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homework This assignment will be submitted to Turnitin®. Instructions REVIEW: Taylor-Powell (1998). Questionnaire Design: Asking Questions with a Purpose Objective: Critically analyze research, including policy and program evaluation research Program Outcome: Develop in our students the ability to form critical judgments that support democratic values. Core Competency: To analyze, synthesize, think critically, solve problems, and make decisions. Based on Discussion 2, develop a needs assessment questionnaire that would be appropriate for the community survey.  Try to limit it to 5 questions plus demographic questions.  Be sure to utilize the guidelines in the Report: Questionnaire Report (available under course documents) in developing your questionnaire.  Make sure to properly format the survey--it should look ready to give to someone to survey--so appearance matters. ************************************************************************************ NOTE: Here is the discussion 2 topic: Needs Assessment and Process Evaluation Objective: Critically analyze research, including policy and program evaluation research Program Outcome: Develop in our students the ability to form critical judgments that support democratic values. Core Competency: To analyze, synthesize, think critically, solve problems, and make decisions. Regardless of the discipline, the first step in developing a program is conducting a needs assessment. This systematic approach seeks information from clientele or secondary sources as to a gap or need – a societal, personal, economic, or environmental issue, for instance, that must be addressed and that requires some planned actions to have a positive impact on improving or changing the identified situation. To prepare for this discussion: • Read the assigned chapters in the text and articles posted in Unit 3. • Reflect on the process for conducting needs assessment and process evaluation. Ellen Taylor-Powell Program Development and Evaluation Specialist May 1998 Program Development and Evaluation Questionnaire Design: Asking questions with a purpose G3658-2 Originally published with Mary G. Marshall Texas Agricultural Extension Service The Texas A&M University System College Station, Texas ■ ■ ■ Constructing a questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Kinds of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 KNOWLEDGEÑWhat people know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 BELIEFSÑATTITUDESÑOPINIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 BEHAVIORÑWhat people do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ATTRIBUTESÑWhat people are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Wording the questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Types of questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Close-ended questions with one-choice answers . . . . . . . 7 Formatting the questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Pretesting the questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 TABLE OF CONTENTS Constructing a questionnaire A questionnaire provides a tool for eliciting information which you can tabulate and discuss. In many evaluations, a questionnaire serves as the major source of information. Writing questions and constructing a question- naire takes time and attention. Before you begin, it is essential to know what kind of evi- dence you need to fulfill the purpose of the study and to know how the information will be used. ■ Make a list of what you want to know. What do you really want to find out? What do you want to achieve with the questionnaire? ■ Check to see if the information you need is already available somewhere else. ■ DonÕt ask a question unless it has a use; that is, unless it relates to the purpose of the study. Collecting too much information adds to your time and expenses and can produce an information overload. Eliminate all the Ònice to knowÓ items that arenÕt really essential. Eliminate ambigu- ous questions as well. ■ From the beginning, think through what you will do with each piece of information. What do you want to be able to say? Do you expect to use frequencies, percentages, rankings, multivariate analysis, narrative remarks? ■ As you write questions, try to view them through your respondentsÕ eyes. Will the question be seen as reasonable? Will it infringe on the respondentÕs privacy? Will the respondent be able and willing to answer the question? ■ Be selective and realistic. Know what information is needed, why, and how you plan to use it. Kinds of information A questionnaire can help you obtain informa- tion about what people do, what they have, what they think, know, feel, or want. Four different types of information may be dis- tinguished. Any one or a combination of these types may be included in a questionnaire. KNOWLEDGE—What people know; how well they understand something This type of question asks about what peopleknow. Knowledge questions offer choices such as correct vs. incorrect or accurate vs. inaccurate. They may ask what respondents believe is true or factual, or about awareness. For example: What is the major cause of accidental deaths among children inside the home? The most effective weight loss plan includes exercise. The ideal refrigerator temperature is ________. BELIEFS—ATTITUDES— OPINIONS These terms refer to psychological statesÑtheperceptions people hold, their thoughts, feelings, ideas, judgements, or ways of think- ing. Questions may elicit respondentsÕ percep- tions of past, present or future reality, their feelings about a subject, or their opinions. For example: Do you favor or oppose the reclassification of forestry land? In your opinion, does positive self-esteem prevent drug abuse among adolescents? Do you think that lower prices would increase beef consumption? What do you consider the biggest challenge facing our community in the next five years? 2 P R O G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T A N D E V A L U A T I O N ■ ■ ■ BEHAVIOR—What people do Questions on behavior ask people what theyhave done in the past, do now, or plan to do in the future. For example: Have you ever attended an Extension program about nutrient crediting? Do you scout fields for pest problems? How are you currently using the information gained in the Healthy Eating workshop? ATTRIBUTES—What people are; what people have Attributes are a personÕs personal or demo-graphic characteristicsÑage, education, occupation, or income. Attribute questions ask people about who they are, rather than what they do. For example: Where do you currently live? How many children do you have? What percentage of your household income comes from off-farm employment? To write meaningful questions, be clear about the objectives and type of information desiredÑwhether it is information about knowledge, attitudes/beliefs/opinions, behav- ior, or attributes. Otherwise, the questionnaire may elicit opinions when the actual intent is to document behavior. Likewise, questions related to each type of information present different writing prob- lems. Questions concerning attitudes tend to be more difficult to write given the complexity underlying most attitudes. Pay careful atten- tion to wording. In contrast, questions about knowledge, behaviors and attributes are more straightforward. Remember, the response or information you obtain is only as good as the question. If you donÕt get the type of information you want, it is probably because you didnÕt ask the right question! Wording the questions Wording the questions to obtain the intended information and to be understood by all respondents is a challenging task. When you write questions, consider three things: 1) the particular people for whom the ques- tionnaire is being designed; 2) the particular purpose of the question- naire; and 3) how questions will be placed in relation to each other in the questionnaire. Some suggestions appear below. (adapted from Sawer, 1984; Dillman, 1978; Newsome, n.d.) ■ Use simple wording. Adapt wording to the vocabulary and reading skills of your respondents but donÕt talk down to them. Are any words confusing? Do any words have double meanings? ■ Avoid the use of abbreviations, jargon, or foreign phrases. We use a lot of jargon in Extension. Will the respondents under- stand terms such as ÒCNRED,Ó Òlearning experiences,Ó Òlife skills,Ó or Òfocus groupsÓ? ■ Be specific. A question about older youth should specify what age or grade is con- sidered Òolder.Ó Likewise, in the question ÒHow many times did your 4-H club meet last year?Ó specify whether Òlast yearÓ refers to 1994, 1994Ð1995, the last 12 months, or September 1994ÐAugust 1995. ■ Use clear wording. Words such as Òregu- larlyÓ and ÒoccasionallyÓ mean different things to different people. Some vague terms include: majority (more than half of what?); often (daily? twice weekly? weekly?); government (state? federal? local?); older people (how old?). 3Q U E S T I O N N A I R E D E S I G N ■ ■ ■ 4 P R O G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T A N D E V A L U A T I O N ■ ■ ■ ■ Include all necessary information. In some cases, respondents may not know enough to adequately answer a question. For example: ÒDo you agree or disagree with the proposed plan to expand the role of 4-H volunteers in our community?Ó Respondents may not know what the plan is. Provide a statement summarizing the plan. ■ Avoid questions that may be too precise. PeopleÕs lives are usually not so orderly that they can recall exactly how many times they ate out last year or how many Extension meetings they attended in 1995. To help respondents formulate an answer, the response category might provide a range to select from, for example, 0Ð5, 6Ð10, 11Ð15, etc. ■ Phrase personal or potentially incrimi- nating questions in less objectionable ways. Being asked to indicate drug use, income level, or ethnic background may be objectionable to some respondents. One method is to ask respondents to select from among broad categories (income less than $10,000, $10,000Ð$20,000, $20,000 and over, etc.) rather than specifying precise information. A series of questions may also be used to soften or overcome the objectionable nature of certain informa- tion. ■ Avoid questions that are too demanding and time consuming. Examples of such questions are, ÒPlease rank the following 15 items in order of their importance to youÓ or ÒIn 25 words or less, what is your philosophy of 4-H?Ó ■ Use mutually exclusive categories. Make sure that only one answer is possi- ble. In the example: ÒHow did you hear about the Extension seminar?Ó the response categories are: Òfrom a friend, from a relative, from the newspaper, at work, from the county office, at an Extension meeting.Ó The respondent may have heard about the Extension seminar from a friend at work, for example, so that more than one answer is possible. ■ Avoid making assumptions. Questions such as ÒHow many children do you have?Ó or ÒDo you prepare beef when you invite friends over to eat?Ó make assump- tions about the respondentsÑthat they have children and invite friends over to eat. A better set of questions would start with the first question establishing the sit- uation, followed by the question of inter- est. For example: ÒDo you have children?Ó ÒHow many children do you have?Ó ■ Avoid bias in questions. Biased questions influence people to respond in a way that does not accurately reflect their positions. A question can be biased in several ways: (1) when it implies that the respondent should be engaged in a particular behav- ior; (2) when the response categories are unequal or loaded in one direction; (3) when words with strong positive or negative emotional appeal are used, such as Òfreedom,Ó Òequality,Ó Òboss,Ó Òbureaucratic,Óetc. Here are some examples of biased questions: 1. More farmers in Saymore County are using Superb than any other variety of alfalfa. Do you use Superb? 1. No 2. Yes This question implies the respondent should be using Superb. 2. How would you rate the housing in which you live? 1. Satisfactory 2. Good 3. Excellent No negative options provided. 3. Do you agree that funding for Extension in your county should be increased? 1. No 2. Yes This is a leading question. A better ques- tion would state: Do you agree or disagree that Extension funding should be increased? (Circle one.) 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Agree 4. Strongly agree ■ Avoid double-barreled questions. ÒDid the poultry production seminar help you to identify ways to improve the sanitation and increase the nutrition of your cage bird operation?Ó ItÕs better to ask about ÒsanitationÓ and ÒnutritionÓ separately. Other questions may be too ambiguous; for example: ÒDo you favor legalization of marijuana for use in private homes but not in public places?Ó This gives no opportu- nity for people to respond in favor of both places, to oppose both places, or to oppose home but favor public use. ■ Make the response categories clear and logical. Too often the answers are confus- ing, not in logical order or spaced so that numbers or figures are hard to interpret. For example: Poor spacing 1.0 acres 2.1–9 acres 3.10–99 acres 4.100–499 acres 5.500–999 acres 6.1,000 acres Poor logic 1. 1,000 acres 2. 999–500 acres 3. 499–100 acres 4. 99–10 acres 5. 9–1 acres 6. 0 acres Better 1. 0 acres 2. 1–49 acres 3. 50–99 acres 4. 100–149 acres 5. 150–199 acres 6. 200–249 acres 7 250 acres and over ■ Use complete sentences. Trying to keep questions simple and concise may result in questions that are cryptic and easily mis- understood. ■ Plan ahead. Identify each question and each response item with a number or letter for easy tabulation. Types of questions Questions can be open- or close-ended. The following is adapted from Sawer, 1984. Open-ended questions allow respondents to provide their own answers. This gives them the opportunity to express their own thoughts, but also requires more effort in terms of their responses. Open-ended questions tend to produce varieties of answers and are more dif- ficult to analyze. Close-ended questions list answers, and respondents select either one or multiple responses. These questions produce more uniform answers than open-ended questions, but depend upon your knowing and including all relevant responses in the list. Responses to close-ended questions must be exhaustive and also mutually exclusive in providing for the selection of a single response. Examples of open- and close-ended questions are explained further on the next several pages. 5Q U E S T I O N N A I R E D E S I G N ■ ■ ■ Open-ended questions An open-ended question is often the easiestway to ask for information, but the responses are not easy to analyze. Answers are likely to be varied so you will need to catego- rize and summarize them. Think about how you will analyze the narrative data. Open-ended responses can be used to: ■ Stimulate free thought, solicit creative sug- gestions, or recall information learned. ■ Probe for more detail. Examples: 1. What do you think should be done to improve the 4-H program in this county? 2. Name the five basic food groups. 3. Please indicate how you intend to use the infor- mation obtained during the workshop. 4. We are interested in any other comments you might have concerning your role as a volunteer leader. Please write in the space below any thoughts youÕd like to share with us. When asking for a numeric response, include the unit of measurement to be used. 5. Please list the number of acres (if any) of tem- porary pasture you planted in 1988. A. ____ Acres of wheat B. ____ Acres of oats C. ____ Acres of rye grass D. ____ Acres of clover E. ____ Acres of summer annuals F. ____ Other, please specify Open-ended questions are also appropriate when respondents are asked to supply a spe- cific answer and a large number of responses are possible (see example 3 above) or when all the possible answers are not known. They are often used at the end of a questionnaire to ask respondents for additional comments (example 4 above). 6 P R O G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T A N D E V A L U A T I O N ■ ■ ■ A question on one topic structured in different ways 1. Open-ended What would you like to see as the main program emphasis next year? 2. Close-ended with ordered responses How important to you are each of the following possible program emphases? (Circle one for each item.) None Little Some Much A. Effective parenting 1 2 3 4 B. Child development 1 2 3 4 C. Guidance & discipline1 2 3 4 D. Communications 1 2 3 4 3. Close-ended with unordered response choices Which of these four topics would you most like to see as the primary program emphasis next year? (Circle number of your answer.) 1 Effective parenting 2 Child development 3 Guidance and discipline 4 Communication 4. Partially close-ended What topic do you feel should be the main program emphasis for next year? (Circle number of your answer.) 1 Effective parenting 2 Child development 3 Guidance and discipline 4 Communication 5 Other (please specify) ___________________ (Dillman, 1978) Close-ended questions There are a variety of ways to write close-ended questions. Some require answers that fall along an implied continuum (as in rating scales); others supply answers in no particular order (lists). Some questions employ multiple choice options (Òcheck all that applyÓ); others provide relevant answers but allow respon- dents to add others not in the list. The follow- ing section gives examples of close-ended questions. Two-option responses This is the simplest response format. Options may include: NoÐYes, DisagreeÐAgree, FalseÐTrue, OpposeÐFavor. Example: 1. Do you remove the clippings from your lawn after mowing? 1 No 2 Yes Depending upon the information you desire, this may be the most appropriate format. It is often used as the first question in a series of questions on one topic. However, using a rating scale or a ranking (when appropriate) elicits more information. Starting with either positive or negative response options appears to have little effect on response. Neither does it matter whether Yes or No is listed first. But you do need to be consistent in the order you follow throughout the questionnaire. One best answer These questions can be used to solicit informa- tion or to test knowledge. They are appropriate when all relevant choices are known and listed. Respondents are provided with a list of answers and asked to check or circle the choice they feel is the best. Responses are indepen- dent of each other, rather than gradations along a continuum. Example: 1. What does the word ÒnutritionÓ mean to you? (Circle one number.) 1 Getting enough vitamins 2 The food you eat and how your body uses it 3 Having to eat foods I don’t like 4 Having good health Rating scale Often, respondents are asked to indicate their choice at the most appropriate point on a scale. Whether you use a scale of three, four, five or more categories depends on the question, the amount of differentiation that is possible and desirable, and the respondentsÕ capacity to answer. Examples: 1. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the new zoning code? (Circle one.) 1 Strongly disagree 2 Mildly disagree 3 Neither agree or disagree 4 Mildly agree 5 Strongly agree 2. When purchasing new herd bulls, how impor- tant are the following traits in your selection process? (Circle one number for each selection trait.) For greater differentiation, use a numerical scale from 0 or 1 to some number (see the second example above). A five-point option series seems to be best for measuring attitudes; a four-point option series appears useful for ratings (excellent, good, fair, poor). Some people may relate best to a 10-point scale. 7Q U E S T I O N N A I R E D E S I G N ■ ■ ■ Selection Of little Highly trait importance important A. Performance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B. Conformation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 C. Pedigree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 D. Breed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Another decision youÕll need to make is whether to use an even or odd number of response options. An odd number of categories provides a middle or neutral position for the respondent to select, while an even number forces the respondent to take sides. This is appropriate when you want to know in what direction the people in the middle are leaning. Below are some examples of rating response categories. Very dissatisfied No help at all Somewhat dissatisfied Slightly helpful Somewhat satisfied Fairly helpful Very satisfied Very helpful Strongly unfavorable Strongly disagree Generally unfavorable Disagree somewhat Uncertain Uncertain Generally favorable Agree somewhat Strongly favorable Strongly agree Decreased Poor Stayed the same Fair Increased Good Excellent Five categories are about the most you should use when listing words in the responses. Remember to keep the positive and negative options balanced. Ordered choice In this type of question, the responses are usually intended to measure degree or intensity in an ordered sequence or scale. Ordered choice questions are particularly suited for evaluating attitudes. They are appropriate when the topic is well-defined and the choice represents a gra- dation along a single dimension. Examples: 1. Within your 4-H club, describe the extent to which you were included in making important decisions. (Circle one number.) 1 Never 2 Rarely 3 Sometimes 4 Often 2. How do you feel about this statement, ÒI wish this community had more outdoor recreation centers?Ó (Circle one number.) 1 Strongly disagree 2 Mildly disagree 3 Neither agree nor disagree 4 Mildly agree 5 Strongly agree Responses must reflect a clear difference and be balanced both positively and negatively. A poor set of responses would: Òdecreased, stayed the same, increased a little, increased somewhat, increased a lotÓ (only one negative and three positive choices are given). It is not necessary to use the same response categories for each question, but do it where possible. Most importantly, choose responses that are appropriate to the question. “Other, please specify” Here the respondent is offered a choice of an answer plus the opportunity to enter his/her own answer under Òother, please specify.Ó This protects you against leaving out an important answer choice. It also means that you will have narrative text to analyze. Think about what you will do with these responses. Too often this type of information is never used because it cannot be added up easily. 8 P R O G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T A N D E V A L U A T I O N ■ ■ ■ Examples: 1. What do you consider the main responsibility of your county 4-H agent? (Circle one number.) 1 Work with people who request help 2 Work with 4-H members 3 Work with volunteer 4-H leaders 4 Plan and organize county youth events 5 Organize and expand new 4-H clubs 6 Other, please specify _______ 2. Which of these community recreational facili- ties do you most frequently use? (Circle one number.) 1 Parks 2 Tennis courts 3 Swimming pools 4 Other ______ Items in a series When several questions use the same response category, it is possible to present the responses in a table, rather than write separate questions for each. Example: 1. How often do you eat the following meats? (Circle one number for each meat.) Paired comparisons Respondents are asked to compare one item to another, usually expressed in terms of Òeither/orÓ or one item ÒversusÓ another. Example: 1. In comparing beef to other meats, which does your family use more often? (Choose one from each comparison and circle the number.) 1 Beef OR 2 Poultry 3 Beef OR 4 Lamb 5 Beef OR 6 Pork 7 Beef OR 8 Wild game (venison, etc.) Matching Respondents are asked to match responses to a list of items. Example: 1. Match each food to the proper food group by putting the correct lower case letter from the right side in the blank. 9Q U E S T I O N N A I R E D E S I G N ■ ■ ■ Once/ 1–3 times 4–6 times Never week week week Daily A. Beef 1 2 3 4 5 B. Lamb 1 2 3 4 5 C. Pork 1 2 3 4 5 D. Poultry 1 2 3 4 5 E. Fish 1 2 3 4 5 A. __ Wheat roll a. Meat and meat products B. __ Nectarine b. Milk and milk products C. __ Ham c. Fruits and vegetables D. __ Yogurt d. Breads and cereals E. __ Pumpkin e. Sweets F. __ Oatmeal Close-ended questions with multiple choice answers: Check all that apply This common response format is actually a series of ÒyesÓ or ÒnoÓ items. It is a fast and easy way to obtain such information and also save space. DonÕt make the list too long or the respondents may not consider each item. Examples: 1. What steps have you taken to set up a busi- ness? (Check all that apply.) ■■ a. Improved product or skills ■■ b. Defined product or service ■■ c. Identified customers ■■ d. Researched market potential ■■ e. Filed business name ■■ f. Established recordkeeping system ■■ g. Applied for resale tax number ■■ f. Other ________________________________ 2. What information would you like covered in the next Extension workshop? (Check all choices.) ■■ a. Container production ■■ b. Landscape design ■■ c. Disease control ■■ d. Nursery layout ■■ e. Weed control practices ■■ f. Greenhouse management practices Lists A list provides a series of answers. Respon- dents may choose one or more depending on the instructions. Examples 1. Listed below are some adjectives which might be used to describe a person. Please indicate for each adjective, whether the adjective does or does not describe you. (Circle one number for each adjective.) Describes Does not DonÕt me describe me know a. Ambitious 1 2 3 b. Happy 1 2 3 c. Idealistic 1 2 3 d. Outgoing 1 2 3 2. From the list provided, select THREE adjec- tives which best describe you. (Place the letter of the adjective on the lines provided.) 1. _____ a. Ambitious 2. _____ b. Happy 3. _____ c. Idealistic d. Outgoing 10 P R O G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T A N D E V A L U A T I O N ■ ■ ■ Ranking Rank ordering is a multiple-choice option. Respondents are given various responses and asked to rank them in order of importance or indicate a Òtop three.Ó Examples: 1. What would you like to know more about? Select three responses from the list and rank them in order of 1, 2, 3. 1. ___ a. What to eat to look better 2. ___ b. How food affects you 3. ___ c. Weight control d. Health foods e. Physical conditioning through diet f. Vitamins 2. What would you like to know more about? Select three responses from the right hand column and rank them in order of first, second, and third choice. 1. __ 1st choice a. What to eat to look better 2. __ 2nd choice b. How food affects you 3. __ 3rd choice c. Weight control d. Health foods e. Physical conditioning f. Vitamins Formatting the questionnaire After you have selected your questions, youÕll need to make a series of decisions about the questionnaire formatÑits appearance, length, and the order in which the questions will appear. The questionnaire should be pleasing to the eye and easy to complete. The following guidelines offer some tips to help you put the questionnaire together. ■ Begin with an introduction that includes the questionnaireÕs purpose, identifies its source, explains how the information obtained will be used, and assures respon- dents of confidentiality. In mailed ques- tionnaires, reinforce the points you made in the cover letter. ■ The first questions should be easy, avoid- ing controversial topics. Write interesting questions that are clearly related to the questionnaireÕs purpose. DonÕt use open- ended or long questions with lengthy answer choices in the beginning of the questionnaire. ■ Address important topics early, rather than late, in the questionnaire. ■ Arrange questions so that they flow natu- rally. Keep questions on one subject grouped together. Start with general ques- tions and then move to those that are specific. ■ Try to use the same type of question and response throughout a series of questions on a particular topic. For example, donÕt needlessly break a respondentÕs concentra- tion by using a multiple choice format fol- lowed by a yes/no question, followed by an open-ended question. ■ Place demographic questions (age, sex, income level, etc.) at the end of the ques- tionnaire. ■ Print it in an easy-to-read typeface. ■ A numbered response should mean the same thing throughout the questionnaire. 11Q U E S T I O N N A I R E D E S I G N ■ ■ ■ Example: If you begin with: 1 No 2 Yes donÕt switch to: 1 Yes 2 No ■ Avoid making respondents turn a page in the middle of a question or between a question and answer. ■ Be sure that the question is distinguishable from the instructions and the answers. You could put the instructions in boldface or italics. Dillman (1978) suggests using lower case letters for questions and upper case letters for answers. ■ Questions and answers are easiest to read if they flow vertically. By placing answer choices under questions (rather than side by side), the respondent moves easily down the page. If you feel this format results in too much wasted space, you may wish to reorganize your questions. Example: 1 Excellent 2 Good 3 Fair 4 Poor Rather than: __ Excellent __ Good __ Fair __ Poor ■ Give directions about how to answer. Include directions in parentheses immedi- ately following questions. It is better to repeat directions too often than not enough. Here are some examples of spe- cific instructions you might use: Circle the number of your choice; circle only one; check all that apply; please fill in the blank; enter whole numbers; please do not use decimals or fractions; etc. ■ Pre-code as many items and response cate- gories as possible to help tabulate and analyze data more quickly. When data is precoded, it can be entered directly from the questionnaire. Try to position the response blanks in the same place on the page to make tabulation easier. ■ Use transitional statements to enhance continuity. Transitional statements serve three functions: 1) to signal that a new topic is about to begin; 2) to start new pages; and 3) to break …