Fluent Essays

One of the biggest challenges of pursuing a doctoral degree is managing the responsibilities of classwork and balancing those responsibilities with career, family life, and personal responsibilities. Creating a self-management plan for completing your classwork and meeting class deadlines can help you be more successful. In an initial post of at least 400 words, and Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.) at least two required scholarly sources, Discuss how you plan to practice self-management during your doctoral studies. Describe how you plan to manage class requirements and balance those requirements with your other responsibilities. Assess how your need for self-management aligns with the kinds of responsibilities managers might have for their employees in the workplace. https://journalcte.org/article/10.21061/jcte.v28i1.570/ 194 Volume 22 ✤ Number 2 ✤ Winter 2011 ✤ pp. 194–218 h Developing Self- Regulation Skills: The Important Role of Homework Darshanand Ramdass Barry J. Zimmerman City University of New York Historically, homework has been an essential aspect of the hHistorically, homework has been an essential aspect of the hAmerican educational system because teachers assign homework hAmerican educational system because teachers assign homework hto enhance students’ learning outcomes. According to Cooper, hto enhance students’ learning outcomes. According to Cooper, h homework involves tasks assigned to students by schoolteachers; these tasks are meant to be carried out during noninstructional time (Bembenutty, 2011). Researchers have conducted exten- sive research to study the relationship between homework and achievement. In a review article, Cooper, Robinson, and Patall (2006) found that most research investigated the relationship between homework time and achievement; the results showed weak to modest gains at the middle and high school levels and no statistically significant gain at the elementary level. This suggests that homework benefits primarily the higher grades. However, time on task is only one aspect of homework behavior, and it does not capture the quality of time, such as studying attentively in a quieter environment (Plant, Ericsson, Hill, & Asberg, 2005). In addition, Plant et al. (2005) found that the amount of study time was a significant predictor of cumulative GPA only when the quality of study time and prior performance were considered. Copyright © 2011 Prufrock Press, P.o. Box 8813, Waco, TX 76714 su m m ary Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Developing self-regulation skills: The important role of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22, 194–218. The article evaluates the relationship between homework and self-reg- ulation from the elementary grades to college. It reveals that quality measures of homework such as managing distractions, self-efficacy and perceived responsibility for learning, setting goals, self-reflection, man- aging time, and setting a place for homework completion are more effec- tive than only measuring the amount of time spent on homework. During homework completion, students engage in self-regulation by motivating themselves, inhibiting distractions, using strategies to complete home- work, managing time, setting goals, self-reflecting on their performance, and delaying gratification. As a result, self-regulation and homework are related and the findings show that from elementary grades to col- lege, skilled learners engaged in the above self-regulatory behaviors during homework activities. Self-regulatory behaviors develop gradually over time with repeated practice. Evidence from experimental studies shows that students can be trained to develop self-regulation skills dur- ing homework activities. It is important to continue with training studies at all grade levels so that students can become aware of the relation- ship between homework activities and these self-regulation processes such as goals, self-efficacy, self-reflection, time management, and delay of gratification. Evidence from correlational studies showed that stu- dents’ self-regulation skills and motivational beliefs correlate positively with homework activities. Homework assignments that are adequately challenging and interesting help struggling and at-risk students develop motivation and self-regulation skills and achieve success. Teachers can help students develop these behaviors by using homework logs. Data from the logs can help teachers show students their strengths and help them overcome their weaknesses. 196 Journal of Advanced Academics HoMEWoRk AND SELF-REguLATIoN Apart from the time dimension, a number of research- ers speculated that homework assignments would enhance the development of self-regulation processes and self-beliefs, which include goal setting, time management, managing the environ- ment, maintaining attention, and self-efficacy (Pintrich, 2000; Trautwein & Köller, 2003). Self-regulation of learning involves learners setting goals, selecting appropriate learning strategies, maintaining motivation, and monitoring and evaluating aca- demic progress (Zimmerman, 2000). However, little research exists on how homework facilitates the development of self-reg- ulation processes. Students who engage in self-regulatory pro- cesses while completing homework are generally more motivated and are higher achievers than those who do not use these pro- cesses (Bembenutty, 2009; Bempechat, 2004). Further, investing greater effort in homework is associated with higher achievement (Trautwein, 2007; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005). To address this research deficit, this article examines how homework completion is associated with the development of various self-regulatory behaviors. The research questions are: Do homework assignments facilitate the development of self-regu- lation skills? Does research evidence support this relationship at various grade levels? Does homework play a role in facilitating the development of self-regulation skills for elementary, middle/ high school, and college students? The review begins with a definition and discussion of the importance of homework as well as self-regulation. Second, it explores the relationship between homework and self-regula- tion processes from a social cognitive perspective. Third, the method section describes the criteria used to select various stud- ies. Fourth, the authors analyze the method, results, strengths, and weaknesses of the selected studies at the elementary level, middle/high school level, and college level. Finally, this review ends with a discussion of educational implications and sugges- tions for future research. 197Volume 22 ✤ Number 2 ✤ Winter 2011 Ramdass and Zimmerman Homework and Its Importance Although formal definitions of homework can vary, Cooper (1989) defined homework as “tasks assigned to students by school teachers that are meant to be carried out during non-school hours” (p. 7), or teacher-assigned tasks to engage students in inde- pendent and effective studying (Cooper et al., 2006). Recently, Cooper has modified his definition of homework to indicate that it involves tasks to be carried out during noninstructional time (Bembenutty, 2011). Implicit in this definition is that students must manage homework assignments by engaging in various self- regulation processes such as planning, managing time, finding a suitable place to work, and motivating themselves. Some critics claim that homework does not improve study skills, promote self-discipline and responsibility (Kohn, 2007), or enhance students’ academic achievement (Kralovec & Buell, 2005). However, meta-analytic studies reveal that the standard- ized mean differences on tests between students who completed homework versus those who did not ranged from d = .39 to d = .97, implying a positive relationship between homework and achievement (Cooper et al., 2006). In addition to its effect on academic achievement, homework provides students with opportunities to engage in a range of self- regulation processes. A longitudinal study with fifth-grade stu- dents showed that doing homework fosters self-regulation skills and reading achievement (Xu, Benson, Mudrey-Camino, & Steiner, 2010). Although teachers set goals and expectations for homework, students must independently complete homework by practicing self-regulatory behaviors such as planning, inhibit- ing distractions, persisting at difficult assignments, organizing the environment, overcoming unwanted emotions, and reflect- ing on what they have learned (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005; Xu, 2008a). Children who complete homework outside of school often develop an aptitude for academic work through extra prac- tice and are responsible for regulating their own behavior (Corno, 2000), making homework a classic form of self-regulated learning (Trautwein & Köller, 2003). 198 Journal of Advanced Academics HoMEWoRk AND SELF-REguLATIoN Self-Regulation and Its Importance From a theoretical perspective, self-regulation is a proactive process whereby individuals consistently organize and manage their thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and environment in order to attain academic goals (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005; Zimmerman, 2000). Students become self-regulated by setting goals, select- ing and using strategies, monitoring performance, and repeat- edly reflecting on learning outcomes over a lengthy period of time (Zimmerman, 2008). Self-regulation operates through three areas of psychological functioning that are essential in learn- ing: cognitive (e.g., learning strategies), motivational (e.g., self- efficacy, task value), and metacognitive (e.g., self-monitoring and self-reflection; Bandura, 1993; Hong, Peng, & Rowell, 2009; Trautwein & Köller, 2003). These three areas of self-regulation operate cyclically wherein mastery of a task depends on beliefs in one’s capabilities and expectations of success. Self-efficacy is the belief about one’s capability to learn or perform effectively (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacious students believe that homework completion would lead to successful learning outcomes. High self-efficacy and high expectations of success would lead to per- sistence, using different strategies, or seeking help when faced with difficult homework tasks. Self-regulated learners moni- tor their work, which provides internal feedback on progress. Self-reactions to successful outcomes enhance self-efficacy and expectations of further progress (Zimmerman, 2000). A recent meta-analysis study concerning the relationship between self-reg- ulation and academic achievement from elementary to secondary grades revealed an average effect size of 0.69, p < .01, implying that self-regulated learning significantly enhanced students’ aca- demic achievement (Dignath & Büttner, 2008). Self-regulation skills, such as time management, setting goals, effort and persistence in completing difficult tasks, and self-monitoring one’s performance, are not only important to academic success, but are also key components in the lives of 199Volume 22 ✤ Number 2 ✤ Winter 2011 Ramdass and Zimmerman successful professional writers, athletes, artists, and scientists (Zimmerman, 1998). Educators are aware of the importance of self-regulation skills in learning. In the early grades, teachers play a major role in regulating students’ learning by setting goals, managing their time on tasks, and instilling beliefs of effort and expectations for assignments that are completed in the classroom. However, as students advance to higher grades, teachers gradually reduce that support and expect students to incorporate these self- regulation processes in assignments that are done independently, such as homework (Zimmerman, 2002). In the absence of the teacher, students take responsibility to self-regulate their learn- ing and decide where, when, how, why, and what to do with the assigned homework (Zimmerman, 1998). Homework and Self-Regulation Self-regulation researchers seek to answer the question, how do students become self-directed in managing their learning? Homework is generally done at home independently, either with or without supervision. As mentioned earlier, self-regulation operates through three components: motivational, cognitive, and metacognitive. The motivational domain of self-regulation implies that students believe in their capabilities and value home- work as a task that would enhance learning. Valuing the task and having high self-efficacy for the assignment can enhance one’s persistence when faced with difficulties. The cognitive component of self-regulation relates to the strategies students use to complete homework and process the information more effectively. Strategies vary depending on the homework task. For example, writing an essay requires brain- storming ideas and making an outline before writing. By contrast, solving fraction problems requires a different set of strategies. The third component of self-regulation is metacognition, wherein students set goals and monitor their progress as they complete homework assignments (Pintrich, 2000). Students engage in metacognition when they reflect on why they do not 200 Journal of Advanced Academics HoMEWoRk AND SELF-REguLATIoN understand a text or a problem during homework completion and use strategies such as rereading the text or seeking help in solving the problem. Clearly, homework behavior is closely asso- ciated with these three components of self-regulation. Students’ self-beliefs, expectations of success, task value, strategy use, and self-monitoring influence homework behavior and learning (Trautwein & Köller, 2003). Homework and Self-Regulation: Empirical Evidence In selecting publications for this review, we restricted our search to correlational and experimental studies specifically using the search terms “homework” and “self-regulation.” Second, the articles had to be published between the years 1986 to 2010. The date 1986 was selected based on Bandura’s publication of Social Foundation of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, which pioneered research on self-regulation. The authors searched the following online databases for the pertinent literature: Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), Academic Search Complete, PsycINFO, PsycArticles, and Education Research Complete. From a list of 62 articles, 5 articles meeting the above criteria were selected (see Table 1). Elementary School Level An intervention study conducted by Stoeger and Ziegler (2008) sought to improve 219 fourth-grade students’ time management skills, self-efficacy, and self-reflection of their learning during homework activities. Among the 17 teachers who volunteered to participate in the study, 9 teachers were randomly assigned to receive training in time management skills and the remaining 8 teachers were assigned to the control group. The researchers used a slightly modified version of a classroom intervention of self-regulated learning developed by Zimmerman, Bonner, and Kovach (1996). This model is social cognitive in approach wherein 201Volume 22 ✤ Number 2 ✤ Winter 2011 Ramdass and Zimmerman Table 1 A Summary of Reviewed Studies on Homework and Self-Regulation Processes Authors N; Student grade level Self-regulation processes Major empirical findings Stoeger & Ziegler (2008) 219 fourth graders Time management, self-efficacy, and self-reflection Significant training effects for all three self-regulation processes Xu (2008b) 633 eighth graders Structuring the environment, managing time, motivating one’s self, managing emotions, inhibiting distractions Positive correlations among the five variables; high-achieving students performed significantly better on these measures compared to low- achieving students Zimmerman & kitsantas (2005) 179 high school females Self-efficacy for learning and perceived responsibility Bi-directional effects of both variables; both predicted gPA, but perceived responsibility was higher kitsantas & Zimmerman (2009) 223 college students Self-efficacy for learning and perceived responsibility SAT scores predicted quality of homework, self-efficacy for learning perceived responsibility; self-efficacy was a better predictor of grades compared to responsibility Bembenutty (2009) 58 college students Self-efficacy, delay of gratification, self-regulation of learning, goals, intrinsic interest, time management general goals correlated with self-efficacy, specific goals correlated with midterm exam, time management correlated with homework completion, midterm math study correlated with intrinsic interest, general study correlated with midterm grade, homework completion, and delay of gratification 202 Journal of Advanced Academics HoMEWoRk AND SELF-REguLATIoN self-regulation is viewed as an interaction among personal, behav- ioral, and environmental processes (Bandura, 1993; Zimmerman, 2000). The model has five modules: time management, compre- hension and summarization skills, note taking, test preparation skills, and writing skills. However, Stoeger and Ziegler (2008) chose only to use the time management module. Classes were randomly assigned to a training group or a con- trol group for a total of 5 weeks. Teachers conducted the training in class and data were collected using various scales: time man- agement (e.g., “Prior to every learning unit, I establish a specific period of time for it.”), self-reflection (e.g., “When I am studying math and a specific point seems to be confusing and unclear, I change my methods in order to get a better grip on the major difficulties.”), self-efficacy (e.g., “In math I am sure I will keep getting more answers correct.”), helplessness (e.g., “I cannot think clearly in school.”), willingness to exert effort (e.g., “I spend a lot of time at home doing math exercises.”), motivational orientation (e.g., “One of my goals is to master a lot of new skills this year.”), interest (e.g., “Mathematical skills are important to me.”), and academic outcomes (e.g., daily math exercises and math home- work assignments, daily journal entries, and self-assessments). Over the course of the training program, students worked through the self-regulated learning cycle four times. First, stu- dents self-evaluated and monitored their learning abilities, and they became more cognizant of their strengths and weaknesses. Next, with the teachers’ guidance they set specific, attainable goals, and used appropriate strategies to achieve them. Finally, students implemented the strategy, monitored their work, and engaged in self-reflection to evaluate their learning. To examine the effectiveness of the training, Stoeger and Ziegler (2008) used 2 x 2 repeated measures analysis of vari- ance. The results revealed a significant main effect of time on time management (F = 2.27, p < .05), self-efficacy (F = 6.94, p < .05), self-reflection (F = 6.70, p < .05), learning goal orientation (F = 16.41, p < .001), performance avoidance goal (F = 7.36, p < .01), perception of helplessness (F = 26.35, p < .001), and math achievement (F = 6.54, p < .05). There were significant interac- 203Volume 22 ✤ Number 2 ✤ Winter 2011 Ramdass and Zimmerman tions between condition and time: time management (F = 2.27, p < .05), self-efficacy (F = 16.01, p < .001), self-reflection (F = 4.20, p < .05), willingness to exert effort (F = 7.11, p < .01), learning goal orientation (F = 6.10, p < .05), perception of helplessness (F = 17.17, p < .001), and math achievement (F = 11.84, p < .01). To determine how students’ performance changed over the 5 weeks, the authors used hierarchical linear modeling. This method evaluates hierarchically organized data where various variables represent different levels of analysis. Students in this study, level one, are nested within classes, level two (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002). The results showed that students correctly answered a mean of 7.48 of the 10 items on each of the 5 hand- outs across the 5 measuring points, indicating a linear increase of .87 exercises weekly. There were also significant differences in the growth curves among the students. The three variables (time management, learning goal orientation, and self-efficacy) relate significantly to individual linear growth rates. They explained 19.28% of the variance in the weekly math assignments, 53.82% of the variance in performance growth over the 5-week period (linear trend), and 61.11% of the variance in a gradual decrease of performance (quadratic trend) toward the end of the study. Students with high learning goal orientation, high self-efficacy, and good time management skills gained most from the training. This experimental study was well designed. The participat- ing classes were assigned randomly to a treatment or a control group. Teachers were also assigned randomly to a treatment and control group and they were trained rigorously to imple- ment the treatment. Second, the researchers implemented a self- regulation intervention during classroom hours and homework activities and found significant results of time management on self-efficacy and self-reflection, indicating that it is possible to use homework activities to train students to develop self-regulation skills. The effect sizes were small and medium and it is possible that the changes could have occurred due to increased attention. However, Stoeger and Ziegler (2008) suggested this was unlikely because students and teachers in the control group also knew 204 Journal of Advanced Academics HoMEWoRk AND SELF-REguLATIoN from the beginning that they were participating in a study and would be assessed. Limitations of the study should be noted. The effectiveness of the 3-day teacher training was not evaluated. Moreover, the instructional styles of the teachers may not have been in align- ment with self-regulatory learning. In sum, this study demonstrates that self-regulated training can be successfully implemented in the elementary classroom and with homework activities to help students learn time manage- ment skills, develop self-efficacy, and self-reflect on their perfor- mance. Ormrod (2006) reported that children in grades 3–5 have demonstrated improved competency in focusing attention, using self-evaluation, and working on short assignments independently. Middle/High School Level Self-efficacy is a key motivational component of self-regu- lation, and it has been studied extensively in the context of aca- demic achievement and performance. In a meta-analysis of 36 academic self-efficacy studies, Multon, Brown, and Lent (1991) found the unbiased effect size estimate (ru) was .38 (p < .001) for academic performance (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs accounted for 14% of the variance in students’ academic achievement). Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) examined the mediational role of self-efficacy for learning and perceived responsibility beliefs between students’ homework reports and their academic achievement. Additionally, they tested the reliability of an instru- ment to measure the quantity and quality of students’ homework, self-efficacy for learning, and perceived academic responsibility. Participants consisted of 179 high school girls from a parochial school who had 3 hours of homework daily. The students’ ages ranged from 14 to 19 years, with a mean age of 16 years. The mea- sures were a personal data questionnaire and a homework survey that measured: the quantity (e.g., “How much time do you spend on homework every day?”) and quality of homework (e.g., “Do you have a regular time to study?” “Do you have a regular place to study?”), the student’s self-efficacy for learning (e.g., “When 205Volume 22 ✤ Number 2 ✤ Winter 2011 Ramdass and Zimmerman you are feeling depressed about a forthcoming test, can you find a way to motivate yourself to do well?”), and the student’s per- ceived responsibility for learning (e.g., “Going through motions without trying” or “Not taking notes in class”). The Self-Efficacy for Learning Form (SELF) had self-efficacy items for reading, note taking, writing, test taking, and general studying. A factor analysis of SELF items indicated a single large factor, implying that students who felt self-efficacious about one aspect of perfor- mance (e.g., note taking) felt likewise about the other four. Correlational data show that all six variables predict student GPA at the end of the academic semester. GPA correlated (r = .57) with the National Educational Development Test (NEDT). This demonstrates that teacher-assigned grades are significantly related to the standardized test necessary for high school entry. The researchers also used path analysis to test the mediating relations among NEDT, quality of homework, self-efficacy for learning, perceived responsibility, and GPA. The results indicate a good fit, c² = 0.64, p > .42 (NFI = .99, CFI = .99, and RFI = .99), suggesting that homework influenced students’ self-beliefs. Specifically, the results show that the direct effect of the girls’ prior achievement (NEDT) on their GPA was small (p = .18), but the indirect effect was larger (p = .39), indicating most of the variance in prior achievement is mediated through homework- related variables in the model. The effect of homework quality on GPA (p = .45) is mediated through the students’ self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs. Self-efficacy is mediated via per- ceived responsibility (p = .32). Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) also tested the reverse hypothesis in a second model, but the fit was poor. In a third path model, they reversed the causal arrow, with perceived responsibility predicting self-efficacy. These results also revealed a good fit, signifying that causality can flow in either direction between these two variables. The contribution of this study is that the quality of homework correlated with the quantity of homework (r = .75). This implies students who study more also use self-regulatory strategies, such as having a regular place and time to study, estimating the time needed to complete their assignments, setting task priorities, and 206 Journal of Advanced Academics HoMEWoRk AND SELF-REguLATIoN completing their daily assignments successfully. The SELF scale had 57 items. Due to its single factor structure and high reliabil- ity (α = .99), Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) proposed that future studies could employ a shorter version of this scale while maintaining the same effectiveness. Finally, although the second model was nonsignificant, the third model showed that causality between self-efficacy and perceived responsibility can occur bi- directionally (i.e., each belief predicts the other as well as unique variance in the students’ GPA). This study has a few limitations. More experimental research is necessary to resolve the issue of causality, as path analysis meth- ods do not provide a direct test of causality. Second, the school was an academically selective parochial school and placed empha- sis on homework as a means of learning. The results may not generalize to less selective schools or to schools that place less emphasis on homework completion. Third, the implications of the findings for coeducational schools are unknown. In another study of eighth-grade students, Xu (2009) exam- ined whether student achievement and school location influence how students engage in homework management strategies. The participants were 633 rural and urban students. School location and its influence on homework management was an important consideration in this study. According to Arnold, Newman, Gaddy, and Dean (2005), rural students tend to have lower edu- cational aspirations than nonrural students. This disparity may ultimately influence homework completion and use of homework strategies. The Homework Management Scale (HMS), which con- sisted of 22 items, measured the following homework strategies: arranging the homework environment (e.g., “Find a quiet area.”), managing time (e.g., “Remind myself of the available remaining time.”), handling distraction (e.g., “Start conversations unrelated to what I’m doing.”), monitoring motivation (e.g., “Praise myself for good effort.”), and controlling emotion (e.g., “Tell myself to calm down”). The validity of the HMS scores was examined within the framework of structural equation modeling. Data from rural middle schools (n = 699) confirmed the five factor structure, 207Volume 22 ✤ Number 2 ✤ Winter 2011 Ramdass and Zimmerman which was cross-validated with data from urban middle school students (n = 482). For these two samples combined, reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) for scores on the five subscales ranged from .71 (managing time) to .82 (monitoring motivation; Xu, 2008b). The results showed that the correlations among the home- work subscales ranged from .11 (p < .01) between monitoring motivation and handling distractions to .63 (p < .001) between monitoring motivation and controlling emotions. A one-way, within-subjects ANOVA revealed a significant difference among the five homework subscale scores, F = 47.15, p < .001. Bonferroni post-hoc comparisons also showed that the middle school stu- dents reported significantly more effort on handling distractions and arranging the homework environment than managing time. Moreover, they reported more effort on managing time compared to monitoring motivation or controlling emotions. To compare the effects of school location (rural vs. urban) on the HMS sub- scales, univariate tests showed statistically significant effects …