Fluent Essays

PLEASE SEE DETAILS INSIDE........ STUDENT REPLIES STUDENT REPLY #1 Stephon Johnson One significant event of modern era policing is law enforcement establishing a relationship with the community. A relationship between law enforcement and the citizen in the community is important; it not only builds trust, but it makes the citizens feel safe. It allows law-abiding citizens to know who's working in their community or neighborhood. I live in a small town in Virginia where each year before the kids go back to school the local police department and county sheriff will host an event called national night out. During the event, the local law enforcement will come together with the community and provide them with food, games, and gifts. Law enforcement officers would also allow the children in the neighborhood to take a tour of their patrol vehicles and play with the sirens. Since the start of the event law enforcement has grown closer to the community. After researching national night out, I learned that it was created in bigger cities like Boston in 1984 as a crime prevention program that emphasizes building a partnership between the police and the community. I believe Virginia saw how it worked in different cities and decided to give it a try not knowing how it would turn out. Being from a neighborhood where citizens didn't get along with law enforcement. I think the system as a whole was looking for a way to bring law enforcement and the community together and build a bond and trust. I do believe that the local law enforcement in my neighborhood didn't think that the national night out would turn out to be as successful as it has. Although in the past citizens in the community didn't get along well with law enforcement, as the years past there is a better and better turnout each year. STUDENT REPLIES STUDENT REPLY #2 Tika Gray In modern-day policing, a significant event is racial profiling. In 1960 during the riots to present-day policing have continued to profile minorities. During the Civil Rights movement, I truly believed that law enforcement thought things would become better because of the passed laws to protect minorities. Also, minorities were being hired to be police officers. Community policing was put into place, but not all community members trusted the police, and not all police trusted the people in the community. We can race forward to the present day; minorities are still being racially profiled because of the color of their skin. Historically, racial targeting by police did not start in the late twentieth century. Nevertheless, it has constituted a fact of life for African Americans as long as organized police forces in the United States. Thus, it is not new; more to the point, it is not gone. Reference https://www.americanbar.org/groups/criminal_justice/publications/criminal-justice-magazine/2020/winter/racial-profiling-past-present-and-future/ Assignment: Predicting Precedent Based on History PLEASE READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND REMEMBER YOU WILL BE USING THE SAME 3 SOURCES FROM WEEK 1 AND 2 NEW SOURSES FOR THIS PAPER WHICH WILL BE A TOTAL OF 5 SOURCES….. Continuing with the cell phone example from the Discussion, certain issues related to society’s adoption of smartphones continue to evolve. In addition to global positioning, cell phone cameras have the ability to record interactions with law enforcement. That simple act actually presents a wide array of still unresolved issues, from public trust in law enforcement to law enforcement’s own ability or confidence to act in such a transparent environment. Is there any precedent for these types of issues? If so, how could they inform a path forward? In this Assignment, you examine the past to predict the future. To prepare: Identify a contemporary issue or case that exemplifies an emerging or evolving issue or problem that will affect how law enforcement is applied in the future. The contemporary issue does not need to be a “current event” from the news now. An issue that is a few years old is acceptable, and in fact, may have more research available. Find two more sources for your paper to add to the three used in your annotated bibliography. Keep these tips in mind: This choice does not need to be from a current event from recent months. You may choose an item that has evolved over recent years or even decades, understanding that certain issues take longer to evolve. The choice of an issue for this Assignment differs from the Discussion in that the Discussion asks you to work with an event or decision for which you use present circumstances to “trace backward” a prediction. This Assignment is asking you to choose an issue that has been evolving over time and may not be resolved, in order to make your own evidence-based prediction. Write a 750-word paper that identifies a contemporary issue or case that exemplifies an emerging issue or problem that will affect how law enforcement is applied in the future. Address the following in relation to that issue: Explain how past events or circumstances inform or relate to the contemporary issue. If past events do not relate to the contemporary issue, explain why, and explain how the issue evolved independently. To answer these prompts, address the following: Is there a historic precedent for the issue? Is the issue one that has never been resolved? Explain the role law enforcement historically has played in the contemporary issue. Explain the role law enforcement currently has in relation to the issue. Explain how these various factors point to a precedent, decision, and/or policy that will affect law enforcement in the future. Be sure to support your responses with evidence from five sources, three of which can be the sources that you found in Week 1. Assignment Guides CRJS 3003 Week 2 Assignment Week 2 PLEASE READ AND FOLLOW DIRECTIONS….. CRJS 3003 Week 2 Assignment: Week 2 Introduction For this week's assignment, you are asked to continue developing an annotated bibliography for 3-5 scholarly sources on law enforcement. This guide will introduce you to Criminal Justice databases and provide general search tips to help you complete this assignment. For more information on what constitutes a scholarly resource, please review the following Library guide: Evaluating Resources Access Criminal Justice research homepage The library has many Criminal Justice resources to help you with your research. Follow these steps to access the Criminal Justice research homepage, the headquarters for Criminal Justice research at Walden. 1. On the Library homepage, click the Select a Subject drop-down menu. 2. Select Criminal Justice & Security. Identify CRJS databases 1. Scroll down on the Criminal Justice & Security research homepage and click on the Criminal Justice and Security databases menu. 2. Review the databases in the list and make a selection. To view more Criminal Justice databases, click the link at the bottom of the menu that says View all criminal justice databases. For more information on Criminal Justice resources, please view the following webinar: Introduction to Criminal Justice & Security Research Select keywords Keywords, also commonly called search terms, are the words that you enter into the database search boxes. They represent the main concepts of your research topic and are the words used in everyday life to describe the topic. Without the right keywords, you may have difficulty finding the articles that you need. Selecting keywords is a multi-step process that involves: identifying the main concepts of your topic brainstorming synonyms and antonyms that could also be used to describe your topic spell out abbreviations It is very rare that your first search will bring back perfect results. It takes trial and error to determine which keywords work best for your topic. Be prepared to run multiple searches in your quest for the keywords that will help you find the materials you need. For this assignment, possible keywords might include: "law enforcement", policy, precedent, decision, procedure, etc. Enter keywords into database and search For this search example, we will be using Criminal Justice Database. 1. On the Criminal Justice Database Advanced Search screen, you will see two search boxes. Enter one or more keywords (e.g., "law enforcement" OR police) into the first search box. 2. Enter additional keywords (e.g., precedent OR policy OR decision) into the second or third search boxes. 3. Before searching, scroll down and make sure the Full Text and Peer Reviewed boxes are checked. 4. Click the Publication date drop-down menu and select Specific date range. Limit the date range to the last 5 years. 5. Click Search. On the results page, start to review your results. You can further limit your search by using the tools along the left-hand side of the screen. 6. To read a concise summary of an article's content, click the Abstract/Details link located at the bottom of each entry. 7. When you find a suitable source, click one of the full text options located at the bottom of the entry to access the article in its entirety. For more information on best practices when searching in databases, please review the following Library guide: Database Search Skills THIS PAPER IS NOT TO BE USED AS A REWRITE I AM LETTING YOU USE THIS PAPER JUST FOR THE FLOW AND SETUP OF YOUR ON WORK AND YOUR OWN STYLE AND WORDS THAT YOU WILL BE USING FROM WEEK 1 AND BRINGING IT TOGETHER FOR WEEK 2 THIS IS ONLY A GUIDE ONLY……… Predicting Precedent Based on History A case or a current situation that I believe will change how law enforcement is applied in the future is the use of cell phone versus body worn police cameras. The reason that this is so vital is because of the use of cell phones that many people are using when dealing with law enforcement today, cell phones are everywhere, and I believe that where there is a cell phone there need to be a body worn police camera. The biggest example that I can think of is Jacob Blake a Kenosha Wisconsin man that was shot in the back by Kenosha police because it was said by the officer that he was resisting arrest and had a knife but there is no proof from the police perspective for lack of body worn camera (Rickert, 2020). If it was not for the cell phone camera footage of the incident, then it would have been the officers’ word against Jacob Blake and the bystanders which normally the word or the action of the officers would have somehow been justified. There have been many times where things like this has happened in the past since there were no videos it was up to investigators to collect the evidence from the scene and put it all together from the evidence they food. I do not believe that there would be any investigation to any past cases, but now that we have the technology of today there will be change when it comes to these type of issues (Ly, 2014) Law enforcement has played the role of being known as someone that abuses the authority that was given to perform the job of protect and serve. The brutality of police has come up to the surface now. There has been historical fear and terror when dealing with law enforcement especially for the African American communities (Turner-Lee, 2020). I remember myself being a teenager although I lived in a diverse area in Florida there were many times I can recall being pulled over and targeted and being asked by the officer what am I doing in this area mind you I was in school good student no record or did not get in trouble, but was yet felt that I was the complete opposite just on a stop for nothing so I can relate to what the community is saying. Even though I have experienced such things I never stopped wanting to go into law enforcement. The role that laws enforcement will currently have in relationship to the issue of cell phone technology is now because of the recordings has showed what people have been experiencing for years. The main issue today is that black people feel more targeted than any other race when it comes to the problem of being racially profiled, beaten, arrested, or even killed by the hands of police. Now people are using the only weapon that they have at them disposal which is either cell phone recording or social media to talk about it and show it. Due to the various factors of the use of cell phone technology, social media those things have been shining he light on a history of abuse that has been happening for far too long and it is not only just in the black community although it happens more there, but this happens all over to anybody. On the other side of this all police are not out to abuse authority they are there to protect and serve and really make a difference. In order to get back to being a once respected profession law enforcement will not have to embrace transparency on a level that where people can trust them and stop being so transparent when dealing with things that may cause a public problem. Another thing that will be affect law enforcement is to establish the use of current technology that will help them to do their job while at the same time building trust out in the community (Fritsvold, 2020). I see how the shift went from one side to the other anytime I know I see a video surface I try not to make any type of judgements because people will show you what they want you to see and leave out vital parts of how they got to the point when the video starts. Police body cameras will tell the story from the officer’s side which is often times not available because the officer does not were one. References Sondel, J., & Knowles, H. (2020, June 10). George Floyd died after officers didn’t step in. These police say they did — and paid a price. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/06/10/police-culture-duty-tointervene/ Ly, L. (2014, November 19). Can cell phones stop police brutality? CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2014/11/18/us/police-cell-phonevideos/index.html Rickert, C. (2020, August 31). In wake of Jacob Blake shooting, Madison's 6-year debate over police body cameras continue. https://madison.com/wsj/news/local/crime-and-courts/in-wakeof-jacob-blake-shooting-madisons-6-year-debate-over-police-body-camerascontinues/article_312f2c92-f775-5395-bcfc-ee263717b928.html#:~:text=Body%20cameras %20are%20in%20the, knife%20and%20fought%20with%20officers Turner-Lee, N. (2020, June 5). Where would racial progress in policing be without camera phones? Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2020/06/05/where-would-racial-progressin-policing-be-without-camera-phones/ Fritsvold, E. (2020, May 26). 5 top trends in law enforcement & criminal justice today. University of San Diego. https://onlinedegrees.sandiego.edu/top-5-trends-in-law-enforcement/ p.296 13 Community and Problem-Oriented Policing LAURA BUCKMAN/AFP/Getty Images Media Library CHAPTER 13 Media Library P R E M I U M V I D E OP R E M I U M V I D E O S AG E N E W S C L I PS AG E N E W S C L I P A Policeman’s Lot Lynch Convenes Police-Community Forum in Detroit C A R E E R V I D E OC A R E E R V I D E O Community Policing Probation Officer O P E N AC C E S S V I D E OO P E N AC C E S S V I D E O Positive Community Policing Problem-Oriented Policing: Where Social Work Meets Law Enforce- ment AU D I OAU D I O New NYPD Commissioner Led Shift Toward ‘Community Policing’ With Baltimore Unrest, More De- bate Over 'Broken Windows' Polici ng W E BW E B Community Policing Beyond the Big Cities Implementing POP Leading, Struc- turing, and Managing a Problem-Ori ented Police Agency J O U R N A LJ O U R N A L Problem-Oriented Policing in Colo- rado Springs: A Content Analysis of 753 Cases Community Policing and Communi- ty Building: A Case Study of Officer Perceptions. p.297 Objectives After reading this chapter you will be able to: • Identify the factors that gave rise to community and problem-oriented policing and the strategies tried by police departments prior to these efforts • Define community policing and discuss what is known about the overall effectiveness of it • Explain why it may be difficult for the police to change citizens’ attitudes toward them • Define the concept of procedural justice and discuss why it may be difficult for the police to actually create it • Discuss the SARA model of problem solving and discuss examples of it being used in police departments to address crime problems • Evaluate what is known about the overall effectiveness of problem- oriented policing Fact or Fiction To assess your knowledge of community and problem-oriented policing prior to reading this chapter, identify each of the following statements as fact or fiction. (See page 319 at the end of this chapter for answers.) 1. Between 1960 and 1970, the crime rate in the United States was quite stable, due in large part to preventive patrol and the work of detectives. 2. Nearly all studies on the issue show minorities—especially African Americans—have more negative attitudes toward the police than whites. 3. Community relations bureaus in police departments and team policing were effective in reducing crime but not in improving the relationship between police and citizens. 4. Community policing and problem- oriented policing are different terms for basically the same concept. 5. The research is clear: Disorder causes crime. 6. Fear of crime is bad and should be eliminated. S 7. It is relatively easy for the police to improve citizens’ attitudes toward them. 8. If citizens have positive attitudes toward the police, then they will engage in behaviors that help the police. 9. Evaluations of community policing are mixed: Some studies show it works; some show it does not. 10. Problem-oriented policing has been identified as a strategy that works. ince the 1970s most police and other law enforcement agencies have become more citizen and problem oriented. This chapter discusses these orientations and the value and effectiveness of them. The Rise of Community Policing If there is one universal truth in policing (and in life), it is that change is constant. As discussed earlier in this book, policing has undergone several major changes since the first formal police departments were created in the United States in the mid- 1800s. Each change was prompted by a crisis. In the 1960s the crisis took the form of a crime wave. From 1960 to 1970, the violent crime rate more than doubled and appeared to be out of control (Figure 13.1). The 1960s were a difficult time for the police for other extraordinary reasons: President John F. Kennedy; the president’s brother, Senator Robert Kennedy; and Martin Luther King Jr. were all assassinated, and citizens were protesting the Vietnam War and demonstrating and rioting in the name of the civil rights movement. OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Positive Community Policing CLICK TO SHOW AUDIO New NYPD Commissioner Led Sh ift Toward ‘Community Policing’ CLICK TO SHOW p.298 Police Spotlight: Problem- Oriented Policing in Chula Vista11 The city of Chula Vista, California, had a problem: Crime was rampant at the city’s more than two dozen motels. Because of this, visitors to the city were hesitant to stay at these motels, thus hurting the local economy. The city has an Olympic ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo PHOTO 13.1 The Chula Vista Police Department used a problem- solving approach to address crime at the city’s motels. training center, but even the visiting athletes stayed farther away, in San Diego, for safety reasons. Business leaders and policymakers were very concerned. They brought the issue to the Chula Vista Police Department (CVPD) to see if it could do something to address the situation. The CVPD engaged in a multiyear effort to address the crime problem at the motels. Initial analysis of the problem focused on calls for service (CFS) in relation to motel rooms. An analysis of CFS revealed that five motels accounted for 24% of the Chula Vista motel rooms but 55% of the approximately 1,200 CFS. WEB Community Policing Be- yond the Big Cities CLICK TO SHOW The project staff also interviewed motel guests at problem properties and learned that 75% of those questioned were residents of San Diego County. Many were homeless, on probation, or on parole; very few were tourists. Next, the CVPD partnered with researchers at California State University, San Bernardino, to develop and administer a survey to the local motel managers to gain a better understanding of the crime problems from their perspective. The results revealed that motels that rented primarily to local customers and long-term guests produced more CFS. Based on this analysis, project staff believed educating motel managers about their crime problems and what could be done about them would reduce CFS. The project team met with local motel managers and provided technical assistance to improve the properties and increase safety through measures such as dead bolts on exterior doors. These efforts led to only a 7% decrease in CFS. The city then implemented an ordinance that prohibited hourly room rentals and required motel guests to present photo IDs when they checked in, but those measures had no impact on crime, disturbances, drugs, or assaults. Then, working with the city’s planning and building division (including code enforcement), community development, finance department, fire department, the city attorney’s office, and community/business groups, Chula Vista revisited the ordinance idea. This time the focus was on safety performance standards. To address this, the city council developed and passed an ordinance that required motels to obtain an annual permit to operate. Failure to have a valid permit could result in fines of up to $1,000 and/or six months in jail. Permits could be denied based on CFS levels, unsanitary rooms, or lack of basic crime prevention devices, such as window locks or dead bolts. As a result of these performance standards, motel CFS dropped 49%. A Question to Consider 13.1 Problem-Solving Efforts in Chula Vista What do you think was the most important action taken by the Chula Vista Police Department to reduce crime at the city’s motels? Why do you think A follow-up survey of motel managers was then conducted. The survey found local clientele and long- term guests—both of which were responsible for many of the CFS— decreased substantially at the motels. The permit requirement and code inspections also led to the implementation of safety features (dead bolts, door peepholes, door chains) in every motel room, increasing the overall safety of the properties. This effort was judged so exemplary it won the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing, which is awarded by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services of the U.S. Department of Justice. p.299 that action made such a difference in CFS to the police department? Are there any other reasons why CFS from the motels may have declined? To anyone who was paying attention, it appeared policing was not working. Prior to the 1960s, the police were operating under the belief they had what was necessary to control crime. Random preventive patrol was supposed to deter criminals, and for those criminals not deterred, rapid response to crime calls and detective-based criminal investigations were supposed to lead to their apprehensions. But it was clear in most large cities this was not happening, and research studies provided confirmation. Preventive patrol did not prevent crime,3 rapid police response to calls for service seldom led to on-scene arrests,4 and the actions of detectives rarely led to crimes being solved.5 The police realized they needed to do something different. The immediate objective was somehow to fix the relationship between the police and the minority community. Secondly, the police needed to do something about the crime problem. The police and citizens had somehow to work together for there even to be a chance for order maintenance and crime prevention. But how was this to be done? Since this question was first asked in the early 1970s, several potential answers have been put forth. IMPROVE THE RACIAL COMPOSITION OF POLICE DEPARTMENTS One of the underlying reasons for the poor relationship between the police and racial minorities is that up until and through the 1960s, police departments were overwhelmingly represented by white officers—white, male officers to be precise. In the era of civil rights, this was especially problematic. For example, in Detroit in the mid-1960s, approximately 40% of the population was African American, but 95% of officers were white. So when the riots occurred in Detroit and other cities—riots often sparked by white officers shooting black subjects—it was predominantly white officers deployed to stop them. The white police who worked in the urban ghettos were seen by the minority community as “alien intruders” or an “occupying army.”6 FIGURE FIGURE 13.113.1 Violent Crime Rate, 1960–1970 Everett Collection Historical/Alamy Stock Photo PHOTO 13.2 During the urban riots of the 1960s, predominantly white police forces were seen as an “occupying army” in minority neighborhoods. The diversification of police departments was an effort to reduce police-minority conflict. S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Statistics, http://www.ucrdatatool.gov/Search/Crime/State/RunCrimeStatebyState.cfm. p.300 As discussed in Chapter 5, equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action laws put into place in the 1970s helped change the racial (and gender) composition of police forces. Although EEO was not a police-led effort, it impacted strongly on the occupation: Police departments have seen a significant rise in representation of racial minorities and women. For example, by the mid- 1980s, almost 30% of Detroit police officers were African American,7 and by 2016 that number had risen to 61%.8 Efforts at improving the racial diversity of police departments were intended to lower the resentment many in the African American community felt toward the police. It was believed more favorable attitudes would lead to other positive outcomes, such as cooperation with the police. COMMUNITY RELATIONS BUREAUS Another effort designed to improve the relationship between the citizens and the police—again, particularly between racial minorities and the police—was the creation of community relations bu- reaus in police departments. This simply involved a revision to the formal organizational chart of a department to include a new bureau and assigning a limited number of officers to that bureau. These officers were supposed to engage in public relations activities designed to improve the race-relations problem. This approach had limited success as there was little substance to it, and community relations bureaus quickly disappeared or changed into crime prevention bureaus. TEAM POLICING A third effort designed to improve the relationship between citizens and the police was team policing.9 This strategy became popular in several police departments in the 1970s. Team policing had many variations, but at its core it involved assigning small teams of patrol officers, investigators, and supervisors to neighborhoods on a long-term basis in order to increase the exchange of information and improve cooperation. Team policing did not last long because it was very difficult to implement and, as a result, its impact was limited. As team policing disappeared, yet another strategy arose to takes its place: community policing. COMMUNITY POLICING AND PROBLEM-ORIENTED POLICING According to the Community Oriented Policing Services, Community policing is a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies that support the systematic use of partnerships and problem- solving techniques to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime.10 JOURNAL Problem-Oriented Policing in Col orado Springs: A Content Analysis of 753 Cases CLICK TO SHOW p.301 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT Reassessing the Impact ofReassessing the Impact of Race on Citizens’ AttitudesRace on Citizens’ Attitudes toward the Policetoward the Police1111 Since the 1960s many studies have examined citizens’ attitudes toward the police. This research has consistently shown that minorities— especially African Americans—have more negative attitudes toward the police than whites.12 One of the likely reasons for this is African Americans have more frequent negative encounters (e.g., police- initiated stops) with officers13 and, over time, this may translate into more negative sentiment toward the police. Research also suggests citizens are more likely to have negative attitudes toward the police when stops involve citizens and officers of a different race.14 This is of particular significance when white officers are a majority in the police department and African Americans are a minority in the community. Another possible explanation is that in most places, African Americans are a minority not only in terms of their numeric representation in the community but also in terms of their political power. All of this begs the question, what happens to citizens’ attitudes toward the police when African Americans are a majority of the population and represent a near majority of the police force? Professor James Frank and his colleagues sought to answer this question. In a survey administered to residents in Detroit, the researchers asked a series of questions relating to the respondents’ background characteristics, their experiences with the police in the past year, their evaluation of those experiences, and their attitudes toward the police. The attitude questions consisted of the following: • “In general, how satisfied are you with the police?” The question was prefaced with the statement, “Now let’s talk about the police in your neighborhood.” Responses ranged from “very satisfied” to “very dissatisfied.” • “How good of a job are the police doing controlling the street sale and use of illegal drugs in your neighborhood?” Response options were “poor,” “fair,” “good,” “very good,” and “no opinion.” • “How good of a job are the police doing to keep order on the streets and sidewalks in your neighborhood?” Response options were the same as in the preceding question. The authors were especially interested in how African American and white respondents compared on these questions. They found that on each of the three questions, African American residents expressed more favorable attitudes toward the police than white residents. Although the findings were limited to a single city, the study suggests the racial composition of the community and police force can make a difference in how residents feel about their police. The idea of community policing was born in the 1980s and reached the pinnacle of its popularity in the 1990s. However, many police leaders still believe in the ideas of community policing today. In fact, community policing is still mentioned in the mission statements of most police departments, especially the largest ones (see Figure 13.2). However, most research on this strategy was conducted in the 1990s. As discussed below, more recent research has shifted from a direct focus on community policing to other, separate but related issues, such as procedural justice. Community policing first took the form of foot patrol, but over time other activities, programs, and tactics have been developed, including neighborhood watches, citizen police academies, bike patrol, park and walk, storefront police stations/offices, citizen surveys, citizen advisory committees, police-community meetings, crime prevention education seminars, and police-community organization partnerships. Ideally, and as suggested by the definition provided above, community policing goes beyond programs and reflects an overall orientation to policing or a philosophy of policing.15 At the center of this philosophy is the idea that citizens matter to the police and citizen satisfaction is an important goal of policing. p.302 FIGURE FIGURE 13.213.2 Local Police Departments with a Mission Statement That Included a Community Policing Component, by Size of Population Served, 2013 S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Bureau of Justice Statistics, Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) Survey, 2013. Community policing has at least three important features.17 The first is community engagement. A belief exists in community policing departments that citizens play a critical role in crime control. The concept of coproduction of crime prevention is at the heart of community policing. That is, the prevention of crime requires that police and citizens work together; they share the responsibility for crime prevention. Second, community policing also involves modification of the traditionally conceived role of the police. With this type of policing, the police role goes beyond law enforcement and includes direct attempts to enhance citizen satisfaction with the police and reduce disorder, fear of crime, and, of course, actual crime. A third important feature of community policing programs is decentralization. In many of these programs, officers are assigned to neighborhoods and encouraged to communicate with citizens, get to know neighborhood residents, and promote community-oriented programs. Officers also have the ability and authority to act on residents’ concerns and priorities. p.303 Exhibit 13.1 The North Chicago Police Department Citizen Police Academy Citizen police academies are common in police departments today, particularly in suburban areas. They are often presented as a community policing program, although one could argue whether they necessarily embody a community policing orientation or the philosophy behind it. prettyfoto/Alamy Stock Photo PHOTO 13.3 Citizen police academies are designed to educate citizens about the nature of police work and enhance citizen support of the police. They are an example of a community policing program. The North Chicago Police Department Citizen Police Academy provides an example of academy structure and goals: The Citizen Police Academy is an 11-week program designed to give the participants a working knowledge of the North Chicago Police Department. It consists of a series of classes and discussions held once a week, on Thursday evenings from 6:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. Class size is limited to approximately 20 students. There is no cost to anyone who resides in the City of North Chicago. The classes provide an in-depth view into various areas of law enforcement. It is an educational and informative program that allows citizens the opportunity to learn about the issues that affect law enforcement efforts in the City of North Chicago, and how to develop a partnership with the police department. Our goal is to create a better understanding, communication and partnership between the citizens and the police through education, in order to establish a safer community. Community Oriented Policing plays an important and vital role in reducing crime in any community. Therefore, the North Chicago Police Department instituted the Citizen Police Academy to improve communication and obtain input and support throughout the city.16 S o u r c e :S o u r c e : North Chicago Police Department website (http://www.northchicago.org/index.asp? SEC=78D247A2-7D3A-44A1-9AB3- 22CEC16C0B99&Type=B_BASIC). In the 1980s a strategy closely related to community policing, problem-oriented p olicing, also began to be put into use. Problem-oriented policing is often considered part of community policing; the two approaches are congruent with each other but not necessarily synonymous. In most of its forms, problem-oriented policing is more focused than community policing in that problem-oriented policing involves the police trying to solve specific problems that affect the quality of life of community residents. Similar to community policing, problem-oriented policing requires building relationships among the police, citizens, and other community agencies; however, with problem-oriented policing, police-citizen cooperation is more likely to be focused on a particular neighborhood or community problem. While both community and problem-oriented policing seek to achieve outcomes besides the reduction of crime, such as increasing citizens’ quality of life in the community, problem-oriented policing attempts to achieve these outcomes by addressing identified problems rather than through other programs or operational activities. Finally, the effectiveness of problem-oriented policing is typically measured by the extent to which the identified problem has been solved. As such, this type of policing is typically evaluated on a case-by-case or problem- by-problem basis,21 unlike with community policing, where its success depends on the impact of programs on any number of outcomes (see Table 13.1). The remainder of this chapter provides a more in-depth discussion of community and problem-oriented policing. COMMUNITY POLICING: THE DETAILS Many scholars trace the origins of community policing to the creation of the National Neighborhood Foot Patrol Center at Michigan State University (MSU) in 1982. In the early 1980s, the School of Criminal Justice at MSU evaluated a new type of foot patrol in Flint, Michigan, and the National Neighborhood Foot Patrol Center was built around that evaluation. Similar foot patrol programs were also implemented in other cities. OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Problem-Oriented Policing: Wher e Social Work Meets Law En- forcement CLICK TO SHOW Facebook, Twitter, and the Internet Fort Worth Police/Twitter CAREER VIDEO Community Policing p.304 TECHNOLOGY ON THE JOB PHOTO 13.4 Improved communication between citizens and the police is an important component of community policing. Social media can be used by the police for this purpose. Increased interaction and improved communication between police and citizens are important aspects of community policing. Increased communication between citizens and the police may lead to citizens becoming more participatory in crime prevention and help police become aware of citizens’ concerns and priorities. Police-community meetings and citizen advisory groups are designed to address communication issues. Also common among police departments today is the use of social networking sites, particularly Facebook and Twitter. One of the potential major advantages of such sites for the police is that the police, not the media, control the content of the information released. However, of course, the police have little control over other crime and police-related information on these sites. A recent survey of 500 police agencies (approximately 200 of which responded) asked about their use of social media and related Internet sites to provide information to the community. The survey found that 100% of agencies had a website, 82% used Facebook, 69% used Twitter, and 48% used YouTube.18 An earlier study looked specifically at police department use of websites. It showed larger police departments that emphasized community policing were more likely to have websites and that agencies with a website were more likely to provide information through the site than to seek information from citizens through it.1 9 A study that analyzed the content posted by police departments on Facebook20 revealed a wide variety of information was provided. This included tips (e.g., safety tips, crime prevention tips); crime-related posts (e.g., warnings, information about recent crimes); alerts (e.g., evacuations, traffic situations); public relations posts; and information about missing persons, recruitment, and various police and community services. The most common posts related to crimes that had recently occurred (crime alerts) and public relations stories, such as acknowledgments of officers and community businesses for good work and support. Most “likes” were A Question to Consider 13.2 How Should Police Departments Use Social Networking Sites Most Effectively? • From your perspective, what advantages and disadvantages do Facebook and Twitter have compared to police use of traditional media? • How could police departments use received for stories about officers injured in the line of duty, and the most comments were received about other miscellaneous stories. “Likes” and comments were relatively uncommon with posts about specific crimes and public relations, ironically the two most common types of posts. Facebook and other social networking sites have a great deal of potential for increasing communication between police and citizens. That being said, social media is a tool police departments are still learning to use most effectively, and its use raises several important questions (see A Question to Consider 13.2). p.305 Facebook and Twitter most effectively? Specifically, what types of information should police departments post on Facebook or tweet on Twitter. What types of information should they not post or tweet? • What might be the unintended negative consequences of a police department’s sharing information or certain types of information on Facebook or Twitter? The federal government has had an important role in the creation and diffusion of community policing as a policing strategy. In 1994 the U.S. Department of Justice Office of Commu- nity Oriented Policing Services (COPS) was created as a result of the passage of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act. This law provided $9 billion to police departments to fund the hiring of new officers to foster problem solving and police-community interaction. COPS was given the responsibility for distributing these funds. COPS also provides funds and technical assistance to police departments developing and operating community policing programs.22 To date, COPS has provided more than $14 billion to advance community policing in police organizations across the country.23 With support from the federal government and interest from universities and key police leaders, community policing clearly seemed to be the right move for police departments. As mentioned above, community policing reached the summit of its popularity among police departments in the 1990s—in fact, the 1990s are referred to as “the era of community policing.”24 Surveys of police departments during that decade reveal that the overwhelming majority either already had implemented or were implementing community policing methods.25 Community policing remains popular among many police departments; nearly 97% of police training academies in 2016 provided training to recruits on community policing topics, including the history of community policing, identifying community problems, and problem-solving methods.26 A THEORY OF COMMUNITY POLICING: BROKEN WINDOWS In 1982 James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling published an article titled “Broken Windows: Police and Neighborhood Safety.”28 Although they did not mention community policing in the article, the ideas of Wilson and Kelling became the foundation for some iterations of this type of policing, particularly foot patrol. The hypotheses outlined in the article are now simply known as the broken windows theory. As discussed in Chapter 2, according to broken windows theory, criminal behavior is the result of (1) disorder (e.g., broken windows), (2) anonymity among residents, and (3) anonymity between the police and residents. Further, disorder leads to more disorder: “If a window in a building is broken and is left unrepaired, all of the rest of the windows will soon be broken”29 (italics in original). This condition signifies that no one cares about crime prevention. Residents who live in areas of disorder will feel … p.322 14 Evidence-Based and Intelligence- Led Policing AP Photo/Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Kent D. Johnson Media Library CHAPTER 14 Media Library P R E M I U M V I D E OP R E M I U M V I D E O S AG E N E W S C L I PS AG E N E W S C L I P FBI Director: Must Resolve Encryp- tion Debate O P E N AC C E S S V I D E OO P E N AC C E S S V I D E O Philadelphia Police Talk “SMART Po licing” CompStat An Inside Look at the System That C ut Crime in New York By 75 Percent AU D I OAU D I O Can Software That Predicts Crime P ass Constitutional Muster? Outgoing NYPD Commissioner Brat ton Attends Final Crime Stat Meeti ng W E BW E B COMPSTAT: Its Origins, Evolution, a nd Future in Law Enforcement Agen cies Predictive Policing J O U R N A LJ O U R N A L Introducing Smart Policing: Foun- dations, principles, and practice First-Line Supervision and Strategic Decision Making Under CompStat a nd Community Policing p.323 Objectives After reading this chapter you will be able to: • Define smart policing, data-driven and evidence-based policing, COMPSTAT, predictive policing, and intelligence-led policing • Identify the strengths and limitations of smart policing, data-driven and evidence-based policing, COMPSTAT, predictive policing, and intelligence-led policing • Compare the similarities and differences in smart policing, data- driven and evidence-based policing, COMPSTAT, predictive policing, and intelligence-led policing • Discuss the relative importance of research findings when making police policy decisions • Explain how geospatial crime analysis may lead to place-based crime prevention and how intelligence-led policing may lead to person-based crime prevention • Discuss how individual privacy can be threatened by intelligence-led policing and geospatial crime analysis Fact or Fiction To assess your knowledge of the newest approaches to policing prior to reading this chapter, identify each of the following statements as fact or fiction. (See page 342 at the end of this chapter for answers.) 1. The Smart Policing Initiative involves the creation of partnerships between the police and researchers to study local crime problems. 2. Smart policing was invented in 2013; nothing even resembled it prior to that year. 3. Data-driven policing focuses on the value of DNA in conducting criminal investigations. 4. Research findings are the primary factor police executives should consider when making policy-related decisions. 5. COMPSTAT is an approach to policing that uses data and accountability in an attempt to improve policing. 6. COMSTAT has significantly reduced crime wherever it has been used. 7. Geospatial crime analysis is based on the fact that most crime does not occur randomly but is concentrated in certain places. 8. Crime maps are a primary tool of geospatial crime analysis. 9. Intelligence-led policing refers to the A principle that police executives be “smart” when formulating or changing departmental policies. 10. Intelligence-led policing and geospatial crime analysis both involve the prediction of crime. s departments continue to seek ways of achieving the crime control mandate, numerous new approaches to policing have emerged in recent years, including smart policing, evidence-based policing, COMPSTAT, predictive policing, and intelligence-led policing. These approaches are separate but related; the common denominator among them is an increased reliance on various forms of information in attempts to improve policing. This chapter will introduce and discuss these strategies. Smart Policing The idea of smart policing is quite simple: Police departments and criminal justice researchers form partnerships and work together to identify solutions to local crime problems.2 The Smart Policing Initiative (SPI) was formally created in 2009 when the U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Assistance made funding available to police agencies to create partnerships with college- or university- affiliated researchers. The research findings resulting from these partnerships could then be used when making decisions about police policy and strategies. Since 2009, fifty-two police agencies have received SPI funding. Recently funded projects have addressed problems such as prescription drug abuse (see Police Spotlight feature), homicide, violent crime, gangs, gun violence, drugs, domestic violence, property crime, repeat offending, and neighborhood disorder, among others. 3 p.324 Police Spotlight: Smart Policing in the Reno Police Department The Reno (Nevada) Police Department (RPD) recently received funding through the Smart Policing Initiative (SPI; see below) to initiate a program to combat prescription drug abuse. The project was in progress as of 2016. The excerpt below describes the smart policing approach taken by the RPD to address this issue. OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Philadelphia Police Talk “S MART Policing” CLICK TO SHOW Washoe County is a growing community of 406,223 citizens. The City of Reno currently has a population of approximately 214,000. In Washoe County, the amount of prescription pills seized by the Regional Street Enforcement Team doubled between 2005 and 2008. The treatment admissions in Washoe County for prescription drug addiction increased 62% from 2007 to 2008. This is a dangerous trend that cannot be ignored. JOURNAL Introducing Smart Policing: F oundations, principles, and p ractice CLICK TO SHOW The Reno Police Department’s goal is to reduce prescription drug use/abuse and the availability of prescription drugs. The Reno SPI has focused on the following main activities: 1. Reduce availability of prescription drugs: Activities include informing doctors and pharmacists about “doctor shopping” and other prescription fraud activity; improving pharmacists’ screening of prescriptions and patients; and reviewing prescription monitoring programs. 2. Educate the public: Activities include establishing a media campaign on pharmacy bags, conducting a prescription drug drop-off event, distributing educational brochures, and establishing a Strengthening Families Program. As part of this activity, Reno SPI has also held a number of training events for prescribers and pharmacists. This training covers the prevalence and consequences of the prescription drug abuse problem, common methods citizens use to obtain prescription drugs, and the role they can play in turning the tide of this epidemic. 3. Enforce prescription drug laws, including review of prescription monitoring programs: Activities include educating patrol officers about prescription drugs in order to effectively enforce laws regarding illegal possession and distribution of prescription drugs. [Another focus] has been targeting medical professionals (e.g., pharmacists, physicians, and dentists) with training and education on prescription-drug fraud and abuse. The site believes it has been more practical and impactful to focus on the source of prescription drugs rather than on parents and students. The research partner is conducting a process and impact evaluation. 1. Process Evaluation: This is to determine if the agency followed and carried out the intended plan to reduce prescription drug abuse. In this particular case, there are several different techniques to achieve this goal (improving screening by pharmacists, implementing a prescription monitoring program, carrying out “safe parties,” etc.), and these will be evaluated separately in terms of the process evaluation. The process evaluation will determine the extent to which these activities were implemented as part of this effort. 2. Impact Evaluation: The Impact Evaluation will answer the basic question: Did the activities have the desired effect? Although the rate of the targeted crime problem is the first obvious measure, the police department will also consider other indicators to measure the potential impact of this intervention. The evaluation will examine the impact of the project on the Richard Drew-Pool/Getty Images PHOTO 14.1 Smart policing involves police and criminal justice researchers working closely together to solve identified crime problems. following components: the crime problem, the victims, offenders, pharmacies, and the police department.1 S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Bureau of Justice Statistics, Smart Policing website (http://www.smartpolicinginitiative.com/SPIsites/reno- nevada). p.325 Part of the reason for creating the SPI was the realization that much of the research being conducted on the effectiveness and efficiency of police strategies was of questionable quality. For example, when researchers sought to assess the overall effectiveness of problem-oriented policing based on the previous research conducted on it, only ten of 5,500 available articles were deemed to be of sufficient quality to be included in the assessment.4 Most of the studies had problems with data and research design. SPI research partnerships are intended to improve the quality of research conducted on crime issues; police departments are supposed to contribute complete and valid data, and the researchers are supposed to design and conduct effective studies. In order to receive SPI funding, smart policing initiatives are supposed to have three critical dimensions: (1) a research partnership between a police agency and a criminal justice researcher, (2) a high- quality research design and good data, and (3) a focus on addressing a local crime problem. Many police departments today speak of a commitment to smart policing even though they have not actually received SPI funding. In a recent survey, nearly one- third of agencies reported they had participated in a research partnership within the last five years.5 Smart policing sounds good. It implies that policing is cutting-edge, sophisticated, and technologically advanced (think smart phone, smart bomb, smart home, and so forth). Truthfully, police departments do not necessarily need SPI funding in order A Question to Consider 14.1 Is Smart Policing New? Smart policing involves the federal government providing money for police agencies to form partnerships with researchers to study and address crime problems. Other than this funding initiative, is the concept of smart policing new? If you believe it is, explain why. If you believe it is not, why might police departments be interested in using a new label for activities that may not really be new? to implement smart policing, just a cooperative relationship with a researcher to address some crime-related issue. To evaluate the potential contributions and limitations of smart policing, several issues should be considered. First, police- researcher partnerships can be difficult to create and maintain. Police and researchers often have different priorities and interests when conducting a research study. Relationships must have some element of trust among the participants, which is not automatic.6 Second, if a department is involved in a research partnership to study a particular crime problem, this does not necessarily mean that department’s approach to policing is Smart Policing and Convenience Store Crime different than the approach of other departments. Smart policing does not require a complete transformation of department operations, at least not to the degree that, for example, community policing does. It simply means a department and a researcher are working together to address a particular crime problem. Finally, it is important to emphasize smart policing is not a solution. It is a process, not an outcome, and it cannot solve any crime problem by itself. Smart policing often involves researching the effects of familiar strategies (such as hot spot patrol or problem-oriented policing) on crime problems. p.326 GOOD POLICING In 2009 the Glendale (Arizona) Police Department (GPD) received funding through the Smart Policing Initiative and partnered with researchers from Arizona State University to address the extensive crime problem at some of the convenience stores located in Glendale.7 The team adopted a problem-solving approach to the issue. Researchers calculated Circle K stores represented only 23% of all convenience stores in the city, but those fifteen stores were responsible for 79% of convenience store calls for police service in 2010. Although most of the calls were for property and disorder crime, a substantial number were related to violent crimes, drug crimes, and prostitution. To address the issue, researchers and police team members first visited the stores and identified store practices that might be contributing to the crime problems, such as inadequate staffing; a failure to deal with panhandling, loitering, and graffiti; poor lighting; and poor product placement (such as placing beer by the door). Team members then met with Circle K management to share information about the factors potentially contributing to the frequency of crime at their stores and suggested changes for the six stores that generated the most calls for service to the police. Some of these changes were implemented. Second, the team initiated a media campaign highlighting the consequences of theft from convenience stores. Finally, the GPD increased officer presence and enforcement activities at the six targeted stores, which resulted in fifty-seven arrests over nine weekends in August and September 2010. The researchers found crime dropped significantly (by 42%) at the targeted stores from the year preceding the intervention to the year after. This decline was larger than that experienced at the other convenience stores in the city. The researchers held that not only did the reduction in crime improve employee and customer safety at the stores, the decrease in calls for service also had meaningful impact on officer time spent responding to calls. This study provides a good example of how a police-researcher partnership can bring the necessary resources together to successfully address identified crime-related problems. Data-Driven and Evidence- Based Policing Over the last decade, there has been increased discussion of data-driven and e vidence-based policing. A police department is data driven when its leaders collect and analyze data from their department to make informed decisions about how that agency should best operate, particularly with regard to policing policies and strategies. Evidence- based policing occurs when police leaders use research findings to help inform policy decisions, but these findings are not necessarily generated from the department using them. Although many police departments have used data to inform decision making in the past, especially since the 1970s, today there is increased emphasis on the practice. Some of the first police policy questions answered with data related to the effectiveness of random patrol, rapid response, and reactive investigations. Since then, and as discussed throughout this book, literally thousands of policy- related questions have been informed by research data. For example: • How effective is hot spot patrol in reducing different types of crime? What activities of officers make a difference in this regard? • How effective are crackdowns? For which offenses do they work best? Under what conditions are they most effective? • What is the impact of DNA on the investigation of various types of crimes? • What effects do community policing programs have on various types of crime? What effect do they have on citizens’ attitudes toward the police? • How do police actions affect citizens’ perceptions of procedural justice and police legitimacy? What is the significance of these perceptions? p.327 • How effective is problem-oriented policing in controlling crime and disorder? • What types of training are necessary for police officers to perform their work competently? How is that training best delivered? • What measures can be taken to reduce the physical and psychological risks of police work? • Under what circumstances is force most likely to be used by officers? What types of force lessen the likelihood of citizen and police injuries? • How should patrol officers most effectively spend their uncommitted time? • What effect do body-worn cameras have on police use of force and citizen complaints? For there to be data on which to base decisions, agencies must have some capability of collecting and analyzing such data and then turning it into usable information. This capability may come through partnerships with researchers, as with smart policing, or it may be internal, such as a department’s own crime analysis center or research office. When data are analyzed, they turn into information. Another name for information is evidence. As such, data-driven policing is sometimes considered synonymous with evidence- based policing. Data-driven policing and evidence-based policing share the belief that “police practices should be based on scientific evidence about what works best.” 8 OTHER BASES FOR POLICY DECISIONS If decisions are not based on data or research evidence, then what could they be based upon? There are several possibilities. Decisions can be based on assumptions, or what some people believe to be true. For example, for decades people believed preventive patrol distributed randomly throughout a community prevented crime. Not until the 1970s was this assumption tested and found to be untrue. Decisions can also be based on tradition. Some things are done a certain way today simply because that is how they have been done in the past. Decisions may be based on authority. For example, things might be done the way they are in a department simply because the chief wants them done that way. In contrast to assumptions, tradition, and authority, research findings provide a more analytic basis on which to make policy-level decisions. SHOULD POLICY DECISIONS BE BASED ON RESEARCH FINDINGS? It is reasonable to ask if decisions should be based on research evidence. Interestingly, there are some reasons to believe data and research evidence are not the most important—and certainly not the only—factors to consider when making decisions. First, it should be clear that using research evidence to make decisions is most relevant for police leaders making policy-related decisions, not for patrol officers making street-level discretionary decisions. There are few opportunities for patrol officers to consider research findings when making on-the-spot decisions, although the policies and training that guide those decisions may be research based. There is, however, value in patrol officers being familiar with the research process.9 When research is conducted in police departments, it is usually officers who are either the subjects of the research or the ones expected to carry out the research procedures. If officers have a familiarity with the research process and understand the value of it, they may be more likely to comply with it. There are many stories of police officers failing to comply with the procedures of a research study and the quality of the study suffering as a result. For example, in the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment,10 officers were instructed by the researchers to take one of three actions (arrest, warn, or separate) when responding to an eligible domestic violence incident. The action to be taken was predetermined through a procedure involving color-coded report forms placed in random order (e.g., a red form meant arrest, a yellow form meant warn, etc.). However, some officers subverted the randomization procedure by not following the color-coded reports. When they were supposed to warn the subject based on the color of the report, they made arrests. Or they warned when they were supposed to separate. This resulted in bias being introduced into the study.11 Perhaps if officers had been made more aware of the importance of following procedure in producing accurate results, they would have been more likely to comply with the research protocol of the study. p.328 Second, if police leaders are to base policy decisions on research findings, ideally that research should be conducted in that agency. Because of different community and police department characteristics, what is true in one setting may not be true in another. Again, as an example, the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment was replicated in five other cities. Each study had at least slightly different results. Based on victim interviews, three of the studies found arrest deterred repeat domestic violence; three found it did not. In fact, in three of the cities, arrest was shown to increase the likelihood of repeat domestic violence. This has been referred to as the different communities dilemma.12 Third, even if a study is of high quality and is conducted in the community or police department where its findings are to be applied, one must be reasonably cautious about making policy decisions based on a single study. A policymaker should be more confident in making decisions based on research if there are consistent findings from many studies. However, this is not a luxury often afforded to police policymakers. If multiple studies do exist, there is a good chance they have produced different findings, as noted in the domestic violence studies. Finally, research evidence may not be the most important consideration in policy development; many other issues and interests may need to be considered. For example, police executives must always consider the liability implications of policy decisions. Even if research indicates a particular policy is effective, setting policy strictly on this evidence could subject the police department to lawsuits. For a case in point, we again turn to the domestic violence studies. Even though some of the studies clearly showed arrest did not work best and may have actually increased the likelihood of repeat domestic violence in some instances, many departments proceeded to implement mandatory arrest policies primarily to protect themselves from liability claims.13 Resource constraints are another major factor to consider. Can the agency afford to implement the research-recommended solution? Political factors also may play a role. How might other constituent groups be affected by a proposed solution? Will citizens accept the solution? Will politicians support the solution? Will police officers accept it? It would be naïve to think research findings should be the sole, or even primary, consideration when making policy-level decisions. The data- driven and evidence-based approach to policing offers a scientific way of improving policies, but it is important to put its potential contribution in perspective and understand its limitations. COMPSTAT COMPSTAT (usually identified as a short form of computer statistics) was first introduced in 1994 by Police Commissioner William Bratton in the New York City Police Department (NYPD). COMPSTAT can be thought of as a data- driven approach to policing, the goal of which is to reduce crime and sometimes to solve other departmental problems.14 It has been described as a data-driven management model, a management process, a management device, a tool of management accountability, a performance management system, and a management model. Clearly, COMPSTAT has something to do with management! OPEN ACCESS VIDEO CompStat CLICK TO SHOW WEB COMPSTAT: Its Origins, Evolu- tion, and Future in Law En- forcement Agencies CLICK TO SHOW p.329 There are various ways in which COMPSTAT operates, but at its core the system consists of two critical elements: data and accountability. Through the analysis of data, particularly crime data, serious crime problems are identified and then assigned to particular individuals for resolution. These individuals are usually high-level police managers, such as precinct commanders. Once a problem is assigned, it is “owned” by the assignee until it is resolved. The commander who is given the problem works with his or her subordinates, including sergeants and patrol officers, to identify potential Spokane Police Department PHOTO 14.2 COMPSTAT is a data- driven approach used to identify and address crime problems in a jurisdiction. solutions. After the initial assignment of the problem is made, follow-up is conducted to see what actions were taken and what results were obtained. In this way particular people are held accountable for particular problems. JOURNAL First-Line Supervision and Strate- gic Decision Making Under CompS tat and Community Policing CLICK TO SHOW Shortly after the introduction of COMPSTAT in the NYPD, crime in the city began to decline. Police leaders attributed this to COMPSTAT.15 In the face of this apparent success, many police departments across the country also implemented COMPSTAT or some version of it. However, the system’s success in other cities has been mixed.16 While accountability can certainly lead to positive outcomes, some people have argued a relentless focus on responsibility for addressing difficult crime problems may create incentive for the police to manipulate crime data to make it appear crime has been reduced when it has not.17 Aside from this possibility, the biggest issue with COMPSTAT is that although using effective tactics to solve crime problems is central to the success of COMPSTAT, those tactics are not specified by the system. They have to be discovered. In a recent study examining the use of COMPSTAT in seven police departments, the results revealed sergeants and patrol officers were largely responsible for solving COMPSTAT-identified crime problems, and they were expected to do so without any clear guidance. One of the sergeants interviewed in the study spoke about how his commander gave him little direction in how to solve a problem involving theft from autos: Jeff Greenberg/UIG via Getty Images PHOTO 14.3 COMPSTAT involves assigning responsibility for crime problems to particular officers. Methods to address the problems are then identified and follow-up is conducted. COMPSTAT provides accountability for the reduction of crime. p.330 He is saying, O.K. guys, you have one hundred years of experience between the three of ya’. Let’s fix it. That’s what he is doing; it is not a direct, “this is what we are going to do.” He throws this thing out there. Put your heads together and figure out how we are going to resolve this issue.18 Another sergeant explained how the solutions to identified crime problems were usually not very creative: Typically, I mean when you are talking about bar problems, construction area thefts, they don’t demand a tremendous amount of creativity in how you approach them . . . . You either want to be seen or you don’t want to be seen. If you want to be seen, you want to patrol to increase visibility, do traffic enforcements, do bar checks.19 In summary, COMPSTAT is an accountability tool that involves the identification of particular crime problems and the assignment of those problems to specific police department personnel. Although the system has been successful in some departments, it is limited in the same way that smart policing, data-driven policing, and evidence-based policing are limited: It is not a method or strategy by which to control crime; it is merely an approach to policing. Predictive Policing Predictive policing includes some aspects of data-driven policing, COMPSTAT, and intelligence-led policing (see below) but with the specific purpose of trying to predict (1) where crimes will occur, (2) when they will occur, (3) against whom they will occur, and (4) who will commit them. Simply stated, predictive policing involves using data to try to predict and prevent crime. AUDIO Can Software That Predicts Crim e Pass Constitutional Muster? CLICK TO SHOW No matter how sophisticated the analyses, predictive policing is not in the realm of science fiction, where the police make arrests of citizens for crimes before those crimes even occur (as in the film The Minority Report). Predictive policing also does not mean the police become psychic or use a crystal ball. Predictive policing is based on the simple fact that the majority of crime is not random. In particular, predatory street crime (e.g., murder, rape, robbery, shootings) is not distributed evenly across time, place, or people. Certain times are more likely to experience crimes than others (e.g., there is more crime at night than during the day); some places are more likely to experience crime than others (e.g., taverns have more crime than libraries); some people are more likely to become victims than others (e.g., drug dealers versus monks); and some people are more likely to commit crimes than others (e.g., men versus women). Because many crimes are not random, if patterns can be identified, interventions may be introduced to prevent these crimes. One of the problems with predictive policing is the more specific the prediction, the more likely it is to be wrong. If the police could determine the location and time of a crime, the offender, and the victim, crime AF archive/Alamy Stock Photo PHOTO 14.4 Predictive policing is based on the fact that predatory crime is not randomly distributed across time, space, or people. It is not science fiction, however, as was the crime prevention process in the film Minority Report. prevention would be easy. Unfortunately, this is not possible. WEB Predictive Policing CLICK …