Fluent Essays

This week is based on different readings, power points, and THE MOVIE SOCIAL DILEMMA. AI, using technology in and related to sport industry can take us into very different directions. I tried to make the information for you as diverse as possible this week. The readings are related to Esport - as a product innovation as well as a creative addition to existing sport related products as service. The presentations relate to utilization of AI in marketing (neuromarketing specifically) as well as in sport journalism and broadcasting. The movie - again please find it anyway you can - a thought provoking approach into the present and future of the relationship between humans and technology (I do not want to say robots). You I am sure can easily find also articles about how robots starting to report and create the news (The Guardian a couple of weeks ago) or even how anchors in some programs have been replaced by robots.....but also if you just refer to health/hospital conditions under the circumstances we live in we hear how robots can be extremely useful for helping out the nurses especially under pandemic or making people with disabilities or elderly taken care of better than humans could do. Our guest lecturer also mentioned how controversial is the use of technology if that mix up with our existing umpire development system....So how should we look at this new reality? How would and should robots and humans live together? And what type of technology can be useful for the sport industry's (healthy) future? Please based on the readings, ppts, and /or the movie go ahead and pick one aspect you are more interested in - and write a 3-page APA cited paper on how AI affects, influences, changes one sport of your choice. (or one sport related industry, service). The paper should make clear what is the AI you are referring to; whom does it affect the most; what type of changes it generates; and whether is there ethical considerations we should be aware of. PLEASE KEEP IN MIND THIS IS A CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN *SPORTS* CLASS! I HAVE ATTACHED EVERYTHING NEEDED! J Gambl Stud https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-018-9763-1 1 3 REVIEW PAPER The Psychology of Esports: A Systematic Literature Review Fanni Bányai1,2 · Mark D. Griffiths3 · Orsolya Király1 · Zsolt Demetrovics1 © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018 Abstract Recently, the skill involved in playing and mastering video games has led to the professionalization of the activity in the form of ‘esports’ (electronic sports). The aim of the present paper was to review the main topics of psychological interest about esports and then to examine the similarities of esports to professional and problem gambling. As a result of a systematic literature search, eight studies were identified that had investigated three topics: (1) the process of becoming an esport player, (2) the characteristics of esport players such as mental skills and motivations, and (3) the motivations of esport spectators. These findings draw attention to the new research field of professional video game playing and provides some preliminary insight into the psychology of esports players. The paper also examines the similarities between esport players and professional gamblers (and more specifically poker players). It is suggested that future research should focus on esport play- ers’ psychological vulnerability because some studies have begun to investigate the differ- ence between problematic and professional gambling and this might provide insights into whether the playing of esports could also be potentially problematic for some players. Keywords Esport · Professional video gaming · Competitive video gaming · Gambling · Poker · Video games · Gaming motivations * Zsolt Demetrovics [email protected] 1 Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Izabella utca 46, Budapest 1064, Hungary 2 Doctoral School of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary 3 International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5604-7551 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s10899-018-9763-1&domain=pdf J Gambl Stud 1 3 Introduction Playing video games has become one of the most popular recreational activities, not just among children and adolescents, but also among adults too (Entertainment Software Asso- ciation 2017). Video games have changed throughout the past five decades, and have devel- oped from early standalone games such as Space Marines (1962) and Pong (1972) into col- laborative and competitive games played via massively multiplayer online environments, where millions of players can play simultaneously against the games’ non-player enemies or against other players. More recently, video game playing has become professionalized and for a small minority of players has become a career option in the world of competitive gaming (Faust et  al. 2013; Griffiths 2017). This new professional type of video gaming activity has been termed esports (electronic sports). Esport is a new area in the gaming culture, and is starting to become one of the most essential and popular part of video game communities, especially among adolescents and emerging adults. Competitive video game communities started out in South Korea, and the popularity of First Person Shooter (FPS) games, Real Time Strategy (RTS) games and Massively Multi- player Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) provided a base for the emerging compe- titions, not only in Asia, but also in Western countries and regions (Taylor 2012; Wagner 2006). Globally, there are now thousands of video game players who define themselves as professional gamers (i.e., so-called esport players and pro-gamers). Although the FPS and the RTS genres have retained their popularity, the new Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) games have become the most popular genre in esports. As a recent global esport market report (Newzoo 2017) noted, the esport economy grew 41.3% (up to $696 million) in 2017, and esport brand investment is expected to double by 2020. It is estimated that the global esport audience has reached 385 million, and that 45% of them play esport games, 23% view esport streams, and 32% both play and view esport streams (Newzoo 2017). There are different definitions of what esports comprise although there are some similar characteristics. Ma et  al. (2013) drew attention to the fact that esport players differ from casual gamers. An esports player is a professional gamer who plays for competition, rather than for fun and/or relaxation, and define gaming as their job. Casual gamers play for fun and recreation, and to entertain themselves (Ma et  al. 2013). Wagner (2006) provided a detailed definition of esport as “an area of sport activities in which people develop and train mental or physical abilities in the use of information and communication technolo- gies” (Wagner 2006, p. 3). Hemphill (2005) adds that esports are “alternative sport reali- ties, that is, to electronically extended athletes in digitally represented sporting worlds” (p. 199). More pragmatically, esports have been defined as “an umbrella term used to describe organized, sanctioned video game competitions, most often in the context of video game tournaments” (Whalen 2013). In summary, according to these definitions and descriptions, esports are alternate sports, and a special way of using video games and engaging in game- play (Adamus 2012). A number of scholars have attempted to theoretically compare esport to other sports confirming the assumption that esport is similar to other sporting activities (Adamus 2012; Taylor 2012; Wagner 2006). According to Guttman’s (2004) and Suits’ (2007) characteris- tics that define an activity as sport, esport can be classed as a sport because it includes play (i.e., voluntary, intrinsically motivated activity), the events are organized and governed by rules, includes competition with the outcome of a winner and a loser, and comprises skill. Esports also have a large following via online streaming platforms such as Twitch and YouTube. Furthermore, such activities can be played via a Local Area Network (LAN) J Gambl Stud 1 3 connection between computer devices, the events are hosted by sponsors, and have esport play-by-play commentaries, jumbotrons (i.e., large televised screens), sizeable live audi- ences, and large cash prizes for the best gamers (Adamus 2012; Jenny et al. 2016; Jonasson and Thiborg 2010; Lopez-Gonzalez and Griffiths 2016). Taylor (2012) also highlighted in her work, that the rules of esport tournaments, sys- tems, play, judging, and broadcasting can be similar to traditional sports, and professional gamers can be compared to the requirements and practice of the athletes of professional sports (i.e., training, practice, and physical and mental states of athletes). According to Jenny et  al. (2016), two of Guttmann’s (2004) criteria need further elaboration before esport being classed as a professional sport. The first criterion concerns physical perfor- mance and the extent to which there is a skillful and strategic use of the player’s body (because not all of it is used when playing). However, there are many sports in which only specific body parts are used when competing (e.g., darts, snooker, shooting) so this cri- terion on its own would not rule out esports being classed as a true sport. The second criterion concerns institutional stability, which means esport requires centralized rules for regulation and stabilization to be recognized as a sport, and not just viewed as a juvenile recreation activity (Jenny et al. 2016). The different types of esport games (e.g., first person shooters, MOBA games) with specific rules make it more difficult to achieve institutional stability. However, global esport organizations already exist, like the International e-Sports Federation (IeSF), supporting esport games to be recognized as professional sports, and providing institutional basis for regulation and stabilization (International e-Sports Federa- tion 2017). Nevertheless, it remains a future task to come to a consensus about whether esport is a genuine sport or not. To understand the background of the new gaming phenomenon of esport, the explora- tion of the motivational patterns of the video game use is arguably the most important topic. This is particularly relevant because Griffiths (2017) noted that when video gam- ing becomes an occupation and career where players make a financial living rather than engaging in the activity as a hobby, it potentially changes the motivations of gaming. Many researchers have examined the motivations of gamers, and even if the theoretical basis and the examined video game genres are different, some general and common motivational pat- terns have been found according to various empirical studies carried out. For instance, Vor- derer and his colleagues (Vorderer 2000; Vorderer et al. 2003) found that the most essential elements underlying gaming motivations are interactivity and competition. Interactivity is the opportunity to communicate and cooperate with other gamers in the online environ- ment, and competition is the mechanism by which gamers can compare themselves to each other. Sherry and colleagues (Greenberg et  al. 2010; Sherry et  al. 2006) outlined similar motivational patterns among graduate school and high school students who played video games, including arousal, challenge, competition, distraction, fantasy, and social inter- actions. According to their findings, motivations were different depending upon the age of the gamer. The most important motivations for younger gamers were competition and challenge (those in the 5th grade), while older gamers were more motivated by challenge, social interactions, arousal and distraction (students in the 8th and 11th grades). Yee (2006a, 2006b) explored the motivations of MMORPG players. Among the motiva- tions for playing were achievement motivations (advancement, mechanics, competition), social motivations (socializing, relationship, teamwork), and immersion factors (discov- ery, role-playing, customization, escapism). The Motivation of Online Games Question- naire developed by Demetrovics et  al. (2011) examined gamer motivations in a more general way. However, their results showed similar motivational patterns among gamers to other empirical studies (i.e., escapism, coping, fantasy, skill development, recreation, J Gambl Stud 1 3 competition, and social). One of the common findings of these different studies is that competition is one of the most essential motivations in the playing of video games. Thus, players who identify themselves as a professional esport player should have higher levels of competitive motivation although other playing motivations are also likely to be different from non-professional and casual players. Despite the popularity of esports, few empiri- cal studies appear to have investigated the psychological profile of professional gamers. Furthermore, there are no systematic reviews of the psychological literature to date. Con- sequently, the present literature review aimed to review recent empirical research that has focused specifically on esport (i.e., professional gaming) from a psychological perspective. Methods The present study aimed to collate and review all the empirical studies concerning esport from a psychological perspective published between 2000 and 2017. Given that compet- itive gaming only started to occur after videogames could be played online and against other people, the year 2000 was chosen as a start date for the search because the playing of videogames competitively did not exist prior to this date. The data collection included all studies published between January 2000 to July 2017. The literature search comprised the following databases: Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, and Web of Knowledge. The following keywords were used in the respective search engines: ‘esport video gam*’; ‘professional gam*’; ‘pro gam*’; ‘competitive video gam*’; ‘esport competitive video gam*’; ‘sport video gam*’ and ‘professional video gam*’. Each search was performed not only in titles of the papers, but also in the abstracts (where this option was available) for the following reasons: (i) the title words in the paper can sometimes be limited and may not specifically mention esport; and (ii) the authors could use various synonyms or different terms that equated to the definitions of esport. A total of 30 papers were found as a result of the systematic search. However, based on the inclusion criteria (i.e., an empirical study containing new primary data and published in a peer reviewed journal in the English language), a total of 22 papers were excluded because they were either non-empirical (n = 11), were published in conference proceedings or student theses (n = 8), or were not specifically focused on esport (n = 3). This left a total of eight empirical studies that met the inclusion requirements (see Table 1). Results The eight studies comprised three main topics: (i) becoming an esport player (i.e., the iden- tity and transformation of esport players), (ii) the characteristics of esport players (mental skills, motivational patterns, etc.), and (iii) the motivations of esport spectators (i.e., why individuals watch esport). Becoming an Esport Player In a study by Seo (2016), the author focused on different perspectives of esport definition, and examined whether esport was fun or work (or neither) by attending esports tourna- ments in a number of countries and via in-depth interviews with 10 professional eSports players. Seo’s (2016) research goals were threefold, to explore: (i) the elements of esport J Gambl Stud 1 3 T ab le 1 Su m m ar y ta bl e of e sp or t f oc us ed p sy ch ol og ic al s tu di es St ud y C ou nt ry Sa m pl e M et ho d an d pr oc ed ur e St at is tic al a na ly si s M ai n go al s of s tu dy 1. L ee a nd S ch oe ns te dt (2 01 1) U SA 51 5 co lle ge s tu de nt s an d at hl et ic e ve nt a tte nd ee s C on ve ni en ce s am pl in g m et ho d. D at a w er e co l- le ct ed in s po rt m an ag e- m en t r el at ed c ou rs es , an d at a th le tic e ve nt s on ca m pu se s M ul tip le re gr es si on an al ys is To c om pa re e sp or t g am e pa tte rn s w ith tr ad iti on al sp or t i nv ol ve m en ts a nd to e xa m in e ho w th e re la te d m ot iv at io ns a ff ec t th e tim e sp en t o n es po rt ga m in g 2. W ei ss a nd S ch ie le (2 01 3) G er m an y 36 0 es po rt p la ye rs Se lf -r ep or t q ue st io nn ai re . C om pl et ed a t W or ld C yb er G am es (W C G ) i n C ol og ne in N ov em be r 20 08 M ul tip le re gr es si on an al ys is , g ro up c om - pa ri so n (t - a nd F -t es t) , an d V ar ia nc e E xt ra ct ed (A V E ) To in ve st ig at e w hi ch co m pe tit iv e an d he do ni c ne ed s ha ve in flu en ce o n co nt in uo us u se o f e sp or ts ac co rd in g to u se s an d gr at ifi ca tio ns th eo ry 3. L ee e t a l. (2 01 4) So ut h K or ea 10 3 es po rt s pe ct at or s Se lf -r ep or t q ue st io nn ai re . C om pl et ed a t t he 2 01 3 Le ag ue o f L eg en ds W or ld C ha m pi on sh ip Fi na ls a t t he Y on gs an e- Sp or ts S ta di um o n O ct ob er 5 , 2 10 3 B iv ar ia te c or re la tio ns , m ul tip le re gr es si on an al ys is To e xp lo re th e m ot iv at io na l pa tte rn fo r w at ch in g es po rt (m or e sp ec ifi - ca lly , L ea gu e of L eg en ds ) br oa dc as ts , a nd h ow th es e m ot iv es e ff ec t t he sa tis fa ct io n of v ie w er s 4. M ar to nč ik (2 01 5) Sl ov ak ia , C ze ch R ep ub lic 10 8 es po rt p la ye rs , 5 4 ca su al p la ye rs Se lf -r ep or t q ue st io n- na ir e. S en t v ia e -m ai l or d ir ec tly to in -g am e m es sa ge s ys te m s G ro up c om pa ri so n (A N O V A , i nd ep en de nt - sa m pl es t te st ) To in ve st ig at e th e di ff er - en ce b et w ee n es po rt pl ay er s (m or e sp ec ifi ca lly , so lo v s. te am p la ye rs , te am le ad er s vs . n on -l ea d- er s) a nd c as ua l p la ye rs in ga m in g m ot iv at io ns , a nd ho w g am in g sa tis fie s th ei r lif e go al s J Gambl Stud 1 3 T ab le 1 (c on tin ue d) St ud y C ou nt ry Sa m pl e M et ho d an d pr oc ed ur e St at is tic al a na ly si s M ai n go al s of s tu dy 5. K im a nd T ho m as (2 01 5) So ut h K or ea N in e es po rt p la ye rs , t w o te am c oa ch es , t w o te am di re ct or s an d on e ps y- ch ol og ic al c ou ns el or In te rv ie w s w ith th e pa rt ic ip an ts (S ta rC ra ft pl ay er s, c oa ch es a nd ps yc ho lo gi ca l c ou n- se lo r) In te rv ie w a na ly si s ba se d on g ro un de d th eo ry m et ho do lo gy (G la se r an d St ra us s 19 67 ) To d ev el op th e st ag e th eo ry m od el o f p ro fe ss io na l es po rt p la ye rs , w he re th e m ot iv at io ns (e xt ri ns ic an d in tr in si c) , g oa ls a nd le ar ni ng s ty le c ha ng e du r- in g th e pr oc es s to b ec om e an e sp or t p la ye r 6. Se o (2 01 6) So ut h K or ea , U SA , A us - tr al ia , N ew Z ea la nd 10 e sp or t p la ye rs (i ) F ie ld o bs er va tio ns at re al -w or ld e Sp or ts to ur na m en ts (S ou th K or ea , U SA , A us tr al ia , N ew Z ea la nd ) (i i) 1 0 se m i- st ru ct ur ed ph en om en ol og ic al in te rv ie w s w ith e sp or t pl ay er s T he m at ic a na ly si s ba se d on a h er m en eu tic in te rp re tiv e fr am ew or k (T ho m ps on 1 99 7) To e xp lo re th e el em en ts of e sp or t c on su m pt io n w hi ch m ak e at tr ac tiv e th e pr of es si on al iz ed e sp or t ca re er fo r p la ye rs , t o in ve st ig at e th e re as on s w hy p la ye rs p ur su e th is ca re er , a nd to fo llo w th e pl ay er s’ id en tit y tr an sf or - m at io n in to p ro fe ss io na l- iz ed g am er id en tit y 7. H am ar i a nd S jö bl om (2 01 7) N ot s pe ci fie d 88 8 es po rt v ie w er s Se lf -r ep or t q ue st io nn ai re , da ta w er e co lle ct ed on lin e on e Sp or ts re la te d su b- R ed di ts , Tw itt er , F ac eb oo k, si m ila r p ag es C om po ne nt -b as ed P L S- SE M (P ar tia l L ea st Sq ua re s St ru ct ur al E qu at io n M od el in g) To in ve st ig at e th e m ot iv a- tio na l b ac kg ro un d, w hy pe op le w at ch e sp or t o n th e in te rn et 8. H im m el st ei n et  a l. (2 01 7) U SA Fi ve e sp or t p la ye rs Se m i- st ru ct ur ed in te r- vi ew s w ith c om pe ti- tiv e Le ag ue o f L eg en d pl ay er s In te rv ie w a na ly si s ba se d on in du ct iv e an d de du c- tiv e co nt en t a na ly si s (E lo a nd K yn gä s 20 08 ) To id en tif y th e m en ta l s ki lls an d po ss ib le o bs ta cl es o f es po rt p la ye rs to a ch ie ve be tte r p er fo rm an ce J Gambl Stud 1 3 consumption that make the activity attractive to a career of a professional esport player, (ii) the reasons why esport players want to pursue such a career opportunity, and (iii) how players progress through the identity transformation to aquire a professional gamer identity. Seo (2016) characterized professional esport playing as a serious leisure activity, follow- ing Stebbins’ (1982) definition. Serious leisure can be defined as an intermediate activity between casual leisure and work with beneficial implications, such as gaining self-concept and identity development during the activity (e.g., amateur sport attendance). In Seo’s study (2016), professional esport players claimed that the main elements that attracted players to pursue a career in esports were the celebration of the mastery of skills, the pursuit of self- improvement, and the importance of fairness, equity, and mutual respect (i.e., via online/ LAN tournaments, formal institutional rules, and the norms and codes of esport govern- ment). However, esport players were determined to aquire a professional career, and that the ‘journey’ gave them opportunity to experience high self-esteem, accomplishment, and social recognition. Even though esport is a serious leisure activity, the professional players still valued the activity as fun and self-motivating. Examining how esport players aquire a professional gamer identity, Seo (2016) identified three stages mapping onto Campbell’s (1965) hero’s journey monomyth. According to the narratives of esport players, in the first stage (“the call to adventure”) players viewed games as casual leisure activity (playing for fun, knowing the mainstream gamer community). However, they started to form initial per- ceptions and gain interpersonal relationships in the social world of esport. In the second phase (“the road of trials”), they begin the personal transformation to becoming an esport player. For example, they specialize their skills and knowledge about game and mechanics, and their attitudes also change towards gaming and they begin to engage more regularly in esport practices. In the final stage (“the master of two worlds”), professional players aquire a new esport gamer identity. They then find the opportunities to confirm this new identity with other important aspects of their daily lives and their global self-concept of being an esports player. Similarly to Seo (2016), Kim and Thomas (2015) explored the process how a video game player becomes an esport player utilizing activity theory (Engeström 1993, 1999; Engeström et  al. 1999). The authors developed a model explaining the gamers’ motiva- tional patterns, changing goals, and learning styles while becoming professional esport players from a more socio-cultural perspective. Kim and Thomas (2015) also highlighted that when trying to define esport, it is important to investigate the complex phenomenon more holistically, including not just the esport players, but also the sponsors, fans, and the whole esport society. From this standpoint, Kim and Thomas (2015) developed their stage theory model of professional video game players by interviewing South Korean profes- sional esport players (n = 9), coaches (n = 2), team directors (n = 2) and a psychological counselor of professional video game play. After all the interviews, five different stages were developed, where the players’ performance and motivational patterns can differ. At the beginning, professional gamers are unexperienced and have to solve tasks they have never seen before (enjoying stage). Following this, they improve their skills, lose their intrinsic motivations, and the enjoyment of gaming (struggling stage). When players gain a more developed competency, they experience the enjoyment of the gaming itself again (achieving stage). Unfortunately, most of the players do not maintain the achieving stage, and no longer have the opportunity to play in an official (professional) capacity. They ‘lose’ the glory and satisfaction they experienced earlier (and enter the slumping stage) before having to recover (recovering stage). The authors drew attention to the motivational pat- terns that change during the development of an esport player, highlighting the fact that esport players use these particular video games differently from a casual gamer. This J Gambl Stud 1 3 means that playing video games in the higher stages of this model are considered as work (extrinsic motivations) rather than leisure (intrinsic motivations). The Characteristics of Esport Players A recent study by (Himmelstein et al. 2017) interviewing five esport players identified the mental skills and techniques used by esport players in achieving optimal performance in a highly competitive gaming environment. The researchers not only aimed to pinpoint the mental elements of success in esport, but identified the barriers in executing a good perfor- mance. For successful performance, emphasized that esport players need to (i) have great knowledge about the video game, (ii) think strategically and make fast and smart decisions, (iii) be motivated to keep moving forward (i.e., not think about the past performances), (iv) be able to separate daily life from performance, (v) avoid being distracted and stay focused, (vi) cope adaptively with the harassment, (vii) maintain a growth mindset (i.e., positive attitude), and (viii) warm up before performance either physically and/or mentally. To achieve optimal performance, it was claimed that players should be able to adapt their opponents, communicate properly with their teammates, and trust their skills. Additionally, they should be capable of developing themselves and their team (i.e., engage in individual skill practice, analyze one’s own performance), and set various types of goals (short-term, long-term, process). In addition to the mental elements of performing optimally, the pos- sible barriers of performing were also identified. These barriers related to the elements of optimal performance, such as confidence issues, inadequate coping strategies with anxi- ety, past achievements and mistakes, harassment, lack of self- and team development (e.g., knowledge about the game, team dynamics, team communication, individual skills), and difficulty in separating life and gaming (Himmelstein et al. 2017). Three studies focused on exploring the motivations of esport players, examining why such individuals play video games in a competitive way. However, these studies were based on different motivational models. Lee and Schoenstedt (2011) surveyed over 500 college students and athletic event attendees and compared esport to traditional sports by assess- ing the players’ motivations and needs using the theoretical framework of uses and grati- fications theory (Katz et  al. 1973). Based on previous video game uses and gratifications studies (Kim and Ross 2006; Lee et al. 2012; Sherry et al. 2006) the authors assessed the following esport related motivations: social interaction, fantasy, identification with sport, diversion, competition, entertainment, sport knowledge application, arousal, design/graph- ics, passing time, control, skill building, permanence, and peer pressure. The findings dem- onstrated that personal and social elements of playing video games influenced individuals’ interest in esport. The stronger motivations of spending time on esport playing were com- petition, peer pressure, and skill building for actual playing of sport. Compared to tradi- tional sport behavior involvement, the study explored similarities between esport and tra- ditional sport consumption (i.e., game attendance, game participation, sports viewership, sports readership, sports listenership, online usage specific to sports, and purchase of team merchandise). The televised viewing and online usage showed the greatest involvement in both esport and sport behavior. In addition, the other three sport consumption elements showed similarity among esport and non-esport players. However in-game participation, radio listenership, and team merchandise purchase were less common among esport play- ers than traditional sport players. From another theoretical perspective, Weiss and Schiele (2013) surveyed 360 esport players and demonstrated which competitive and hedonic need gratifications drive J Gambl Stud 1 3 continuous use of esports according to uses and gratifications theory (Katz et  al. 1973). The study found that esports can offer services that fulfill players’ needs, confirming pre- vious studies focused on the global gaming motivations of online games and competitive offline games (Mäyrä 2008; Phillips et  al. 1995; Sherry et  al. 2006; Yee 2006a, 2006b). The competition, challenge, and escapism motivations were identified as the need gratifica- tions obtained through esport. Escapism is a motivation of video game usage in general, and means the player uses a video game to avoid thinking about real-life problems, slipping into the character’s role, and … See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321850348 eSport vs Sport: A Comparison of Spectator Motives Article  in  Sport Marketing Quarterly · September 2017 CITATION 1 READS 9,616 6 authors, including: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: martial art View project Competitive Advantage through Horizontal Integration: The Case of eSport View project Anthony Pizzo Temple University 5 PUBLICATIONS   26 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE Bradley James Baker Temple University 10 PUBLICATIONS   42 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE Sangwon Na Temple University 2 PUBLICATIONS   1 CITATION    SEE PROFILE Mi Ae Lee Temple University 1 PUBLICATION   1 CITATION    SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Anthony Pizzo on 05 July 2018. 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https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Temple_University?enrichId=rgreq-40c3b6b7140f6174b7d578fe227c458d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMyMTg1MDM0ODtBUzo2NDUxMTI3OTEwNTIyODhAMTUzMDgxODI4Mzc1Ng%3D%3D&el=1_x_6&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mi_Ae_Lee?enrichId=rgreq-40c3b6b7140f6174b7d578fe227c458d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMyMTg1MDM0ODtBUzo2NDUxMTI3OTEwNTIyODhAMTUzMDgxODI4Mzc1Ng%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anthony_Pizzo?enrichId=rgreq-40c3b6b7140f6174b7d578fe227c458d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMyMTg1MDM0ODtBUzo2NDUxMTI3OTEwNTIyODhAMTUzMDgxODI4Mzc1Ng%3D%3D&el=1_x_10&_esc=publicationCoverPdf 108 Volume 27 • Number 2 • 2018 • Sport Marketing Quarterly Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2018, 27, 108-123, © 2018 West Virginia University eSport vs. Sport: A Comparison of Spectator Motives Anthony D. Pizzo, Bradley J. Baker, Sangwon Na, Mi Ae Lee, Doohan Kim, and Daniel C. Funk Anthony D. Pizzo is a research/teaching assistant in the School of Sport, Tourism, and Hospitality Management and a PhD candidate in the Fox School of Business at Temple University. His research interests include strategic management, institution- al theory, and the growing affi liation between the sport and eSport industries. Bradley J. Baker, PhD, is a research/teaching assistant in the School of Sport, Tourism, and Hospitality Management at Temple University. His research interests include sport marketing and consumer behavior, sport pricing, sport consumer loyalty, and machine learning. Sangwon Na is a PhD candidate in the Fox School of Business at Temple University. His interests include sport marketing and consumer behavior, internationalization of sport, and sport branding. Mi Ae Lee is a PhD candidate in the Fox School of Business at Temple University. Her research interests include sport con- sumer behavior and psychology, and team merchandise sales and marketing. Doohan Kim, PhD, is a lecturer at the Korea National Sport University. His research interests include sport organization man- agement strategy, commercial sports facility management, sports branding, and sport industry management of Taekwondo. Daniel C. Funk, PhD, is a professor in the School of Sport, Tourism, and Hospitality Management at Temple University. His research interests include sport consumer behavior and marketing. Abstract eSports–organized video game competitions–are growing in popularity, with top tournaments drawing crowds of spectators rivaling traditional sporting events. Understanding the extent to which eSport operates similarly to traditional sport is vital to developing marketing strategies for the eSport industry and inform- ing academic research on eSport. Prior research has examined eSports in isolation from traditional sports, overlooking direct comparisons to understand the degree to which eSport spectators are motivated similarly to traditional sport spectators. Th e current study measures widely-used sport consumption motives to ex- amine their infl uence on eSport spectatorship and game attendance frequency. In South Korea, spectator motives across one traditional sport (soccer) and two eSport contexts (FIFA Online 3 and StarCraft II) were measured. MANOVA results identify similar patterns for 11 out of 15 motives across the three. Signifi cant diff erences between contexts include vicarious achievement, excitement, physical attractiveness, and fam- ily bonding. Multiple regression analysis results show that spectators across contexts have distinct sets of motives infl uencing game attendance. Th e current study demonstrates that traditional sport and eSports are similarly consumed, suggesting that sport industry professionals can manage and market eSport events similarly to traditional sport events. Keywords: eSport, consumer behavior, spectator sport, marketing, spectator motives eSports, organized video game competitions, are increasingly receiving mainstream media recognition as sport (Funk, Pizzo, & Baker, 2018). Yet, consid- ering eSport as a form of sport is still perceived by many as subversive (Jonasson & Th iborg, 2010). Th e establishment of national and international governing bodies has added structure and regulation to a quickly growing industry, institutionalizing the practices of competitive gaming (Seo, 2013). eSport has many of the components of traditional sport, including players, teams, managers, leagues, competitions, marquee events, endorsement deals, player transfer fees, col- lege scholarships, and a dark side with match fi xing, doping, and gender-related disputes (Jenny, Manning, Keiper, & Olrich, 2017; Newzoo, 2016; Gies, 2016). Th e increasing institutionalization and broadening con- sumer and participant markets of eSport has attracted major corporate sponsors, such as Microsoft , Sam- sung, and Red Bull. Th e global eSport industry gen- erated revenues of more than $325 million worldwide Volume 27 • Number 2 • 2018 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 109 in 2015, with projected revenues of $465 million in 2017 (Newzoo, 2016). There is increasing recognition of eSport as sport among industry stakeholders. eSport teams are being managed by traditional sport organi- zations (e.g., Philadelphia 76ers), covered on tradition- al sport media outlets (e.g., ESPN and Turner Sports), organized by traditional sport leagues (e.g., e-Ligue 1 and NBA 2K eLeague), and formally recognized by major university athletics departments (e.g., University of California–Irvine)—highlighting growing connec- tions between traditional sport and eSports (Conditt, 2016; Rovell, 2016; Sarkar, 2017). eSport represents a new area for study in sport con- sumer behavior (Funk, 2017). Understanding whether eSport operates similarly to traditional sport is key to developing appropriate marketing strategies for the eSport industry and can inform academic research. If eSports and traditional sports are similarly consumed in accordance with the same spectator motives, existing theoretical and practical approaches to sport consumer behavior are likely applicable to eSport, as well. Existing eSport research has centered on eSport consumption, focusing on playing and spectating (e.g., Lee & Schoenstedt, 2011; Weiss & Schiele, 2013). This research examined eSports in isolation from tradi- tional sports (e.g., soccer, baseball, and basketball), without comparing the two, and thereby was unable to understand the extent to which eSport spectators are motivated similarly to traditional sport spectators (e.g., Hamari & Sjöblom, 2017). Other scholars have applied traditional sport definitions to examine eSport as sport (e.g., Jenny et al., 2017; Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010). While these studies provide a starting point for future research, they do not extend our knowledge of eSport spectators from a consumer behavior perspective or aid in eSport marketing efforts. If eSport and tradi- tional sport spectators share similar motives, eSport marketers can utilize established sport marketing practices. Understanding spectator motives (e.g., social op- portunities, vicarious achievement) is essential, as these motives are predictive of behavioral outcomes such as game attendance frequency (Fink, Trail, & Anderson, 2002; Funk, Beaton, & Alexandris, 2012). Behavioral outcomes in sport marketing research can encourage sport marketing professionals to identify the most relevant motives needed to understand sport spectators. There are similarities in the consumer experience of attending eSport events and traditional sport events. Similarly to traditional sport spectators, eSport spectators may be seeking social opportunities to come together, watch their favorite players and teams compete live, and to be part of an exciting experience where they can see the best players in action (Eventbrite, 2015). As such, many of the motives for attendance may be common across traditional and eSports. However, eSport spectator motives have not been assessed at eSport events or compared to a traditional sport consumption context. Given the growth of the eSport industry (Newzoo, 2016) and lack of research, there is a growing need for academic study in this area. The current research adapts consumer behavior mo- tives from established sport consumption motivation scales. Specifically the Motivation Scale for Sport Con- sumption (MSSC; Trail & James, 2001) and the Sport Interest Inventory (SII; Funk, Mahony, & Nakazawa, 2001). Motives from the MSSC and SII were selected given the scales’ established validity within the sport marketing literature. Comparison of spectator motives between eSport and traditional sporting event contexts permits assessment of similarities and differences between the two. The use of selected motives from the MSSC and SII is not meant to be inclusive of all pos- sible consumer motives, but motives from both scales were selected to capture a broad range with the aim of identifying similarities in consumption patterns. Research Context Existing definitions of modern sport emphasize its physical, competitive, and institutionalized dimen- sions (Guttmann, 2004). Whether eSport meets these criteria and falls within the boundaries of sport is a source of ongoing debate (e.g., Hallmann & Giel, 2018; Heere, 2018; Hilvoorde & Pot 2016; Holt, 2016; Jenny et al., 2017; Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010; Witkowski, 2012). Specifically, a critical aspect of the debate centers on the perceived lack of physical skill in eSport (Jonasson, 2016). An established feature distinguishing a game from sport is the physical application of skill (Coakley, 2008; Suits, 2007). Some scholars state that eSport lacks the physicality required to be considered sport (Jenny et al., 2017). Yet, advocates for eSport as sport suggest that eSport shares many of the central features of traditional sport. Proponents argue that eSports involve interpersonal competition, skill training and development, adherence to rules, goal attainment, coordination, and agility (Crawford & Gosling, 2009; Holt, 2016; Wagner, 2006). The debate over eSport as sport provides a starting point for additional research and the need for a novel approach to advance the conversation. Considering how eSport meets many of the criteria for sport (e.g., organized, competitive, institutional- ized), the current study takes a consumer behavior perspective as an approach to move the dialogue 110 Volume 27 • Number 2 • 2018 • Sport Marketing Quarterly forward. Sport management is an applied discipline and sport marketers could build on existing marketing strategies if eSport consumers operate similarly to traditional sport consumers. Sport industry profes- sionals, beset with the many challenges of their jobs, do not have the luxury of time to wait for academics to resolve theoretical disputes and develop definitive an- swers about the management of sport (Boucher, 1998). Thus, the current study considers the possibility that traditional sports and eSports are consumed similarly to provide guidance to practitioners managing and marketing the growing number of eSport events. eSports and related events are rapidly growing in global popularity. However, eSports in the West are in their relative infancy when compared to their estab- lished place in the culture of some East Asian coun- tries (Li, 2016). For instance, in South Korea, eSports are governed by a national association (Korean eSports Asssocation; KeSPA), which certifies professional players, provides ranking lists, and arranges compe- titions (Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010). Thus, the current study was conducted in South Korea, where traditional sports and eSports both operate within stable and mature environments. Literature Review Defining eSport eSports are organized video game competitions, most often in the context of organized tournaments (Jenny et al., 2017). eSports encompass an array of platforms, from personal computers to gaming consoles and genres including sport-themed games such as FIFA Online 3, and real-time strategy (RTS) games, such as StarCraft II (Seo & Jung, 2014). Sport-themed and RTS games are two of the most popular genres of eSports (Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010). Sport-themed eSports imitate physical sport, while RTS games are repre- sentations of fighting or military battles (Burk, 2013). Similarly to traditional sport, eSports contain compar- ative measures to assess a player’s level of performance within the game (Seo, 2013). In sport-themed eSports, these measures could be consistent with the rules of a physical sport, such as scoring goals in a soccer match (Crawford & Gosling, 2009; Seo & Jung, 2014). In RTS eSports, an individual player controls an entire virtual army, which is viewed from an aerial perspective with players focused on defeating or destroying their opponents (Buchanan‐Oliver & Seo, 2012; Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010) via an array of possible objectives, most commonly destroying their opponents’ structures and units. Prevalent stereotypes depict gamers as young, single men living in their parents’ basement (Casselman, 2015). However, Newzoo, a leader in eSport market intelligence, found that most eSport fans are employed full time, 44% are parents, with a large segment (38%) of female consumers (Souza, 2015). The Entertainment Software Association reports that women represent a rapidly growing segment of gamers (Entertainment Software Association, 2016). Industry reports further suggest that eSports consumers are racially diverse, resulting from eSport’s Asian roots moving into North America and Europe (Price Waterhouse Cooper [PWC], 2016). One aspect of the stereotype is accurate, however, as eSport spectators tend to be young—a potential selling point for marketers looking to appeal to the next generation of consumers (Souza, 2015). eSport events are live, competitive tournaments of predominantly professional gamers (Eventbrite, 2015). Premier eSport events draw huge crowds and quickly sell out marquee venues, such as The Staples Center and Madison Square Garden (PWC, 2016). With eSport spectators’ desire for more events, in more places, and more often (Eventbrite, 2015), understand- ing eSport event spectator motives can facilitate the marketing of eSport events and improve the spectator experience. Industry reports suggest that eSport event spectators represent a vast source of untapped poten- tial (PWC, 2016), further highlighting the need for research into eSport spectator motives. Sport Motivation Research Sport consumer behavior researchers have built on the work of Hebb (1955) and Deci (1971) to understand sport consumer behavior by identifying motives salient to sport consumption. Hebb (1955) defines motivation as the processes that energize and direct purposeful behavior, with Deci (1971) adding that motives encourage behaviors because of the enjoy- ment generated by the activities. Motivation is one of the most heavily studied constructs in sport-related research (Snelgrove, Taks, Chalip, & Green, 2008), with most spectator behaviors fulfilling social or psychological needs (Robinson, Trail, Dick, & Gil- lentine, 2005). Sport marketers have established the importance of motives on game and event attendance, with individuals attending for different reasons and desiring different aspects of the experience (Robinson et al., 2005; Trail, Robinson, Dick, & Gillentine, 2003). Sport consumer motives are multifaceted and have been examined through a number of different frameworks (Funk et al., 2009; Wann, 1995). These frameworks include, but are not limited to, Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs, push-pull factors (Cromp- ton, 1979), psychological needs (Sloan, 1989), and psychological involvement (Funk & James, 2001). Funk and James (2001) introduced the Psychological Volume 27 • Number 2 • 2018 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 111 Continuum Model (PCM), which provided a platform for the systematic study of sport spectators. The PCM has been used extensively in subsequent sport consum- er behavior research. The body of literature on sport consumer behavior has emphasized the study of motives to help explain sport spectatorship. Research on sport consumer mo- tives has provided valuable insight in understanding sport consumption behaviors (Trail & Kim, 2011) and identified that these motives are also a central pre- dictor of sport consumption decisions (Trail, Fink, & Anderson, 2003). Common motives include vicarious achievement, drama, excitement, entertainment value, and social opportunities (Funk et al., 2001; Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001). Recently, sport consumer motivation research has focused on developing deeper theoretical understand- ing of sport consumer motives. Funk et al. (2012), guided by self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985), suggest that sport consumer motivation can be theoretically conceptualized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Kim, James, and Kim (2013) categorized mo- tives into hedonic, psychological connection, and so- cial influence to understand the relationship between motivation and commitment. Common across the studies of sport spectators is the study of what drives people to attend sport events (Won & Kitamura, 2007). Various studies on sport consumer behavior share the assumption that consumers’ behaviors are driven by their motives (Snelgrove et al., 2008). Researchers have identified salient motives in order to examine sport consumption decisions (Kim, Greenwell, Andrew, Lee, & Mahony, 2008), with the goal of better understand- ing sport consumer behavior (Funk et al., 2012). Various scales exist to measure sport consumer motives. The Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS; Wann, 1995) and Motivations of the Sport Consumer (MSC; Milne & McDonald, 1999) were among the first categorize sport spectators’ motives. Trail and James (2001) suggest that these scales offer limited validity and reliability. Subsequent sport consumption scales include the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC; Trail & James, 2001) and the Sport Interest Inventory (SII; Funk et al., 2001). The MSSC and SII were developed to measure motivations for sport spectator consumption to evaluate psychological mo- tives of spectator consumption. Both scales measure conceptually similar motives such as aesthetics, social interaction, and vicarious achievement. The current study compares traditional sport spectator motives to eSport spectator motives to better understand the behavior of eSport consumers. It compares one traditional sport (soccer) to two eSports (FIFA Online 3 and StarCraft II), thereby drawing a direct parallel between a traditional sport and two eSports. Spectator motives for one traditional sport may not be entirely representative of motives to attend all sports, but the emphasis of the current study is on exploring whether eSport consumer behavior operates similarly to traditional sport consumer behavior. Ad- ditionally, there is a scarcity of academic research on sport marketing in Asia (Yoshida & Heere, 2015). The current study addresses this scarcity in the existing literature by comparing spectator motives in South Korea. Yet, as proposed by Yoshida and Heere (2015), sport consumer behavior patterns in Asia are marked by universal psychological constructs. The current study focused on a psychological construct, moti- vation, as the foundation for the following research to assess the possibility that eSports and traditional sports are consumed in order to fulfill the same spectator motives. eSport research is still in an early stage. Industry reports suggest that eSport spectators share similar motives with traditional sport spectators (PWC, 2016). Spectators of eSport are similar to spectators of traditional sport in the respect that neither wants to miss the big game, with eSport spectators going to live events to be a part of a stimulating experience where they can see the best eSport athletes in action (Eventbrite, 2015). Furthermore, existing eSport spectator research finds that athlete aggressiveness positively predicts spectatorship (Hamari & Sjöblom, 2017), similar to the conclusions of Lee, Trail, and Anderson (2009) who found an analogous relation- ship in hockey and collegiate sport contexts. Thus, considering the similarities between traditional sport and eSport, the current study adapts items from the MSSC and SII to assess the possibility that traditional sport and eSport spectators share sport consumption motives. eSport Consumption Motives Prior eSport research has focused on the motivation to play eSports. Past research suggests that eSport partic- ipation is driven by competition, challenge, escapism, and skill development (Lee & Schoenstedt, 2011, Weiss & Schiele, 2013). eSport spectating frequency is predicted by escapism, acquiring knowledge about the games being played, novelty of new players and teams, and athlete aggressiveness (Hamari & Sjöblom, 2017). Hamari and Sjöblom (2017) did not distinguish between different eSports, treating motives to spec- tate eSport as universal across all games and genres. Furthermore, their research viewed eSport in isolation from traditional sport, missing opportunities to identify shared motives between traditional sport and 112 Volume 27 • Number 2 • 2018 • Sport Marketing Quarterly eSport. James and Ross (2004) compared motives that influence consumption across sports to develop tar- geted marketing strategies. The current study adopts a similar approach by comparing eSports and tradition- al sports to identify whether widely researched sport motives also influence eSports consumption. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1: Traditional sport and eSport spectators have the same sport consumption motive patterns (i.e., statistically similar mean scores across contexts). Absent from prior research on eSport consumption is the measurement of game attendance frequency—a commonly assessed behavioral outcome in sport consumption research (e.g., Funk et al., 2012)—its rela- tionship with spectator motives. Behavioral outcomes such as game attendance frequency are important for sport marketers, as spectator behavior is a significant component of revenue production (Fink et al., 2002). In line with the first hypothesis that traditional sport and eSport spectators share sport consumption motive patterns, the relationships between motives and game attendance frequency should follow similar relation- ships established in sport marketing literature. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2: Spectator attendance motives impact game attendance frequency similarly across tradi- tional sport and eSport contexts. Method The purpose of this study was to compare spectator motives for attending traditional sport and eSport con- tests. Data were collected in three research contexts: a traditional sport (soccer) event, a sport-themed eSport event, and an RTS eSport event. South Korean profes- sional sport and eSport contexts were selected as the research setting, as both have a prominent presence in Korean culture (KOCIS, 2016; Seo & Jung, 2014). For eSports, FIFA Online 3 represents not only an eSport, but also is a virtual representation of professional tra- ditional sport. Furthermore, FIFA Online 3 represents the same traditional sport (i.e., soccer) included in the study. … Automation’s Future in Sports and Society Assistant Professor Michael Rizzo Director, Journalism Program College of Professional Studies March 19, 2019 SPG 315 Creativity and Innovation in Sport Technology’s Future in Sports and Society 3 Frank Rizzo 1985: For the first time in history, ABC mounts a micro-miniature camera on the mask of the home plate umpire. 4 5 6 7 8 Cars that drive themselves, machines that read X-rays and algorithms that respond to customer-service inquiries are all manifestations of powerful new forms of automation [that] increase productivity and improve our lives… “What the future of work will mean for jobs, skills, and wages.” 2017, McKinsey Global Institute. 9 As the first wave of the industrial revolution hit…Displaced farm-related workers [learned] new skills [and] higher wages created a new and expanding middle class. [In] the fourth wave of industrial revolution…Different skills will be needed to fill new jobs, many of which are not even known now. (About a third of the jobs in the U.S. today didn’t exist three decades ago.) “ The Effects of Automation” by Jim Smith, Quality Magazine, July, 2018. 10 11 Sports are dominated by data and data analytics. www.idtech.com/blog /how-technology-is-impacting-sports During the 2011-12 season, SportVU [cameras captured] data from 233 regular- and post-season games…identifying and tracking key events related to individual play..[and when] paired with results (shot attempts, conversions, locations, rebounds, etc) [it created] the first comprehensive player tracking system.. www.sporttechie.com/sportvu-pulls-nba-analytics-forward/ 12 Put this kind of information in the hands of the GM…and you…change the business of building the roster. www.sporttechie.com/sportvu-pulls-nba-analytics-forward/ 13 www.cnet.com https ://theconversation.com/beyond-the-line-call-how-hawk-eye-can-improve-performance-35962 …it solves a real problem. It eliminates the human element of line-calling… 14 Productivity is an obvious benefit of automation. However, reliability is the real gem that sparkles with automation… Automated operations ensure that jobs are not forgotten…completed successfully, that the input data is correct, and that any special processing is performed. “Advantages of Automation.” www.helpsystems.com 15 With technology like the PITCHf/x® system that tracks pitch trajectories to within one inch, SMT continues to influence the way people view and analyze the game. www.smt.com/baseball 16 www.svnsportsbroadcasting.com/index.php/29-feature-content/121-automated-sports-production 17 www.engineering.com Following supervised learning based on [a human camera] operator's actions, the [robotic camera] was able to predict how to pan the camera in a way that…did indeed mimic a human operator. 18 Natural Language Generation (NLG) is the term for creating human-sounding narrative out of data using algorithms and machine learning. https://automatedinsights.com/blog /the-automated-future-of-journalism/ 19 20 21 http://futureof.org /sports-2015/ www.poynter.org 22 …with AI platform IBM Watson, [Wimbledon tennis tournament] is able to assemble full highlight reels of live events within five minutes of the end of a match, some two to 10 hours more quickly than before. “Wimbledon serves up AI-enabled highlights” by Adrian Pennington, July, 2018, www.ibc.org 23 Smart sensors and software can track body movement in real-time, allowing AI and human coaches to improve performance. https://novatiosolutions.com/artificial-intelligence-future-sports www.sporttechie.com 24 25 1. Empathy and communication 2. Critical thinking 3. Creativity 4. Strategy 5. Technological management, installation, and upkeep 6. Physical skills 7. Imagination and vision Brendan Marr, Aug. 2018, www.forbes.com 26 "When you take away the home-plate umpire's control over the strike zone, you take away a principal piece of his authority in terms of managing the whole game...there is a serious management-of-the-game issue you'd have to think about with respect to that change." MLB commissioner Rob Manfred 27 www.engineering.com …human camera operators are able to anticipate action and can adjust the camera's pan, tilt and zoom controls…The result is video imagery that is smooth and aesthetically pleasing. 28 “How The Associated Press uses robotic cameras to shoot the Olympics” by Kristen Hare, Aug. 2016, www.poynter.org 29 “What the future of work will mean for jobs, skills, and wages.” 2017, McKinsey Global Institute. 30 AI will provide data and information… But figure out your value, what makes you unique and special and lean into…your ability to relate, motivate, lead and work as a team. These are hard to find qualities in a software system. “How Artificial Intelligence Will Affect the Sports Industry of the Future,” by Brian Clapp, Feb. 26, 2018, www.workinsports.com 31 Outlined against a blue-gray October sky, the Four Horsemen rode again. In dramatic lore they are known as Famine, Pestilence, Destruction and Death. These are only aliases. Their real names are Stuhldreher, Miller, Crowley and Layden. They formed the crest of the South Bend cyclone before which another fighting Army football team was swept over the precipice at the Polo Grounds yesterday afternoon as 55,000 spectators peered down on the bewildering panorama spread on the green plain below. Grantland Rice, New York Herald Tribune, Oct. 18, 1924 Assistant Professor Michael Rizzo Director, Journalism Program College of Professional Studies What questions can I answer for you? Assistant Professor Michael Rizzo Director, Journalism Program College of Professional Studies Thank you! SPG 315 Creativity and Innovation in Sport