Lohan, Jane
Lynch, and the Kardashian sisters calling for a boycott of Chick-fil-A (“Actor Ed Helms”, 2012).
Ed Helms from The Office posted on his Twitter account, “Chick-Fil-A doesn’t like gay people?
So lame. Hate to think what they do to the gay chickens! Lost a loyal fan” (Laird, 2012). The
mayor of Washington, D.C. accused the company of selling “hate chicken” (Roberts, 2012).
The Role of Social Media 8
Social media networks were abuzz and divided over the company’s declaration (Lynch, 2012).
Both protests and support continued and a national “Chick-fil-A Kiss Day” for homosexuals was
organized using social media and held on August 3, 2012 (Palmer, 2012). On the other hand, a
Chick-fil-A Appreciation Day was likewise held by supporters across the U.S. (Roberts, 2012).
A later press release claimed that Chick-fil-A had “ceased donating to organizations that
promote discrimination, specifically against LGBT civil rights” (“Chick-fil-A agrees”, 2012).
Days later, however, Cathy posted a comment on Mike Huckabee’s web site denying the claim,
saying, “We remain true to who we are and who we have been” (Ibid). A second press release
was issued days later stating that the company’s charitable donations – which equaled more than
$68 million from 2010-2012 – were based on education, family, youth and service, “not support
political or social agendas” (“Chick-fil-A giving”, 2013).
Chick-fil-A officials attempted to quell the controversy along the way by reaching out to
gay community activists, but without recanting Cathy’s statements. This was done by framing
the statements to explain that pro-traditional marriage did not equate to bigotry. For example,
Cathy posted a video on the company’s Facebook page saying that their position was to “treat
every person with honor, dignity and respect – regardless of their belief, race, creed, sexual
orientation or gender.” He then went on to say, “Going forward, our intent is to leave the policy
debate over same-sex marriage to the government and political arena” (Laird, July 19, 2012).
Within a matter of hours the post received over 47,000 Likes and 10,000 comments (ibid).
Another attempt at taming the backlash happened in August when Shane Windmeyer,
leader of the college lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) group Campus Pride met
with Cathy. Soon after Campus Pride blogged that it would stop its “5 Simple Facts about Chick-
fil-A” campaign (“Campus Pride suspends”, 2012).
The Role of Social Media 9
Eventually the company’s tactics worked and Chick-fil-A dropped out of the controversy.
Remarkably, its sales had increased by 12% in 2012 (Roberts, 2012). Windmeyer wrote a
Huffington Post article that went viral concerning his new friendship with Dan Cathy (2013).
While much of the news was relayed by professional reporters via television, newspaper, and
internet channels, a significant portion of these newscasts and their information were carried on a
tidal wave of Tweets, Facebook posts, and other social media outlets.
Taco Bell's "seasoned beef" meat filling lawsuit (2011)
In January 2011 a lawsuit was filed accusing Taco Bell of false advertising. Amanda
Obney, a California resident, claimed that the restaurant’s “seasoned beef” contained just 35%
meat, with the remaining 65% containing fillers such as “water, wheat oats, soy lecithin,
maltodrextrin, anti-dusting agent and modified corn starch” (“Taco Bell sued,” 2011). This
meant that, legally, the product could not be called “meat” (ibid).
In response Taco Bell launched a huge PR campaign. It used both newspaper ads and
social media sites such as YouTube and Facebook (Bhasin, 2011), where the company’s
president, Greg Creed, flatly denied the allegations, saying that the seasoned beef was 88% real
meat and 12% flavoring. A complete list of ingredients for the seasoned beef was released.
WaveMetrix, a company that tracks social media posts to determine trending patterns and
outcomes, surveyed YouTube and Facebook consumers about their reactions to Taco Bell’s
online messages. Results showed that 91% of Facebook and 89% of YouTube respondents
reacted positively (Pilkington, 2011, February 7). Social media sites discussing the lawsuit often
described it as “ridiculous”, while many others praised Taco Bell’s strategy for handling the
ordeal (ibid). The lawsuit was dropped just three months after it began (“Lawsuit dropped”,
2011).
The Role of Social Media 10
Taco Bell’s handling of the situation is praiseworthy. Its public relations message was a
mix of commiserative and defensive (Swann, 2008), and its use of traditional and social media
outlets saturated key publics with their reply. Proper concern for the situation was shown: Key
publics and the press were immediately and consistently contacted to reassure and assert Taco
Bell’s side of the story. Their defensive strategy involved denial of the allegations, but they were
careful to publicly attack the allegations and not Obney. Likewise, there was not countersuit for
libel or slander damages, even though one may have been justified. Although a strategy of attack
may have been justified, Taco Bell’s executives apparently realized the strength of their situation
and chose to limit reprisals. Instead they allowed users of social media to reach and share their
own conclusions, which likely strengthened the company’s position.
KV Pharmaceuticals
In 2011 KV Pharmaceutical received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for Makena, a drug developed to prevent premature birth in mothers who
have a high risk of such incidents. Generic versions of the drug had been available for years
through pharmaceutical compounding (combining multiple drugs, usually done by pharmacies)
at about ten to twenty dollars per dose; KV initially proposed $1500 per dose (Maugh II, 2011).
Under the Orphan Drug Act, FDA approval forced a removal of virtually all of these generic
drugs, giving KV a monopoly in order to reclaim development costs. Accordingly, KV sent
letters to pharmacies that they needed to stop making the compound available (Grogan, 2011).
Unsurprisingly, the high cost outraged consumers and healthcare professionals alike
(American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2011, March 14). Social media forums
buzzed with negative thoughts about both the drug and KV Pharmaceutical, with some calling
for a boycott of all KV’s products (Pilkington, 2011, April 4). A Facebook campaign titled
The Role of Social Media 11
“Shame on you, KV Pharmaceutical and CEO Greg Divis” was started
(https://www.facebook.com/pages/ Shame-on-you-KV-Pharmaceutical-and-CEO-Greg-
Divis/205462536133171). In response KV publicized that it would halve the price to $690 per
injection and offer further rebates to reduce the price. Using a variety of means, the company
asserted that “85% of patients will pay $20 or less” (Grogan, 2011).
Nevertheless, a short time later the FDA stepped in, stating that because KV
Pharmaceutical “received considerable assistance from the federal government with the
development of Makena”, the FDA would not be enforcing the monopoly in this instance
(Grogan, 2011).
Even though the price was eventually reduced, key publics remained discontented. The
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) issued a news release calling
the price cut “a woefully inadequate response” and an acknowledgment of “the negative impact
of their original pricing strategy” (2011, April 1). In this case, KV Pharmaceutical’s strategy was
not just blind to social or health care impacts. It was blind to the ability of its key publics to use
social media to inform and unite each other against perceived injustices and the companies or
individuals that perform the alleged misdeeds.
Research Questions
Based on the significance that social media have come to play in organizational
relationships, our purpose is to explore in-depth the interplay of social media. Our abiding
research questions are:
RQ 1: How does crisis management alter or transfer public perception and behavior within time
and space?
RQ 2: What strategies should PR practitioners use to integrate social media with traditional
https://www.facebook.com/pages/%20Shame-on-you-KV-Pharmaceutical-and-CEO-Greg-Divis/205462536133171
https://www.facebook.com/pages/%20Shame-on-you-KV-Pharmaceutical-and-CEO-Greg-Divis/205462536133171
The Role of Social Media 12
strategic communications?
RQ 3: Is social media different enough to require its own version of strategic communication
planning?
Method
Introduction
This study is an exploratory investigation, meant to analyze the context and depth of social
media’s effects of strategic communication in general and crisis management in particular. Its
research questions are socio-organizational and fit within a critical paradigm philosophy: There
is no simple or absolute truth to discover; rather, the relationships of new media technologies and
changing key publics are being examined. Additionally, the research questions are well suited to
be addressed by an emic (insider) perspective. All of these characteristics are best suited to
qualitative research, which is essentially an interpretive endeavor that considers context an
essential factor in its investigations.
The Interviewing Method
The primary method of data collection for this study was informant interviews of
established professionals. Both individuals possessed years of experience in strategic planning.
As a method, the interview assumes that understanding and knowledge can be gained through
conversations, stories, context and body language. People – especially experts in the area of
study – can be a tremendous source of knowledge since they often experience and manage the
issues being explored on a regular basis. The method is flexible enough to allow for additional
questions or salient tangents, can be conducted virtually anywhere, and information gleaned can
be verified by comparing responses from different participants.
As with any research method, interviews have inherent limitations: The information is
The Role of Social Media 13
not generalizable because it cannot be reliably duplicated. Validity may be threatened by
researcher bias or poorly worded questions. Disjuncture may occur when there are
inconsistencies between what is said and what is observed by subjects, or inconsistencies
between two or more researcher observations.
Fortunately, measures can be taken to limit these weaknesses. In the case of this study,
the authors sought to control bias by triangulation – using multiple measures to validate
observations. These procedures included framing the study using research questions, having both
researchers participate in each interview by observing nonverbal cues and taking notes, and peer
review of coded data. As for instrument validity, the interview questions were carefully worded
to reflect this study’s research questions, and were then reviewed by the authors’ instructor.
Collection of Data
Collection of data for this study was derived from a purposive sample, which Wimmer &
Dominick (2011) described as a nonprobability sample “which includes respondents, subjects or
elements selected for specific characteristics or qualities…In other words, the sample is
deliberately selected non-randomly” (p.94). This sample method was chosen because researchers
have found this approach to be an excellent fit for the exploration of questions such as those in
this study. Thus, we selected two interview participants whose expertise and background are
mainly correlated with our research in social media, strategic communication, and crisis
management.
Interviews were conversational and based on the structured questions. This approach
allowed the researchers to have opportunity to build rapport and to follow up with probing
questions. McNamara (2009) explained that this approach “allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting information from the interviewee” (as cited in Turner, 2010, p.755).
The Role of Social Media 14
All necessary instruments for the interview sessions were prepared beforehand. The
interviews began by briefing the subjects and having them read and sign confidentiality and
privacy forms. Both interviews were recorded digitally, with one interviewer asking most of the
questions while the other observed body language. The entire process took about 40 minutes for
participant one and 35 minutes for participant two. At the end of the interviews, researchers
granted the opportunity for respondents to provide any additional information.
Analysis of Data
The recordings of both interviews were transcribed by the researchers and entered into
NVivo 9, a software program designed for qualitative research. Data was then organized into
major patterns and themes with a constant comparative analysis, and the results were discussed
and interpreted. In general, constant comparative analysis is utilized for grounded theory analysis
which constitutes open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. However, there were two
kinds of coding in this analysis: Open coding and NVivo coding. These two codings were
compared in order to determine and “define each category’s properties with greater precision”
(Lindlof & Taylor, 2011, p. 251).
In sum, this analysis provided guidelines for viewing how categories differentiate and
interrelate with each other. Fram (2013) noted:
The Constant Comparative Analysis method is an iterative and inductive process of
reducing the data through constant recoding (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Incidents or data
are compared to other incidents or data during the process of coding. This process
begins with open coding to develop categories from the first round of data reduction
and further reducing and recoding allows possible core categories to emerge. (p.3)
Furthermore, on this analysis, Strauss & Corbin (1990) developed a structured coding process
The Role of Social Media 15
with axial coding step for constant comparative analysis method. Axial coding develops
connections between categories in specific ways. Strauss & Corbin explained that “the process of
integrating categories or axial coding is the interactional strategies [of context] which it is
handled, managed, carried out, and [diminished] the consequences of those strategies” (as cited
in Lindlof & Taylor, 2011, p.252).
Interview Protocols
The interviews were conducted based on a structured and detailed protocol. Questions
were as follows:
1. How have social media changed the field of PR or strategic communication?
2. What strategies should PR practitioners use to …
Procedia Economics and Finance 35 ( 2016 ) 650 – 658
2212-5671 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-reviewed under responsibility of Universiti Tenaga Nasional
doi: 10.1016/S2212-5671(16)00080-0
ScienceDirect
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
7th International Economics & Business Management Conference, 5th & 6th October 2015
The Impact of Utilizing Social Media as a Communication Platform
During a Crisis Within The Oil Industry
Nor Emmy Shuhada Derania*, Prashalini Naidua
aCollege of Business and Accounting (COBA), UNITEN, Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Campus, Muadzam Shah 26700, Malaysia
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to gather arguments and counterarguments about the effective use of various types of social media that
an organization can use in crisis preparedness, response and recovery. This study focuses on various industries worldwide. British
Petroleum (BP) case study as well related industrial case studies is the main methodology of this study; and qualitative methods
was used as an approach for this study. Social media can be an effective tool in order to convey information and explain current
issues to the public. Various types of social media play different roles with one main purpose, which is to disseminate information
on an urgent basis and share it with a wide range of people. In a crisis, it is vital to plan a response and share information strategically
via social media in order to control the information and avoid a worsening crisis. This also aims to reduce any potential tarnishing
of the company’s image, something which can easily occur as a result of poor communication with the public. The key limitation
is that when secondary data such as an organisation’s website and documentation are accessed, there is a risk that it may not be
accurate or current. This study attempts to highlight the importance for industries practitioners to utilize social media as an effective
platform as part of organization’s crisis communication strategies.
© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-reviewed under responsibility of Universiti Tenaga Nasional.
Keywords: Social media; crisis; crisis communication; crisis management; BP case studies; oil and gas industry
1. Introduction
Portraying a positive image and maintaining a good reputation is arguably an important part of long term planning
in every organization. By managing a crisis effectively and efficiently, the positive perceptions of stakeholders and
the public are vital to an organization. An important strategy in managing a crisis is the use of various types of social
media in order to communicate with the public to convey current information about an issue or crisis in the fastest and
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +6-09-4552020; fax: 09-4552006.
E-mail address: [email protected]
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-reviewed under responsibility of Universiti Tenaga Nasional
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/S2212-5671(16)00080-0&domain=pdf
651 Nor Emmy Shuhada Derani and Prashalini Naidu / Procedia Economics and Finance 35 ( 2016 ) 650 – 658
easiest way while building and maintaining the trust of and relationships with the stakeholders.
Nowadays, in crisis situations, technological advances are transforming and disseminating information to the
affected communities in the fastest and easiest ways (Veil, Buehner & Palenchar, 2011). These methods include micro
blogging, blogs, social networking sites (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, YouTube), video sharing, content-
driven communities as well as professional networks (Walaski, 2013). During a crisis, it is important for an
organization to communicate their response regarding the crisis with the organization’s stakeholders (Modeus,
Paulsson & Olsson, 2012). The effective and efficient communication of the crisis with the stakeholders will lessen
negative perceptions and threats to the organization’s reputation and image (Veil et al., 2011). The organization or
individual who will be crisis communicators should comprehend, construct and deliver messages to the directly or
indirectly affected stakeholders and crisis communicators and should also prepare to receive and respond to feedback
from these audiences (Zaremba, 2010).
A lack of research in identifying the importance of social media as the most effective medium during a crisis has
resulted in many companies deciding not to employ this crisis strategy (Goldfine, 2011). Therefore, this study will
examine the importance of social media as a communication platform during a crisis and how various forms of social
media play different roles in disseminating information to different audiences during a crisis. In effect, the paper will
attempt to justify how to control the use of social media during a crisis. Through this study, key concepts such as
crisis, crisis management, crisis communication and social media will be defined and explored with recent insight and
overviews from academic practices in order to clarify the importance of why an organisation should consider social
media as a crisis communication platform. Finally, this study demonstrates the best practice use of social media as a
platform in a risk and crisis situation.
1.1 Research Objectives
RO1: To identify the advantages and disadvantages of the use of social media as a communication platform during a
crisis for an organization.
RO2: To determine the impact on the organization’s reputation and image when utilizing social media as a platform
during a crisis.
RO3: To identify the most effective form of social media that organization could use in reaching the affected public
during a crisis.
1.2 Research Questions
RQ1: What is the advantage and disadvantage of using social media as a communication platform during a crisis for
an organization?
RQ2: What is the impact on the organization’s reputation and image when utilizing social media as a platform during
a crisis?
RQ3: What is the most effective form of social media that organization could use in reaching the affected public during
a crisis?
2. Literature review
2.1 Crisis
Bokhari (as cited by Eid & Fyfe, 2009) defined a crisis as “generally distinguished from routine situations by a
sense of urgency and a concern that the problem will become worse in the absence of action”. Crises inevitably
endanger the reputation of an organization and crisis communication then becomes the central focus of a corporation
(Barton, as cited by Muralidharan, Dillistone & Shin, 2011).
2.2 Crisis management
652 Nor Emmy Shuhada Derani and Prashalini Naidu / Procedia Economics and Finance 35 ( 2016 ) 650 – 658
Crisis management can be defined as the several ways an organization employs to prevent or reduce the impact
of the crisis (Coombs, 2012, p. 5). During a crisis, it is important for an organization to communicate their response
regarding the crisis with the organization’s stakeholders (Modeus et al., 2012).
2.3 Social media
Currie (as cited by Hysenlika, 2012) defined social media as “the various electronic tools, technologies, and
applications that facilitate interactive communication and content exchange, allowing the user to move back and forth
easily between the roles of the audience and content producers”. Social media is becoming such an integral part of
business operations that its use is now commonplace for product launches, developing consumer loyalty and sharing
news (Walaski, 2013).
2.4 The role of social media in crisis communication
In a recent study, the new forms of social media such as Facebook, Twitter and so on were recognized as an
organization’s opportunity to lessen the impact in times of a crisis (Wendling, Radisch & Jacobzone, 2013). In the
study, Wendling et al (2013) note that previously, radio, television, newspapers and other traditional media sources
were used to transmit valuable information but nowadays social media such as Facebook and Twitter are tools which
can assist an organization to disseminate and share information with as many people as possible while receiving
feedback and responses from the public. This means that an organization employs the technology of social media as
part of the communication process to the world. The continuous use of social media as a tool seems likely for the
foreseeable future (Anderson & Rainie, 2010).
2.5 Organization and social media during a crisis
Organizations that are sensitive to changes and usage of technology and the internet constantly use Twitter, blogs,
mobile phones and other social network tools to spread the news of the crisis (Pang, Hassan & Chong, 2014).
On the other hand, Schultz, Utz and Goritz (2011) identify that blogs are effective tools for repairing an organization’s
image and reputation while preventing a boycott in crisis situations. In order to do so, Jin and Liu (2010) have proposed
the blog-mediated crisis communication model in order to help an organisation or crisis communicators to monitor
the blogosphere and respond appropriately to influential bloggers during a crisis. This aims to avoid inaccurate
information from the public especially bloggers spreading bad news, which can cause the tarnishing of an
organisation’s reputation and image. Liu (2010) stated that during a crisis period, people seek immediate and in-depth
crisis information in contrast with Stephens & Malone (2009) who claim that people usually tend to rely on word of
mouth by using social media instead of searching for information directly from a corporate website or blogs. They
argue that this is because blogs just tend to allow people to engage in knowledge sharing, reflection and the exchange
of views, which normally encourages the public for the purpose of readership and builds trust after a crisis (Boulus et
al, as cited by Valentini & Romenti, 2011). Thus, during a crisis, people tend to seek and use various types of social
media to gather as much additional information as possible regarding the risks and responsibilities of the crisis
(Valentini & Romenti, 2011).
In addition, Facebook has more than one billion users worldwide (Hysenlika, 2012), which represent the most
popular social media site. Hysenlika (2012) claimed that Facebook allows communicators (individual or organisation)
to deliver messages based on their needs quickly and effectively during a crisis period. This can be proved by Energex
(Australia), an organization that successfully communicated and shared information with the public by using social
media tools. Energex provided and offered a social media networking page on Facebook for the purpose of sharing
information including power interruptions, safety and storm information, energy saving tips, sponsorship opportunities
and community initiatives, invitations to provide feedback on specific issues as well as informing the public of new
content on the digital channels (Energex, n.d.). Thus, social media can be an effective communication platform not
only to be used to reduce the crisis impact but also as a tool to share knowledge and the management of a crisis by an
organisation (Yates & Paquette, 2011).
653 Nor Emmy Shuhada Derani and Prashalini Naidu / Procedia Economics and Finance 35 ( 2016 ) 650 – 658
2.6 Social media platforms.
Social media platforms include blogs, virtual communities, social networking, collaborative tagging and media
file sharing sites such as YouTube and Flickr (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010). Social media’s capacity is designed to enable
people to connect, share and collaborate, which has resulted in its increasing use in personal, business and educational
domains (White, King & Tsang, 2011). Walaski (2013) supports the study stating that social media platforms and
methods include micro blogging, blogs, social networking sites which are Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram and
also YouTube.
Nowadays, a variety of social media platforms enable organisations to provide information about a crisis
effectively because they represent the new way of communicating: digital, computerised and communication
technology that allows networking in the fastest and most efficient ways to different audiences simultaneously (White,
2012). Social media has the potential to influence the manner in which individuals think, behave and respond to
information and situations in general in times of crises (Paul, as cited by Schroeder & Pennington-Gray, 2014).
The role of social media as a communication platform during a crisis is important and unavoidable (Schroeder et
al., 2013). Social media can be useful to improve preparedness and responses, reduce the cost of disasters, improve
transparency of decisions and also increase the potential acceptance of outcomes (Wendling et al., 2013). Indeed,
social media can be one of the primary crisis communication strategies during a disaster (Cho & Park, 2013). A recent
study by Axel (2014) shows how the different types of social media are important in ensuring effective crisis
communication in their capacity to provide the right information at the right time to the right people (Lecenciuc &
Nagy, 2008).
3. Research Methodology
In this study, various industrial case studies will be focused on. Great-Quake Tsunami (2011) used Twitter to
disseminate and share information and emergency procedures with their employees when the earthquake occurred.
This media platform was used by the Japanese authorities to plan rescue operations, fundraise and provide emotional
support to the victims and their families (Cho, Jun & Park, 2013). On 13 March 2011, the government started a Twitter
page in Japanese and on 16 March 2011 a Twitter page in English in order to disseminate important emergency
procedures should the disaster reoccur (Wendling et al., 2013).
Twitter was also successfully used to share and update the latest information with the public during the 2007 and
2008 California wildfires, the 2008 Mumbai massacre, the 2009 crash of the US Airways Flight 1549, the 2010 Haiti
earthquake and the 2011 Tunisian uprising (Beaumont et al., as cited by Veil et al, 2011). During the Haiti earthquake
in 2010, Twitter served as an effective communication platform with the public especially for emergency
communication (Auer, 2011). Besides, the Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport used Twitter to provide
information about safety tips, flight status updates and safety action for passengers when tornadoes struck in the area
in April, 2012 (Paul, as cited by Schroeder & Pennington-Gray, 2014).
The manner in which Twitter can help organisations communicate and disseminate information with the public
during a crisis was also demonstrated during two recent natural disasters: the January 2011 floods in Brisbane and
South East Queensland and the February 2011 earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand (Flew et al., 2013). Energy
organizations such as Energex (Australia) have also received positive feedback from people who have praised the way
in which they communicated effectively using social media. Energex has established a social media networking page
on Facebook for the purpose of sharing information including power interruptions and safety and storm information
(Energex, n.d.).
Therefore, in accordance with the case studies above, it is evident that social media can be an effective tool not
only for reducing the impact of a crisis but also to share knowledge and the management of a crisis (Yates & Paquette,
2011). This has been supported by a recent study from Wendling et al (2013) who stated that the new forms of social
media such as Facebook and Twitter were recognised as an organisation’s opportunity to lessen the impact in times of
a crisis as well sharing knowledge and information.
Malaysia Airlines (MAS) has been criticised by the public as well as public relations practitioners across the globe
who claim that the organisation failed to utilise social media during a crisis (Petrolino, 2014). Following the
disappearance of Flight MH370, it has been alleged that MAS wrongly utilised social media to provide information to
654 Nor Emmy Shuhada Derani and Prashalini Naidu / Procedia Economics and Finance 35 ( 2016 ) 650 – 658
grieving, only using short text messages (Petrolino, 2014). It has been claimed that this did not take the families’
grief into consideration. In this digital age, even though all MAS’ social media channels were used consistently during
the crisis, specifically Twitter, Facebook and Google+, MAS made no effort to ensure its social media communications
were part of the online conversation streams during the crisis (Pownall, 2014).
Meanwhile, the shipping line, Carnival Corporation’s image and reputation has also been harmed after the Costa
Concordia disaster. Carnival Corporation has been criticised by many including public relations practitioners
following their late initial response to the disaster, only posting on Facebook and Twitter six days after the disaster
happened (The Realtime Report, 2012). Carnival Corporation also failed to use social media to disseminate and
communicate the details of the incident to the public following their decision to go silent on social networks. To be
sure, the company missed a huge opportunity to interact with the public (The Realtime Report, 2012). They did not
take into account that nowadays, globalisation and technological advances have resulted in the public being more
mindful and aware of a crisis (Eid & Fyfe, 2009) and look towards social media for information.
Other organisations which failed to use social media during a crisis are Taco Bell and Dominos. During the recent
photo prank crisis, Taco Bell did not release any statements in response to comments on Facebook (Agnes, 2013).
Further, Taco Bell did not respond to customers demanding a response on social media during the crisis. Similarly,
Dominos neglected to respond via the social media network during the hygiene crisis which was widely posted on
YouTube. It could be argued that this has tarnished their reputation and credibility (Agnes, 2012). Due to this failure
to utilise social media to offer clarification to its stakeholders during times of crisis, Taco Bell and Dominos have
received negative public feedback.
As a result, it is important for an organisation to utilise and understand the importance of using social media
during a crisis. This is because technological advances are transforming how crisis management professionals and
researchers view, interact with and disseminate information to affected communities in a crisis situation (Veil et al.,
2011). Social media has become the most common platform for the public to access crisis information compared to
other forms of media (Jin, Liu & Austin, 2014).
Apart from its establishment and success, BP has also been linked to a number of oil crises that have affected the
reputation and image of the company. Such crises include when BP’s Texas City Refinery exploded and caught fire
on March 23, 2005, the oil spill in Alaska in 2006 and also the Gulf of Mexico oil spill on April 16, 2010 (Wolf and
Mejri, 2013). Crises confronted by BP not only have an environmental impact but also have human, legal, reputational
and financial repercussions. The Gulf of Mexico spill received worldwide coverage due to the resulting deaths of
eleven people as well as many injuries (BP global, n.d.a). Moreover, marine scientists predict that consequences from
the oil spill have resulted in the damage of ecosystems and economic damage, which could take decades to recover
(National Academy of Sciences, 2010 & Red Orbit, 2013). BP has been criticised by the various parties concerned in
the crisis, including environmentalists, public relations practitioners and journalists, who have said that the
organisation failed to communicate with their stakeholders during the crisis which resulted in the tarnishing of the
organisation’s image and reputation (Wolf and Mejri, 2013).
In the Gulf of Mexico oil spill disaster, poor management and a communication failure caused the oil disaster
(Goldenberg, 2010). This was revealed during a BBC2 interview with the CEO of BP, Tony Hayward who mentioned
that BP failed to prepare a contingency plan for the Gulf oil disaster and called the disaster “demonized and vilified”.
Moreover, BP failed to express their empathy towards victims and other stakeholders (Wolf & Mejri, 2013). BP has
also been criticised by President Barack Obama and other stakeholders who have said that the organisation should
focus on clean-up efforts and on compensating victims instead of spending money launching a print ads campaign
(Wolf & Mejri, 2013).
4. Analysis
As a well-established organization, BP should focus on using the best communication platform to communicate
with stakeholders during a crisis. Traditional media such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, newsletters and
other print publications have been used widely by public relation practitioners before social media emerged in today’s
world and are still be used by public relation practitioners for certain events and issues (Grunig, 2013). However, in
655 Nor Emmy Shuhada Derani and Prashalini Naidu / Procedia Economics and Finance 35 ( 2016 ) 650 – 658
this era of globalization that demands people have quick access to accurate and relevant information, social media is
the best way to ensure a company’s image and reputation is aligned to its goals (White, 2012).
It is evident that using social media during a crisis is an effective way of safeguarding a company’s reputation.
During the oil spill crisis in the Gulf of Mexico, which has been seen as the largest maritime disaster in US history
(Wolf & Mejri, 2013), BP was criticised by many for their failure to address and respond to the public (Wolf & Mejri,
2013). From the outset it is clear that BP did not make full use of social media to communicate with the public. This
is evident in the lack of regular updates and tweets on its social networking sites such Twitter and Facebook (Lacombe,
2010). BP also released their initial tweet regarding the oil spill disaster a full after seven days after the initial crisis.
Apparently, the BP America account has 52 tweets in total which is equal to one tweet per week since its inception in
April 2009 (Lacombe, 2010). It could be argued that BP has overlooked the effective use of social media, which could
have been effective in serving as a platform for a global audience to voice their concerns (Lacombe, 2010). Roger
(2012), in her research, stated that BP should have reacted more quickly on social media during the oil spill in order
to respond to and engage the public who were concerned and seeking accurate information.
4.1 Social media and messages
Agnes (2012) explained that social media can be successful during a crisis when three major factors are taken into
account: the message content, the delivery channel and the frequency of the message delivery. When using social
media as a platform to communicate during a crisis, the message that the organisation sends should consider many
aspects including who will read it and their response to it. The message needs to stay in-line with the organisation’s
goals and policy and needs to be honest, informative and sincere.
Message content is important in that it can result in disseminating correct and incorrect information, closing the
gap between what the audience knows and what it needs to know (Walaski, 2011). Besides, the right mes sage will
help an organisation influence others with a different audience profile (Walaski, 2011). During the BP oil spill disaster,
BP should have sent well-planned messages that would share accurate information with its stakeholders. Every level
of stakeholders would need to receive the message in order to reduce the impact of the crisis. The urgency of providing
reliable information to the public is acute during a crisis (Freberg, 2012). Freberg (2012) in his study stated that the
viral spread of information on social media could be viewed as an advantage to a crisis professional who must reach
the public as quickly as possible.
4.2 Appropriate segmentation.
The success of social media depends on a well-planned adoption of the right approach to reach audiences as well
as research of other organisation’s experiences (Walaski, 2013). This is because different audiences have different
expectations content and frequency. Segmentation is essentially a classification exercise, in which individuals are
believed to be related in certain ways (Shaw, 2011).The statistics in section 2 show that 81 per cent of households
have internet access, represented by all ages and categories. A global study of social media usage by UM Social Media
Tracker Wave (2010) found that almost 75% of the active Internet universe use online social networking sites (Singh
et al., 2012). This shows that BP would be in the position to reach a wide range of people using social media during a
crisis. Palenchar (2011) supports the argument in his study by explaining that social media can be an organisation’s
best practice in terms of risk and communication because social media offers openness, participation, conversation
and connectedness with communities. (Mayfield, 2008), allowing it to reach a wide range of people without involving
the traditional media (Palenchar, 2011).
However, in every crises faced by BP, the organisation has segmented the public according to the social media
channel it deems most appropriate. Based on the statistics above, BP should consider using Facebook and Twitter as
the best means for crisis communication because the figure from the statistics shows that Facebook has more than one
billion monthly active users worldwide (Hysenlika, 2012). By segmenting its public to appropriate and convenient
social media, information regarding the crisis can be delivered to the correct audience in a timely manner. Valentini
and Romenti (2011) support the argument stating that during a crisis, people tend to seek and use several forms of
social media to gather as much additional information as possible.
The example of the Carnival Corporation crisis has proved that making the decision to keep silent on social media
resulted in bad perceptions and tarnishing the organisation’s image and credibility. Stakeholders, including those who
are affected directly or indirectly by the crisis, tend to search for information on social media as it tends to have more
656 Nor Emmy Shuhada Derani and Prashalini Naidu / Procedia Economics and Finance 35 ( 2016 ) 650 – 658
frequent updates (Auer, 2011).
4.3 BP and social media contingency plan
Several organisations have benefited from utilising social media effectively during a crisis. Social media can be
used to reduce risk in crisis communication as it is both collaborative and participatory (Wendling et al., 2013).
Information such as the emergency plan and current status can be shared as well as relevant post-crisis updates.
From the analysis, it can be concluded that by utilising social media for different audiences aligned in the crisis
communication stages , BP would be in the position to share knowledge, but and lessen the impact of negative public
feedback. Besides, it is also important for BP to maintain its reputation and image as well as build trust among its
stakeholders when other crises arise in the future.
5. Recommendation and Conclusion
BP had neglected to harness social media to share information (Goldenberg, 2010) when compared to Japan who
used social media as a wide reaching platform (Twitter) during the Great-Quake Tsunami (2011) disaster. In order to
avoid tarnishing the organisation’s image through negative feedback due to a communication failure such as in the
case of MAS Airlines, Taco Bell and Dominos, it is recommended that this well-known and established oil and gas
company make effective use of social media to reach stakeholders in a crisis. This is evident in the research and
analysis in the previous section and includes utilising social media during pre-crisis, during and post-crisis to reduce
the impact on the organisation’s image and reputation. Based on the statistics of active monthly social network users,
it is also recommended that BP use and update current information and news via Facebook and Twitter in order to
reach a wide range of people on a timely basis.
However, the content of the messages should be well-planned, structured, controlled and to the point to avoid any
miscommunication as well to ensure that the message is achievable (Agnes, 2012). Besides, BP should identify its
audience segmentation based on the social media most used in order to deliver the message as well as to explain the
crisis in the fastest way. BP should prepare a social media contingency plan that is aligned with crisis plan stages in
order to avoid any …
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The communication role of social media in social marketing: a study of the
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DOI: 10.1057/s41270-019-00053-8
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Vol:.(1234567890)
Journal of Marketing Analytics (2019) 7:64–75
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41270-019-00053-8
O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E
The communication role of social media in social marketing: a study
of the community sustainability knowledge dissemination on LinkedIn
and Twitter
Lei Huang1 · Amelia Clarke2 · Natalie Heldsinger3 · Wen Tian4
Published online: 14 May 2019
© Springer Nature Limited 2019
Abstract
This study aims to provide social marketers and researchers with some innovative perspectives on the application of social
media in disseminating and promoting new sustainability knowledge to targeted audiences including academics, community
sustainability stakeholders, and policy-makers. An online survey was used to examine the audiences’ attitudes of and moti-
vations for engaging in LinkedIn and Twitter sites that disseminate sustainability knowledge. Also, the fact-based measure-
ments from LinkedIn and Twitter showing the participants’ reactions to the contents and formats were analyzed. The results
suggest that the infographics message format received the highest engagement and response rates. Participants used Twitter
to obtain general sustainability knowledge while being engaged in LinkedIn for specific advice on the implementation of
community sustainability plans.
Keywords Social media · Knowledge dissemination · Sustainability · Social marketing · LinkedIn · Twitter
Introduction
Owing to the rapid development of technologies, online
communication channels such as social media are becoming
increasingly popular platforms for communicating sustain-
ability information (Robelia et al. 2011; Bik and Goldstein
2013). More importantly, audiences’ attitudes toward dis-
seminated sustainability knowledge are influencing their
subsequent awareness and behaviors (Hungerford 1996).
From the marketer’s point of view, the understanding of
audience attitudes aids in the selection of dissemination
strategies (Swani et al. 2014; Kaplan and Haenlein 2010).
The purposes of this study are to (1) assess the effective-
ness of intermediaries in disseminating sustainability-rele-
vant knowledge, (2) provide insights for developing effec-
tive marketing communication strategies for sustainability
stakeholders, and (3) broaden the scope of social marketing
by extending its audiences to sustainability practitioners in
addition to the traditionally defined consumers. We expect
the results of this research will also provide social marketers
and researchers with some innovative perspectives on the
application of social media in communicating knowledge.
Academic scholars play a vital role in incorporating
sustainability knowledge into disseminating strategies for
the purposes of fostering a link between knowledge and
* Lei Huang
[email protected]
Amelia Clarke
[email protected]
Natalie Heldsinger
[email protected]
Wen Tian
[email protected]
1 School of Business, State University of New York
at Fredonia, E358 Thompson Hall, 280 Central Avenue,
Fredonia, NY 14063, USA
2 School of Environment, Enterprise and Development,
University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West,
Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
3 School of Environment and Resource Studies, University
of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo,
ON N2L 3G1, Canada
4 School of Local Economic Development, University
of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo,
ON N2L 3G1, Canada
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1057/s41270-019-00053-8&domain=pdf
65The communication role of social media in social marketing: a study of the community…
practice (Sá et al. 2011), obtaining substantial attention
from targeted audiences, and better servicing communica-
tion platform users (Swani et al. 2014; Kaplan and Haenlein
2010). Building on marketing communication theories, this
research investigates the role of social media in dissemi-
nating and promoting new knowledge related to the imple-
mentation of community sustainability plans. Specifically,
it aims to help sustainability researchers prioritize online
marketing communication channels in order to disseminate
their research findings among the target audiences: com-
munity sustainability practitioners such as consultants and
municipal staff, policy-makers such as municipal councilors,
and other academic scholars. This study involves knowledge
dissemination through two preselected social networking
sites, LinkedIn and Twitter, for the purpose of transferring
sustainability knowledge, accelerating collective learning,
and providing practical advice.
The remainder of this article is organized as follows:
first, we review the related literature, leading to the develop-
ment of our research questions and hypotheses; and next we
explain the methodology followed by the data descriptions.
We will then present the results from both an online survey
and the measurement indicators from the preselected social
media sites: LinkedIn and Twitter. The general discussion,
managerial implications, and limitations are also included.
Literature review and theoretical
background
Knowledge dissemination in social marketing
Knowledge dissemination is a relatively new research area
as opposed to product promotion. Marketing strategies
employed for new products aim at raising public awareness
and then increasing product sales. From this perspective,
new knowledge dissemination is somewhat analogous to
new product promotion. Kotler and Zaltman (1971) define
social marketing as “the design, implementation, and con-
trol of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of
social ideas and involving considerations of product plan-
ning, pricing, communication, distribution, and marketing
research … marketing techniques are the bridging mecha-
nisms between the simple possession of knowledge and the
socially useful implementation of what knowledge allows”
(p. 5). An advantage of this social marketing approach may
lie in its refinement of how to communicate research find-
ings effectively and with greater effect (Roger 1995).
According to the diffusion of innovation theory (Esta-
brookset al. 2006), knowledge dissemination is often
referred to the process of connecting research findings in
academia to broader communities (Sá et al. 2011). Gainforth
et al. (2015) define this process as “moving research into the
hands of research users” (p. 56). Effective knowledge dis-
semination and utilization of research promises to enrich and
revitalize the research, practice, and community contexts
(Herie and Martin 2002). In the current research, we use
“knowledge dissemination” as a reference to the practice of
transferring academic findings in sustainability to related
knowledge users, such as other researchers or scholars, pol-
icy-makers, and sustainability practitioners (Gagnon 2011)
at proper timing (Dell and Grayson 1998).
Community sustainability knowledge
Sustainable community development “is a holistic approach
that integrates social, environmental, and economic consid-
erations into the processes and actions undertaken by com-
munities on their path toward sustainability” (Roseland and
Spiliotopoulou 2016, p. 2). Sustainability implies social
equity and functioning within ecological limits (Goodland
1995). Sustainable development denotes consideration of
three interrelated domains: environmental, social, and eco-
nomic (United Nations 2015). The new global Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) offer 17 goals as an agenda for
the world to achieve by 2030 (United Nations 2015). Sus-
tainable development is the process, while sustainability is
the goal. One of the global SDGs specifically sets a goal
for inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities (United
Nations 2015).
In order to address problems related to unsustainability,
an increasing number of local governments have developed
community sustainability plans (CSPs) (MacDonald et al.
2018). There are over 10,000 CSPs in the world (ICLEI
2012). These CSPs are implemented by local governments,
in partnership with other local organizations such as local
businesses (MacDonald et al. 2018; Clarke 2014). Broad-
casting ideas and expertise from academia to external audi-
ences accelerates and enhances the understanding of sustain-
able development (Gagnon 2011). Knowledge dissemination
enables new information to be shared among audiences
(Murphy and Salomone 2013), in this case, information
related to implementing CSPs. Scholars desire to know the
drivers of audience engagement in various communication
channels, as well as the audience’s attitudes toward these
channels, so that the most effective methods of sharing sus-
tainability knowledge can be identified.
Social media
Social media are among the most active and popular online
communication channels that are primarily designed for
networking, which is “a group of Internet-based applica-
tions that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated
content” (Kaplan and Haenlein 2010). If used effectively and
efficiently, social media applications can promote discussion
66 L. Huang et al.
and dialogue (Castronovo and Huang 2012), engage stake-
holders (Newell and Dale 2015), facilitate information trans-
fer and understanding (Huang 2010), and improve commu-
nication and collaboration in online environments (Murphy
and Salomone 2013; Robelia et al. 2011). In this research,
we are particularly interested in the role of social media
websites, LinkedIn and Twitter, in disseminating sustainabil-
ity knowledge. These online communication platforms can
be considered as mechanisms for disseminating knowledge
due to the fact that organizations gain and share knowledge
through them (Murphy and Salomone 2013).
Twitter
Twitter represents a social networking tool very similar to
blogging. As a “micro-blogging” application, Twitter pro-
vides all types of users, including individuals, organizations,
and researchers, with many opportunities to effectively com-
municate and disseminate real-time message via posts lim-
ited to 140 characters which are aimed toward a wide and
diverse audience (Castronovo and Huang 2012; Lovejoy
et al. 2012). As one of the most popular social networking
sites in North America, Twitter has nearly 300 million active
users on a monthly basis (Waters and Jamal 2011), which
makes it “the most used social media application in official
public relations, advertising, and marketing campaigns”
(Stelzner 2009, p. 313).
LinkedIn
LinkedIn is a professional social networking tool that allows
users to post and share information in a professional and
online environment (Hennig-Thurau and Walsh 2003). Cas-
tronovo and Huang (2012) describe several functions of this
social networking application, including the ability to adver-
tise a business on the site, to develop company profiles, and
to develop two-way relationships with career professionals
and firms. As a communication tool, LinkedIn, like many
social networking sites, provides users with many oppor-
tunities to disseminate information to particular audiences
(Castronovo and Huang 2012).
Twitter is more a means for personal branding, whereas
LinkedIn is more often used as an online profile (Dessart
et al. 2015). Considering that the defined targeted audiences
in this research are primarily professionals such as policy-
makers and sustainability practitioners, knowledge dissemi-
nation platforms need to meet the criterion that the commu-
nication channel is generally used for professional purposes
and is suitable for disseminating findings from sustainability
research. As a result, Twitter and LinkedIn are selected as
two representative social media sites for the current research,
in that the vast majority of users on LinkedIn and Twitter
are professionals, approximately 70% and 50%, respectively
(Antheunis et al. 2013).
Types of messages (posts) on social media
Marketing research has been focusing on the importance
of verbal versus visual information in various dimensions.
Kim and Lennon (2008) investigate how different product
information formats (visual vs. verbal) influence consumer
attitudes toward product and purchase intentions in Internet
shopping. Spiller and Lohse (1998) find that verbal product
descriptions available on the Internet are equivalent to sales-
people’s service at retail stores.
In a similar way, recognizing the format of knowledge
presentation on social media as a potential factor that influ-
ences the efficiency and effectiveness of dissemination, we
examine a variety of message formats in order to assess the
most effective ways of disseminating sustainability research
outcomes among the target audiences. Particularly, we
examine three message formats used to present the sustain-
ability knowledge on social media: academic that represents
the original text and language from the research; public that
focuses on easily accessible, every-day language in order to
communicate with a wider audience; and visual language
with the use of infographics to allow for visual representa-
tion of the research data that can easily be accessed and
shared (Siricharoen 2013).
Motivations of engaging in social media
for disseminating sustainability knowledge
Marketing studies have examined the motivations for acquir-
ing information online, such as obtaining product informa-
tion and social orientation, reducing purchasing risks, saving
search time, and learning about new products (Hennig-
Thurau and Walsh 2003). In a similar vein, we argue that
acquiring and enhancing valuable sustainability knowledge,
together with seeking professional expertise to improve the
implementation of CSPs, are the major drivers for the target
audiences in this research to engage in various social media
networking sites (Dessart et al. 2015; Smith and Gallicano
2015).
Huang and Barlas (2009) suggest that shared interests
toward the same topics in starting a conversation often initi-
ate word-of-mouth discussion. Conversations are more likely
to occur between people who share common interests or
have similar backgrounds. Likewise, knowledge dissemina-
tion targets those audiences who share the same interests
and needs; and these target groups then proactively receive
new knowledge and ideas (Levin 2008). We argue that
sustainability practitioners, who look for and/or intend to
enhance related knowledge about their practices on social
media will engage with scholars with expertise who have
67The communication role of social media in social marketing: a study of the community…
social networks with shared interests in the sustainability
field (Gershoff et al. 2001).
Additionally, previous studies have explored the role of
agents promoting buzz or vanguards. They are defined col-
lectively as a group of people who “have a disproportionate
ability to shape public opinion” (Dye 2000, p. 142), and
are considered as early practitioners who play a vital role
in attracting new adopters (Huang 2010; Castronovo and
Huang 2012). These agents can be referred as media for
word-of-mouth communication (Huang and Barlas 2009;
Gershoff et al. 2001). Relating to the current study, we argue
that sustainability researchers are important agents serving
as an expertise and credible information source for practi-
tioners who are seeking guidance and recommendations to
improve their implementation of CSPs.
Measurement of the engagement in social media
Castronovo and Huang (2012) suggest that the techniques
used to measure marketing effectiveness depend on spe-
cific marketing objectives. Strategies employed for knowl-
edge dissemination are usually determined by knowledge
content, targeted audiences, dissemination techniques, and
dissemination purposes (Sá et al. 2011). The effectiveness
of various internet-based tools is measured by audience
engagement (Curran and Lennon 2011), such as the viewer-
ship of different media as it varies over time (Newell and
Dale 2015). Through an understanding of influential factors
for knowledge engagement online, we intend to incorpo-
rate such factors as attitudes toward environmental issues,
adequate knowledge, and intention to apply knowledge and
skills (Hungerford 1996) into the information disseminating
strategies for the purpose of obtaining substantial attention
from the targeted audiences and better servicing communi-
cation platform users (Swani et al. 2014; Kaplan and Haen-
lein 2010).
An increasing amount of scientific research has referred
to data from Twitter (Golbeck et al. 2010) because this appli-
cation also provides users with many opportunities to engage
with stakeholders with four outstanding features to easily
communicate, without geographical boundaries, through
both public and private messages (Waters and Jamal 2011).
They are (1) user mentions, such as the counts of impres-
sions, link clicks, and favorites; (2) replies; (3) retweets;
(4) hashtags (Zubiaga et al. 2015). Lovejoy et al. (2012)
explain that “organizations [or other users] can communicate
on Twitter through the use of the “@” symbol” (p. 314).
This function connects users in a more direct manner, pro-
viding a simple and easy way of searching for other Twitter
users. The retweet function is another example of a com-
munication tool on Twitter that allows one user to repost a
tweet from another user while giving acknowledgement of
the user by adding “[email protected][username]” to the beginning of
the message” (Lovejoy et al. 2012, p. 314). Lastly, hashtag
is a popular communication tool that categorizes messages
by relevant topics on the social networking site. By the same
token, we use the counts of views, likes, comments for each
post, shares, and profile clicks on LinkedIn to measure the
stakeholders’ engagement (Castronovo and Huang 2012).
Research questions
According to the Theory of Reasoned Action, the Theory of
Planned Behavior, and the Technology Acceptance Mode
(Curran and Lennon 2011), attitude is an important ante-
cedent for both behavioral involvement and psychologi-
cal immersion (Dessart et al. 2015; Smith and Gallicano
2015). On the one hand, different knowledge dissemina-
tion sources—referred as social media in this study—have
different degrees of impact on audience behaviors. Proper
knowledge transfer through appropriate platforms to the
focal target audiences is expected to improve sustainabil-
ity practices. On the other hand, the audiences engage in
virtual communities to be connected with other community
members (Brodie et al. 2011; Dessart et al. 2015). In sum-
mary, our research questions and the according hypotheses
are summarized as follows:
R1: What are the target audiences’ attitudes toward dis-
seminating knowledge about implementing CSPs on
social media?
H1: When social media is involved in disseminating sus-
tainability knowledge about CSP implementation,
people are more in favor of LinkedIn than Twitter
R2: What are the drivers that lead the target audiences
to engage with knowledge about implementing CSPs
disseminated through social media?
H2: People are more likely to use Twitter than LinkedIn
to browse sustainability knowledge; while LinkedIn
is more likely to be used when people seek particular
advice on CSPs
R3: What types of knowledge about implementing CSPs,
disseminated on social media, do the target audiences
pay attention to?
H3: In terms of various sustainability knowledge topics
on social media, people will engage with some top-
ics more than others on social media (LinkedIn and
Twitter)
R4: What format of knowledge about implementing CSPs
disseminated on social media do the target audiences
pay attention to?
H4: Sustainability knowledge of CSPs presented in
infographics with visual language on social media
(LinkedIn and Twitter) attracts more attention than
using academic or public language
68 L. Huang et al.
Methods
To address the research questions R1 and R2, an online sur-
vey was used on LinkedIn and Twitter to test the hypotheses
1 and 2. To address the research questions R3 and R4, we
use the fact-based measurements based on the participant’s
reactions to various message contents and formats presented
on LinkedIn and Twitter (Mairs et al. 2013).
Specifically, the message contents refer to a synthesis of
academic research findings on sustainability knowledge of
implementing CSPs. Such contents were presented in six
topics disseminated through both LinkedIn and Twitter:
1. Collaborative strategy process (Clarke and Fuller 2010).
2. Topics in community sustainability plans (Clarke et al.
2014).
3. Collaborative strategic management outcome types
(Clarke and Fuller 2010).
4. Key structural features for implementing a CSP (Clarke
2011, 2012).
5. Partner outcomes from joining a community sustainabil-
ity partnership (Clarke and MacDonald 2012, 2019).
6. Partnership versus participation for community sustain-
ability (Clarke and Erfan 2007).
Each topic was completed (i.e., standalone), so the
order was not relevant. In addition, the content in each
topic was disseminated to the targeted audiences, Twitter
followers and LinkedIn connections, using three different
formats: academic, public, and infographics. The results of
a pretest suggested the significant differences among three
content formats for each topic (F(2, 27) = 7.89, p < .05).
Thus, the manipulation of these topic formats was suc-
cessful. An example of a topic with three content formats
is provided in Appendix 1.
Survey
A structured survey was offered to those LinkedIn connec-
tions who had viewed the content. These participants were
asked about their attitudes toward the LinkedIn websites
disseminating sustainability knowledge on three items
(1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree):
• The information about the implementation of sustain-
able community plans offered on LinkedIn is useful;
• The information about the implementation of sustain-
able community plans offered on LinkedIn is under-
standable; and
• The information about the implementation of sustain-
able community plans offered on LinkedIn is sufficient.
• The participants were also asked about three motiva-
tions for engaging in LinkedIn (1 = strongly disagree,
7 = strongly agree):
• I browse or participate in the LinkedIn community is to
obtain relevant information about sustainable community
plans;
• I browse or participate in the LinkedIn community is to
learn more about sustainable community plans; and
• I browse or participate in the LinkedIn community is to
seek advice on sustainable community plans.
The same survey was offered to Twitter followers who
had viewed the content. These participants were asked about
their attitudes and engagement motivations toward the Twit-
ter websites disseminating sustainability knowledge by using
exactly the same items as those used with LinkedIn connec-
tions except for replacing “LinkedIn” with “Twitter.” The
Cronbach’s Alpha is .92 for the LinkedIn survey items and
.91 for Twitter, which indicate a high reliability of these
items on measuring the participant’s attitude toward these
two preselected social media.
In addition to the demographic information, both
LinkedIn connections and Twitter followers were asked
to provide comments to an open-end question about their
impressions and feelings about sustainability-associated
knowledge disseminated through these preselected social
media accordingly.
In total, 76 completed surveys were collected on LinkedIn
and 40 on Twitter.
Sample
The sampling method used in this study was snowball
sampling, which is typically used to recruit participants
through the referrals or connections of one member of a
particular group (Padgett 2012). Specifically, we initially
recruited participants from Twitter followers and LinkedIn
connections who shared similar interests in sustainability
and then obtained additional participants through their per-
sonal, and/or professional online networks (Baltar and Bru-
net 2012). The final sample included a number of people
who were recruited through one of the authors’ own Twitter
and LinkedIn sites. These participants were sustainability
professionals, academics, as well municipal staff and coun-
cilors who were interested or involved in work surrounding
sustainable communities. There were 243 Twitter followers
and 126 LinkedIn connections engaged in the six key topics
used for the final analysis.
Procedures and data collection
All six topics were posted through one of the authors’
LinkedIn online blog site and Twitter tweets in the same
69The communication role of social media in social marketing: a study of the community…
time window for each tween and format. Each topic had the
same content in three different post formats: public, aca-
demic, and infographics. For each topic, the dissemination
schedules consisted of a post on Tuesdays (public format),
Wednesdays (academic format), and Thursdays (infograph-
ics format) around noon each day. In particular, the dissemi-
nation of topics on Twitter and LinkedIn ran from June 2015
to October 2015: Topic 1 was disseminated the week of June
23; Topic 2 was disseminated the week of June 30; Topic 3
the week of July 14; Topic 4 the week of July 21; Topic 5
the week of August 4; and Topic 6 the week of September
29. The time of day was chosen in order to reach the great-
est amount of social media traffic on each site (Meidlinger
2015). The participating LinkedIn connections and Twitter
followers could express their ‘like’ for and/or post their com-
ments on these topics.
Analysis and results
To answer the research questions R1 and R2, the aggregated
responses from the survey were analyzed. The perceived
effectiveness of obtaining sustainability knowledge, pro-
viding professional advice, and enhancing learning were
the dependent variables. Gender, …
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