Fluent Essays

The Course Project’s focus is on the use of technology to solve specific business problems. EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION References Anderson, A. K. (2005). Affective influences on the attentional dynamics supporting awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 154, 258–281. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.2.258 Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa, E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5627–5633. Armony, J. L., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Modulation of spatial attention by fear-conditioned stimuli: An event-related fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 40, 817–826. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932%2801%2900178-6 Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893 Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional pictures: Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 221–243. doi:10.1023/B%3AMOEM.0000040153.26156.ed Carretie, L. Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mecado, F., & Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic attention to emotional stimuli: Neural correlates. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 290– 299. doi:10.1002/hbm.20037 x Jones, P. & Smith, J. (1999). Using Web Sources in Writing. Retrieved from http://www.writingwell.edu Light, I. (2006). Deflecting immigration: Networks, markets, and regulations in Los Angeles. New York. NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Pope, R. L., Reynolds, A. L., & Mueller, J. A. (2004). Multicultural competence in student affairs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.  COURSE PROJECT PROPOSAL RUBRIC (5 Points) CATEGORY DESCRIPTION COMMENTS Documentation and Formatting A quality paper will include a title page, abstract, proper citations using APA style, and a bibliography. Organization and Cohesiveness A quality paper will include an introduction based upon a well formed thesis statement. The logical order of the content will be derived from the thesis statement. The content will be properly subdivided into sections derived from the outline. In a quality paper, the conclusion will summarize the previously presented content, and will complement the thesis statement from the introduction. Editing A quality paper will be free of any spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors. Sentences and paragraphs will be clear, concise, and factually correct. Content A quality paper will have significant scope and depth of research to support any statements. Strategic implications will be explained and supported. Relevant illustrations or examples are encouraged. A quality paper will employ use of sound reasoning and logic to reinforce conclusions. The Project-topic selection must be submitted and feedback received from the professor before beginning the project proposal. Need to incorporate module level objectives while you develop the proposal. The project proposal should follow the APA style of citing references in the text and on the bibliography page. Credible reference sources are available through the School Library and other sources. The paper must be 1-2 pages in length, double-spaced, using a size 12 standard business font, using 1-inch margins and topic headings listed for the format requirements. Cover page 1. Subject of Course Project 2. Business problem statement 3. Name of the company or organization 4. Brief description of proposed solution 5. General benefits it will provide the organization 6. Audience to whom you are presenting the recommendation(s) Total 5 Points INSY4325 COURSE PROJECT Exploring Information Technology Project (25 points) Objective Provide an opportunity for students to apply a technology solution to a business problem in a specific company or organization that adds value to the organization. Guidelines Step 1: Exploring Information Technology: Project-topic selection (1-2 paragraphs) Begin thinking of a business problem that could be solved with a technology solution for a company or organization you are familiar with. See the Course Project Technical Areas for ideas. 1. Subject of Course Project 2. Business problem statement 3. Name of the company or organization Step 2: Course Project Proposal (1-2 pages) Graded Portion – 5 points (see rubric) Upon the approval of Course Project Topic from your professor, complete the Course Project Proposal using this format: 1. Subject of Course Project 2. Business problem statement 3. Name of the company or organization 4. Brief description of proposed solution 5. General benefits it will provide the organization 6. Audience to whom you are presenting the recommendation(s) Based on the Professor’s feedback to your proposal, develop the Course Project. You are required to use a minimum of ten credible sources for research on your proposed solution and to correctly cite all references using APA style. Make sure you do not use more than 20% material from other sources so that 80% of the paper should be your original words. See the suggestions below for ideas on ways to develop your project. Use this format for the project: Course Project Table of Contents (6 -8 pages) Cover Page Table of Contents 1. Abstract 2. Brief Company background 3. Discussion of business problem(s) 4. High level solution 5. Benefits of solving the problem 6. Business/technical approach 7. Business process changes 8. Technology or business practices used to augment the solution 9. Conclusions and overall recommendations 10. High-level implementation plan 11. Summary of project References Appendices Completed Course Project Graded Portion Final Project Paper - 15 points (see rubric) Final Project Presentation – 5 points (see rubric) Course Project Technical Areas The Course Project’s focus is on the use of technology to solve specific business problems. While the list of technologies that you can choose for your Course Project is vast, the following are some current technical topics that you could consider in solving your business problem. 1. Cloud computing, either cloud storage, and/or cloud applications 2. User involvement in IT projects 3. Mobile devices including phones and tablets 4. B2C and/or B2B and other types of e-commerce 5. Databases required for your project 6. Infrastructure and networking (at a non-technical level) 7. Business and process reengineering to streamline a business, followed by several new business technologies to support the new business model 8. The implementation of a secure business (website, software development, administration) 9. Development of an e-commerce website for a brick and mortar business 10. IS Management (examples: Outsourcing, ASP's, ERP, CRM, SCM, Website Development, Linux) 11. Corporate Applications (examples: Information Security, EIS, Expert Systems, Artificial Intelligence, DSS, Groupware, Intranets/Extranets) 12. Telecommunications and Networks (Examples: Gigabit and higher networks, SAN's, Video Conferencing, VoIP, Wireless networking) 13. IS Acquisitions (Examples: Cost Justification Methodology, Total Cost of Ownership, Systems Development Life Cycle, Prototyping, Weighted Criteria Analysis) 14. Miscellaneous (Examples: Computer Ethics, Virtual Reality, Multimedia, Telecommuting, Data Security, International Issues, Computer Based Learning) 15. End User Software/Applications (Examples: Database, Operating System, Office Suite, Project Management) Course Project Suggestions The purpose of the Course Project is to describe the solution to a business problem where technology can be of value. Some ideas to identify a business problem: · Lack of competitiveness and/or profitability · Inefficient processes · Slow product development · Obsolete IT organization and technologies · Poor corporate communications · Ongoing personnel issues Some benefits it will provide the organization could be things like: · Financial – profitability, revenue, product costs · Improved competitiveness · Better marketing positioning · Efficiency in key processes, e.g., sales, manufacturing, development · Improved product and/or service quality · Improved product development · Better and more accurate support turn-around · Preparation for the future – how is the organization positioning itself for future growth Some ideas on how the project could tie together: · As an example, you could write your paper on some aspect of ecommerce. You might tie it in to targeted advertising. You could then tie the back-end databases that are necessary to support ecommerce. For example, how databases contain information that allows vendors to target their audience and what those databases are. · Another example might be the functionality of enterprise systems. You might choose a specific enterprise system like ERP, CRM or SCM and detail how the functionality is delivered. This could be how a business person would access this type of information. · The business problem is high cost of IT and product development and the benefits are profitability, faster development time, or increased sales. The solution might be cloud computing describing the cloud computing approach taken, e.g., SaaS or cloud virtualization. Possible audiences might be: · Senior management · Customers · Suppliers · Specific departments Summary of Course Project Requirements 1. The proposal must be submitted and feedback received from the professor before beginning the project. 2. The project should follow the APA style of citing references in the text and on the bibliography page. No fewer than ten references must be used for research and properly cited. 3. Credible reference sources are available through the School Library and other sources. 4. The paper must be 6-8 pages in length, double-spaced, using a size 12 standard business font, using 1-inch margins and topic headings listed for the format requirements. Welcome to the APA Style Guide overview! (6th Edition) In this overview we will cover: • What APA is exactly and why we use it here. • The Basic forms of APA that you will use in your writing • And finally we will show you resources that you can use to properly implement APA citation in your writing. Part 1: Introductions Ok, so what is APA? It is method of citation that allows readers to quickly identify and locate the source you use in your documents. It is not a form of writing. Why is Citation important? Citation and Reference are an address for the information's source and protects you from any cases of Plagiarism. By including the Citation and Reference, your reader can find the Source used in your writing. This helps them if they wish to find more information about the topic you are discussing in your paper. It also helps your reader identify those elements of your writing that were not created by you, eliminating any uncertainty on their part. APA was created by the American Psychological Association. There are several other forms of Citation out there such as MLA, but for most of your courses here, you only need to be concerned with APA. When to Cite So, when should you cite? Whenever you are presenting a quote, idea, opinion or fact that comes from an external source, that is when you should cite. The failure to recognize or properly cite those items could be considered Plagiarism, as essentially, you are presenting ideas that are not your own. So what do you need to know exactly in regards to APA? Well to use APA properly you need to provide a simple citation in the text of your paper when you use a Source. This citation must have a corresponding Reference at the end of your paper. In the next section, you will learn how to cite properly in your paper, and then Section 3 will go over the creation of the Reference list. Part 2: Citations A citation should be used whenever you quote, paraphrase or summarize material from a source. Many writers often forget to cite properly when they paraphrase or summarize, as they are not as clearly distinguished as a quote. Sometimes a writer may feel that because they are using their own words to explain someone else’s idea, that they do not need to cite. Even though you may not be using the exact words from another source, the ideas you are presenting are still not your own. Therefore, a proper citation is needed. The Elements of a Citation In its most basic form, every citation you add should have the author’s last name and the year that the source was published. eg. (Smith, 2009) This is the bare minimum for a citation, but as you will soon see, there will be some variation to this depending on the manner in which you insert the citation or the nature of the source. There are several methods in which to insert a citation in your text: 1. Integrated, In-text In this method, you are actually weaving your source author's name into the text you are writing. You are referring to the source by mentioning the author directly. With this method you must include the publication year in parentheses. It should look something like this: As Jones (1996) explained, the use of sources lend credibility to a paper. This could also have been written like this: In 1996, Jones explained that the use of sources lends credibility to a paper. As you can see, the two essential elements- the author's last name and the year of publication have been included. Citing in this manner can be a good method of citation when writing a summary or paraphrasing a source as you are integrating the citation more fully into your own wording. 2. Non-Integrated In-text With this method you are not weaving the author into your text. The author is not mentioned directly but referred to, along with the publication year, in parentheses directly following the citation: The use of sources lend credibility to a paper (Jones, 1996), and is a good practice. The use of proper citation is critical for good writing (A. Jones & P. Jones, 1996). This method is best for direct quotes but could also be used in summaries and paraphrases. Again, the two essential elements are the author's last name or names and the publication year. The elements are enclosed in parentheses and separated by commas. It is always best practice to include the page on which the reference appears: (A. Jones & P. Jones, 1996, p. 2). If no page numbers are used (such as with a website) then a paragraph number would be acceptable, as well, in this format: (Jones, 1998, para. 2). Variations on the basic Citation Form There a dozens of different variations on the form of a citation. This is caused by such variables as multiple authors and the type of source you are using. We could spend hours covering all of them, but, instead, we will just focus on a couple of the most common that you may encounter. A complete list of variations has been included as an attachment to this video. More than one Author Citations In some cases, a source will have been written by more than one author. For those cases, the previously mentioned methods still apply, however some enhancement needs to be made with your citation. A. For citations with two authors, apply the above methods (surname, publication year). However, both surnames should be used in your citations, not just one. (Jones & Howard, 1997) B. For citations with more than two authors, the first citation using that source must contain the surnames of all authors and the publication year. (Jones, Jones, Howard and Moore, 1999, p 67). In subsequent references, only the first author's surname followed by "et al." and the publication year needs to be used. (Jones et al., 1999) Special Cases: Authors with the same Last Name What if the source has more than one author and they have the same last name? Well, on those occasions, the authors should be listed by the alphabetical order of their first names, with the first initial followed by a period listed in the citation. (A. Jones & P. Jones, 1996) Web References What about websites? With all of the information available on the web, using Websites for citations is becoming more commonplace. This makes tracking down the source that much more important as there could be multiple sites with similar information. To cite a Website you need to include the URL in your text in this fashion: APA style is a widely accepted style of documentation, particularly in the social sciences (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style). Part 3: The Reference List A reference list goes hand in hand with a citation. Any time you have a citation you MUST have a reference list. The reference list should be on a separate page at the end of your paper. You must include references for all sources used in your document. You should not include any reference for a source that was not used in your document. This diagram represents all required elements for a proper reference based on this example: NOTE: These will both be visuals Author, A. A. (1996). Title of work. Location: Publisher. Pope, R. L., Reynolds, A. L., & Mueller, J. A. (2004). Multicultural competence in student affairs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Your references need to be listed alphabetically by the author's last name. You only need to list each reference once, no matter how many times you use a citation from a source. The author information is followed by the year the document was published, in parenthesis, the name of the document and then finally the publisher information which includes the city, state and name of the publisher. Be sure to use a colon before writing the publisher’s name. The name of the book, periodical, journal, newsletter or magazine, in which the reference is found, should be italicized. If you are using the name of an article or chapter for your reference, this should not be italicized or put in quotes. The DOI When using electronic Journal Articles, frequently the publisher may include a DOI. SHOW EXAMPLE Author, A. A. (2006). Title of work. Doi:xxxxx For no DOI Author, A. A. (2002). Title of work. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxxx This is a method for identifying electronic resources. It may be found on the title page of a PDF or in an articles reference information. For electronic resources, you should use the DOI whenever possible. If you have a DOI for an electronic source, you do not need to provide additional publisher information. More Examples Linked to this video will be reference list example template that you can use to help develop your own reference list. This list includes examples for book references, journal articles, newspapers, & electronic source materials such as web sites. Part 4: Resources http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx INSY 5375 Project Presentation (PowerPoint or any type of multimedia with voice narrative) Exemplary Accomplished Developing Beginning Max Points Remark Organization Information presented in logical, interesting sequence Information in logical sequence Difficult to follow presentation--student jumps around Cannot understand presentation--no sequence of information 1 Subject Knowledge Demonstrates full knowledge by answering all class questions with explanations and elaborations At ease with expected answers to questions but does not elaborate Uncomfortable with information and is able to answer only rudimentary questions Does not have a grasp of the information. Cannot answer questions about subject 1 Graphics Explain and reinforce screen text and presentation Relate to text and presentation Occasionally uses graphics that rarely support text and presentation Uses superfluous graphics or no graphics 1 Overall Information Technology Project All the items are done adequately. Applied a technology solution to a business problem. Only some of the items are done adequately. Applied a technology solution to a business problem. Only some of the items are done adequately. Did not apply a technology solution to a business problem. None of the items are done adequately. 2 Total 5 COURSE PROJECT RUBRIC (15 Points) Course Project Paper CATEGORY DESCRIPTION COMMENTS Documentation and Formatting A quality paper will include a title page, abstract, proper citations using APA style, and a bibliography. Organization and Cohesiveness A quality paper will include an introduction based upon a well formed thesis statement. The logical order of the content will be derived from the thesis statement. The content will be properly subdivided into sections derived from the outline. In a quality paper, the conclusion will summarize the previously presented content, and will complement the thesis statement from the introduction. Editing A quality paper will be free of any spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors. Sentences and paragraphs will be clear, concise, and factually correct. Content A quality paper will have significant scope and depth of research to support any statements. Strategic implications will be explained and supported. Relevant illustrations or examples are encouraged. A quality paper will employ use of sound reasoning and logic to reinforce conclusions. The proposal must be submitted and feedback received from the professor before beginning the project. The project should follow the APA style of citing references in the text and on the bibliography page. No fewer than ten references must be used for research and properly cited. Credible reference sources are available through the School Library and other sources. The paper must be 6 - 8 pages in length, double-spaced, using a size 12 standard business font, using 1-inch margins and topic headings listed for the format requirements. Cover page Table of content 1. Abstract 2. Brief Company background 3. Discussion of business problem(s) 4. High level solution 5. Benefits of solving the problem 6. Business/technical approach 7. Business process changes 8. Technology or business practices used to augment the solution 9. Conclusions and overall recommendations 10. High-level implementation plan 11. Summary of project 12. References 13. Appendices Total 15 Points A quality paper will meet or exceed all of the above requirements. All sections in the table of contents must be in the project to earn full credit. Sample APA Research Paper Sample Title Page Running on Empty 1 Running on Empty: The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance Thomas Delancy and Adam Solberg Dordt College Place manuscript page headers one-half inch from the top. Put five spaces between the page header and the page number. Full title, authors, and school name are centered on the page, typed in uppercase and lowercase. 34 The abstract summarizes the problem, participants, hypotheses, methods used, results, and conclusions. Sample Abstract Running on Empty 2 Abstract This study examined the effects of short-term food deprivation on two cognitive abilities—concentration and perseverance. Undergraduate students (N-51) were tested on both a concentration task and a perseverance task after one of three levels of food deprivation: none, 12 hours, or 24 hours. We predicted that food deprivation would impair both concentration scores and perseverance time. Food deprivation had no significant effect on concentration scores, which is consistent with recent research on the effects of food deprivation (Green et al., 1995; Green et al., 1997). However, participants in the 12-hour deprivation group spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than those in both the control and 24-hour deprivation groups, suggesting that short-term deprivation may affect some aspects of cognition and not others. An APA Research Paper Model Thomas Delancy and Adam Solberg wrote the following research paper for a psychology class. As you review their paper, read the side notes and examine the following: ● The use and documentation of their numerous sources. ● The background they provide before getting into their own study results. ● The scientific language used when reporting their results. The introduction states the topic and the main questions to be explored. The researchers supply background information by discussing past research on the topic. Extensive referencing establishes support for the discussion. Running on Empty 3 Running on Empty: The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance Many things interrupt people’s ability to focus on a task: distractions, headaches, noisy environments, and even psychological disorders. To some extent, people can control the environmental factors that make it difficult to focus. However, what about internal factors, such as an empty stomach? Can people increase their ability to focus simply by eating regularly? One theory that prompted research on how food intake affects the average person was the glucostatic theory. Several researchers in the 1940s and 1950s suggested that the brain regulates food intake in order to maintain a blood-glucose set point. The idea was that people become hungry when their blood-glucose levels drop significantly below their set point and that they become satisfied after eating, when their blood-glucose levels return to that set point. This theory seemed logical because glucose is the brain’s primary fuel (Pinel, 2000). The earliest investigation of the general effects of food deprivation found that long-term food deprivation (36 hours and longer) was associated with sluggishness, depression, irritability, reduced heart rate, and inability to concentrate (Keys, Brozek, Henschel, Mickelsen, & Taylor, 1950). Another study found that fasting for several days produced muscular weakness, irritability, and apathy or depression (Kollar, Slater, Palmer, Docter, & Mandell, 1964). Since that time, research has focused mainly on how nutrition affects cognition. However, as Green, Elliman, and Rogers (1995) point out, the effects of food deprivation on cognition have received comparatively less attention in recent years. Center the title one inch from the top. Double-space throughout. Running on Empty 4 The relatively sparse research on food deprivation has left room for further research. First, much of the research has focused either on chronic starvation at one end of the continuum or on missing a single meal at the other end (Green et al., 1995). Second, some of the findings have been contradictory. One study found that skipping breakfast impairs certain aspects of cognition, such as problem-solving abilities (Pollitt, Lewis, Garza, & Shulman, 1983). However, other research by M. W. Green, N. A. Elliman, and P. J. Rogers (1995, 1997) has found that food deprivation ranging from missing a single meal to 24 hours without eating does not significantly impair cognition. Third, not all groups of people have been sufficiently studied. Studies have been done on 9–11 year-olds (Pollitt et al., 1983), obese subjects (Crumpton, Wine, & Drenick, 1966), college-age men and women (Green et al., 1995, 1996, 1997), and middle-age males (Kollar et al., 1964). Fourth, not all cognitive aspects have been studied. In 1995 Green, Elliman, and Rogers studied sustained attention, simple reaction time, and immediate memory; in 1996 they studied attentional bias; and in 1997 they studied simple reaction time, two-finger tapping, recognition memory, and free recall. In 1983, another study focused on reaction time and accuracy, intelligence quotient, and problem solving (Pollitt et al.). According to some researchers, most of the results so far indicate that cognitive function is not affected significantly by short-term fasting (Green et al., 1995, p. 246). However, this conclusion seems premature due to the relative lack of research on cognitive functions such as concentration and perseverance. To date, no study has tested perseverance, despite its importance in cognitive functioning. In fact, perseverance may be a better indicator than achievement tests in assessing growth in learning and thinking abilities, as perseverance helps in solving complex problems (Costa, 1984). Another study also recognized that perseverance, better learning techniques, and effort are cognitions worth studying (D’Agostino, 1996). Testing as many aspects of cognition as possible is key because the nature of the task is important when interpreting the link between food deprivation and cognitive performance (Smith & Kendrick, 1992). Clear transitions guide readers through the researchers’ reasoning. The researchers explain how their study will add to past research on the topic. The researchers support their decision to focus on concentration and perseverance. Running on Empty 5 Therefore, the current study helps us understand how short-term food deprivation affects concentration on and perseverance with a difficult task. Specifically, participants deprived of food for 24 hours were expected to perform worse on a concentration test and a perseverance task than those deprived for 12 hours, who in turn were predicted to perform worse than those who were not deprived of food. Method Participants Participants included 51 undergraduate-student volunteers (32 females, 19 males), some of whom received a small amount of extra credit in a college course. The mean college grade point average (GPA) was 3.19. Potential participants were excluded if they were dieting, menstruating, or taking special medication. Those who were struggling with or had struggled with an eating disorder were excluded, as were potential participants addicted to nicotine or caffeine. Materials Concentration speed and accuracy were measured using an online numbers-matching test (www.psychtests.com/tests/iq/concentration.html) that consisted of 26 lines of 25 numbers each. In 6 minutes, participants were required to find pairs of numbers in each line that added up to 10. Scores were calculated as the percentage of correctly identified pairs out of a possible 120. Perseverance was measured with a puzzle that contained five octagons—each of which included a stencil of a specific object (such as an animal or a flower). The octagons were to be placed on top of each other in a specific way to make the silhouette of a rabbit. However, three of the shapes were slightly altered so that the task was impossible. Perseverance scores were calculated as the number of minutes that a participant spent on the puzzle task before giving up. Procedure At an initial meeting, participants gave informed consent. Each consent form contained an assigned identification number and requested the participant’s GPA. Students were then informed that they would be notified by e-mail and telephone about their assignment to one of the The researchers state their initial hypotheses. Headings and subheadings show the paper’s organization. The experiment’s method is described, using the terms and acronyms of the discipline. Passive voice is used to emphasize the experiment, not the researchers; otherwise, active voice is used. Running on Empty 6 three experimental groups. Next, students were given an instruction sheet. These written instructions, which we also read aloud, explained the experimental conditions, clarified guidelines for the food deprivation period, and specified the time and location of testing. Participants were randomly assigned to one of these conditions using a matched-triplets design based on the GPAs collected at the initial meeting. This design was used to control individual differences in cognitive ability. Two days after the initial meeting, participants were informed of their group assignment and its condition and reminded that, if they were in a food-deprived group, they should not eat anything after 10 a.m. the next day. Participants from the control group were tested at 7:30 p.m. in a designated computer lab on the day the deprivation started. Those in the 12-hour group were tested at 10 p.m. on that same day. Those in the 24-hour group were tested at 10:40 a.m. on the following day. At their assigned time, participants arrived at a computer lab for testing. Each participant was given written testing instructions, which were also read aloud. The online concentration test had already been loaded on the computers for participants before they arrived for testing, so shortly after they arrived they proceeded to complete the test. Immediately after all participants had completed the test and their scores were recorded, participants were each given the silhouette puzzle and instructed how to proceed. In addition, they were told that (1) they would have an unlimited amount of time to complete the task, and (2) they were not to tell any other participant whether they had completed the puzzle or simply given up. This procedure was followed to prevent the group influence of some participants seeing others give up. Any participant still working on the puzzle after 40 minutes was stopped to keep the time of the study manageable. Immediately after each participant stopped working on the puzzle, he/she gave demographic information and completed a few manipulation-check items. We then debriefed and dismissed each participant outside of the lab. Attention is shown to the control features. The experiment is laid out step by step, with time transitions like “then” and “next.” Running on Empty 7 Results Perseverance data from one control-group participant were eliminated because she had to leave the session early. Concentration data from another control-group participant were dropped because he did not complete the test correctly. Three manipulation-check questions indicated that each participant correctly perceived his or her deprivation condition and had followed the rules for it. The average concentration score was 77.78 (SD = 14.21), which was very good considering that anything over 50 percent is labeled “good” or “above average.” The average time spent on the puzzle was 24.00 minutes (SD = 10.16), with a maximum of 40 minutes allowed. We predicted that participants in the 24-hour deprivation group would perform worse on the concentration test and the perseverance task than those in the 12-hour group, who in turn would perform worse than those in the control group. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no significant effect of deprivation condition on concentration, F(2,46) = 1.06, p = .36 (see Figure 1). Another one-way ANOVA indicated Figure 1. No deprivation 12-hour deprivation 24-hour deprivation Deprivation Condition 100 90 80 70 60 50 M ea n s co re o n c o n ce n tr at io n t es t The writers summarize their findings, including problems encountered. “See Figure 1” sends readers to a figure (graph, photograph, chart, or drawing) contained in the paper. All figures and illustrations (other than tables) are numbered in the order that they are first mentioned in the text. Running on Empty 8 a significant effect of deprivation condition on perseverance time, F(2,47) = 7.41, p < .05. Post-hoc Tukey tests indicated that the 12-hour deprivation group (M = 17.79, SD = 7.84) spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than either the control group (M = 26.80, SD = 6.20) or the 24-hour group (M = 28.75, SD = 12.11), with no significant difference between the latter two groups (see Figure 2). No significant effect was found for gender either generally or with specific deprivation conditions, Fs < 1.00. Unexpectedly, food deprivation had no significant effect on concentration scores. Overall, we found support for our hypothesis that 12 hours of food deprivation would significantly impair perseverance when compared to no deprivation. Unexpectedly, 24 hours of food deprivation did not significantly affect perseverance relative to the control group. Also unexpectedly, food deprivation did not significantly affect concentration scores. Discussion The purpose of this study was to test how different levels of food deprivation affect concentration on and perseverance with difficult tasks. 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 M ea n s co re o n p er se ve ra n ce t es t Figure 2. No deprivation 12-hour deprivation 24-hour deprivation Deprivation Condition The researchers restate their hypotheses and the results, and go on to interpret those results. Running on Empty 9 We predicted that the longer people had been deprived of food, the lower they would score on the concentration task, and the less time they would spend on the perseverance task. In this study, those deprived of food did give up more quickly on the puzzle, but only in the 12-hour group. Thus, the hypothesis was partially supported for the perseverance task. However, concentration was found to be unaffected by food deprivation, and thus the hypothesis was not supported for that task. The findings of this study are consistent with those of Green et al. (1995), where short-term food deprivation did not affect some aspects of cognition, including attentional focus. Taken together, these findings suggest that concentration is not significantly impaired by short-term food deprivation. The findings on perseverance, however, are not as easily explained. We surmise that the participants in the 12-hour group gave up more quickly on the perseverance task because of their hunger produced by the food deprivation. But why, then, did those in the 24-hour group fail to yield the same effect? We postulate that this result can be explained by the concept of “learned industriousness,” wherein participants who perform one difficult task do better on a subsequent task than the participants who never took the initial task (Eisenberger & Leonard, 1980; Hickman, Stromme, & Lippman, 1998). Because participants had successfully completed 24 hours of fasting already, their tendency to persevere had already been increased, if only temporarily. Another possible explanation is that the motivational state of a participant may be a significant determinant of behavior under testing (Saugstad, 1967). This idea may also explain the short perseverance times in the 12-hour group: because these participants took the tests at 10 p.m., a prime time of the night for conducting business and socializing on a college campus, they may have been less motivated to take the time to work on the puzzle. Research on food deprivation and cognition could continue in several directions. First, other aspects of cognition may be affected by short-term food deprivation, such as reading comprehension or motivation. With respect to this latter topic, some students in this study reported decreased motivation to complete the tasks because of a desire to eat immediately The writers speculate on possible explanations for the unexpected results. Running on Empty 10 after the testing. In addition, the time of day when the respective groups took the tests may have influenced the results: those in the 24-hour group took the tests in the morning and may have been fresher and more relaxed than those in the 12-hour group, who took the tests at night. Perhaps, then, the motivation level of food-deprived participants could be effectively tested. Second, longer-term food deprivation periods, such as those experienced by people fasting for religious reasons, could be explored. It is possible that cognitive function fluctuates over the duration of deprivation. Studies could ask how long a person can remain focused despite a lack of nutrition. Third, and perhaps most fascinating, studies could explore how food deprivation affects learned industriousness. As stated above, one possible explanation for the better perseverance times in the 24-hour group could be that they spontaneously improved their perseverance faculties by simply forcing themselves not to eat for 24 hours. Therefore, research could study how food deprivation affects the acquisition of perseverance. In conclusion, the results of this study provide some fascinating insights into the cognitive and physiological effects of skipping meals. Contrary to what we predicted, a person may indeed be very capable of concentrating after not eating for many hours. On the other hand, if one is taking a long test or working long hours at a tedious task that requires perseverance, one may be hindered by not eating for a short time, as shown by the 12-hour group’s performance on the perseverance task. Many people—students, working mothers, and those interested in fasting, to mention a few—have to deal with short-term food deprivation, intentional or unintentional. This research and other research to follow will contribute to knowledge of the disadvantages—and possible advantages—of skipping meals. The mixed results of this study suggest that we have much more to learn about short-term food deprivation. 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