Fluent Essays

Week 4 Assignment: Journal Start Assignment · Due Sep 27 by 12:59am   · Points 35   · Submitting a file upload Required Resources Read/review the following resources for this activity: · Textbook: Chapter 8, 9, 17 (Introduction); review Chapter 7 · Lesson Introduction Remember – your actual journal entry should be somewhat brief; most of your time should be spent thinking about the questions asked and the issues raised. Your thoughts should then be distilled into a mini-argument that will respond affirmatively to the four tests for evaluating arguments: truthfulness of premises, logical strength, relevance, and non-circularity. Instructions For this journal assignment, briefly answer each of the following prompts: · Inference: The differing meanings of "valid inference" and "warranted inference" are closely related to the differing purposes of deductive and inductive arguments – the purpose of deductive being to prove; the purpose of inductive to make the conclusion most probable. · Look up the words "valid" and "warranted." Each of these words, you will find, has what is known as a lexical definition – that is just the dictionary definition of the word. Words also have a certain connotations - meanings that go beyond their lexical definitions; associated ideas and concepts – think of terms such a "fur baby" as the name for a pet. · Briefly discuss how the lexical definitions and connotations of "valid" and "warranted" can help us understand the differing purposes of deductive and inductive arguments. · Fallacies: In Section 8.2, the text states that there are "fallacious argument templates" (Facione & Gittens, p. 167) and then gives a number of examples. The authors further state: "Analysis of the meanings of the terms used and the grammatical rules of the language reveal the source of error" (p.167). · Choose one of the fallacies in this section, such as Denying the Antecedent or False Classification and pair it with the valid argument template. For example, if you choose Denying the Antecedent, the valid argument template will be Denying the Consequent. False Classification would pair with one of the fallacies in Reasoning About Classes of Objects. · Explain, in your own words, how the fallacy is revealed through analysis of the valid argument template. Think of it this way – if you know how the heart works, you will know that certain malfunctions will prevent it from working.  For example, if you know that the coronary arteries supply the heart with blood, then you can reason that a blockage will stop that vital flow. So this journal prompt asks you to explain, in your own words, how one of the valid argument templates work – and how that exposes the fallacy connected with that type of argument. · Civic Responsibility: At the end of Chapter 9 there is a Bonus Exercise that asks you to research and analyze the 2009 debate over the healthcare public option. If you were actually to complete that exercise, it would take quite a bit of time and effort. · Do you think that completing such an exercise would be time well spent or time wasted? If well-spent, why? If time wasted, why? · Is there any issue on which you think a comparable amount of time and effort would be worthwhile? · As a critical thinker, do you believe that citizens have an obligation to be informed on topics of current interest? If yes, why, if no, why not? If you include references to outside sources (beyond the textbook), make sure you cite them properly. Writing Requirements (APA format) · Length: 1 ½ -2 pages (not including prompts, title page or references page) · 1-inch margins · Double spaced · 12-point Times New Roman font · Title page · References page (as needed) Grading This activity will be graded using the Journal Grading Rubric. Course Outcomes (CO): 3, 4, 5, 6 Due Date: By 11:59 p.m. MT on Sunday References Facione, P. A., & Gittens, C. A. (2016). Think critically (3rd ed.). Pearson. Rubric Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Criteria Ratings Pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeLength 5 pts Meets length requirement 0 pts Does not meet length requirement 5 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeContent Reflection 15 pts Reflection demonstrates a high degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Insightful and relevant connections made through contextual explanations, inferences, and examples. 12.75 pts Reflection demonstrates some degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 11.25 pts Reflection demonstrates limited critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions, activities, and/or assignments. Minimal connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 9 pts Reflection lacks critical thinking. Superficial connections are made with key course concepts and course materials, activities, and/or assignments. 0 pts Little or no reflection; copies or repeats text or lecture. 15 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomePersonal Growth 10 pts Conveys strong evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates significant personal growth and awareness of deeper meaning through inferences made, examples, well developed insights, and substantial depth in perceptions and challenges. Synthesizes current experience into future implications. 8.5 pts Conveys evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates satisfactory personal growth and awareness through some inferences made, examples, insights, and challenges. Some thought of the future implications of current experience. 7.5 pts Conveys limited evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates less than adequate personal growth and awareness through few or simplistic inferences made, examples, insights, and/or challenges that are not well developed. Minimal thought of the future implications of current experience. 6 pts Conveys inadequate evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Personal growth and awareness are not evident and/or demonstrates a neutral experience with negligible personal impact. Lacks enough inferences, examples, personal insights and challenges, and/or future implications are overlooked. 0 pts No evidence of reflection. 10 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWriting Quality 5 pts Well written and clearly organized using standard English, characterized by elements of a strong writing style and basically free from grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling errors. 4.25 pts Above average writing style and logically organized using standard English with minor errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3.75 pts Average and/or casual writing style that is sometimes unclear and/or with some errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3 pts Poor writing style lacking in standard English, clarity, language used, and/or frequent errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. Needs work. 0 pts Lacks coherence; errors in grammar, usage and spelling interfere with readability and understanding to significant degree. 5 pts Total Points: 35 Week 5 Assignment: Journal Start Assignment · Due Oct 4 by 12:59am   · Points 35   · Submitting a file upload Required Resources Read/review the following resources for this activity: · Textbook: Chapter 10, 11 · Lesson Introduction Remember – these journal questions require more thinking than writing. Think about exactly what you are asked to do, and then write as economically as possible.   Instructions For this journal assignment, briefly answer each of the following prompts. For all instances where you are required to provide a definition, do not copy definitions from the text. Use your own words. · Self-Regulation · The textbook mentions the skill of self-regulation. How do you define this term? You may want to review Chapter 2 (to review critical thinking skills) before your write out your definition. · Sytem-1 and System-2 · Define System-1 and System-2 thinking in your own words. · Give an example from your personal or work life where you would use each of them, explaining why each is appropriate to the situation in which you use it. · Heuristics · Define "heuristic" in your own words. · Give an example of a heuristic might be used in your personal or professional life and briefly show how it could have a positive or negative effect. · Do not use examples found in the text. · Dominance Structuring · Explain the term "dominance structuring" in your own words. · Is dominance structuring a positive or negative attribute of critical thinking? Explain. · Use examples if that is helpful to your explanation. · Cognitive Bias · Briefly examine what part you think mastery of facts and understanding of data have in avoiding cognitive bias in System-1 thinking. If you include references to outside sources (beyond the textbook), make sure you cite them properly. Writing Requirements (APA format) · Length: 1 ½ -2 pages (not including prompts, title page or references page) · 1-inch margins · Double spaced · 12-point Times New Roman font · Title page · References page (as needed) Grading This activity will be graded using the Journal Grading Rubric. Course Outcomes (CO): 1, 4, 5 Due Date: By 11:59 p.m. MT on Sunday Rubric Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Criteria Ratings Pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeLength 5 pts Meets length requirement 0 pts Does not meet length requirement 5 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeContent Reflection 15 pts Reflection demonstrates a high degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Insightful and relevant connections made through contextual explanations, inferences, and examples. 12.75 pts Reflection demonstrates some degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 11.25 pts Reflection demonstrates limited critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions, activities, and/or assignments. Minimal connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 9 pts Reflection lacks critical thinking. Superficial connections are made with key course concepts and course materials, activities, and/or assignments. 0 pts Little or no reflection; copies or repeats text or lecture. 15 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomePersonal Growth 10 pts Conveys strong evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates significant personal growth and awareness of deeper meaning through inferences made, examples, well developed insights, and substantial depth in perceptions and challenges. Synthesizes current experience into future implications. 8.5 pts Conveys evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates satisfactory personal growth and awareness through some inferences made, examples, insights, and challenges. Some thought of the future implications of current experience. 7.5 pts Conveys limited evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates less than adequate personal growth and awareness through few or simplistic inferences made, examples, insights, and/or challenges that are not well developed. Minimal thought of the future implications of current experience. 6 pts Conveys inadequate evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Personal growth and awareness are not evident and/or demonstrates a neutral experience with negligible personal impact. Lacks enough inferences, examples, personal insights and challenges, and/or future implications are overlooked. 0 pts No evidence of reflection. 10 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWriting Quality 5 pts Well written and clearly organized using standard English, characterized by elements of a strong writing style and basically free from grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling errors. 4.25 pts Above average writing style and logically organized using standard English with minor errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3.75 pts Average and/or casual writing style that is sometimes unclear and/or with some errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3 pts Poor writing style lacking in standard English, clarity, language used, and/or frequent errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. Needs work. 0 pts Lacks coherence; errors in grammar, usage and spelling interfere with readability and understanding to significant degree. 5 pts Total Points: 35 Week 2 Assignment: Journal Start Assignment · Due Monday by 12:59am   · Points 35   · Submitting a file upload Required Resources Read/review the following resources for this activity: · Textbook: Chapter 4, 5 · Lesson Instructions Remember – these journal questions require more thinking than writing. Think about exactly what you are asked to do, and then write as economically as possible.  For this journal assignment, answer each of the following prompts: · Important Idea · Considering only the Introduction to Chapter 5, in terms of developing critical thinking and reasoning, what do you consider is the most valuable and important idea in that section? You can either summarize or directly quote the text; then, briefly explain why you find this idea important and valuable. · Critical Thinking · In Chapter 5, the section "Making Arguments" states: "In some ways applying our core critical thinking skills to analysis can be more difficult than offering an evaluative opinion. Analysis, like interpretation, is understanding at a deep level (p. 89)" · What concepts discussed in Chapter 4 might make analysis of a statement difficult – and why? · Beliefs · Why do you believe what you believe? · What is your "evidence"? · Test one of your beliefs by asking yourself, "Why?" As you answer each "why," go down another layer – four layers will probably give you a good idea of why you believe what you believe. · Your product should show a well-reasoned and logical basis for your belief. Stay away from the big stuff, like believing in God, or who to vote for in the next election, and don't look for sources – this is about what you believe and why you believe it. After all, this is only an 8-week course, and we can't settle everything! · Click on the following link for an example of layers of why: Link: Example of Layers of Why   Note Don't be tempted to skip steps. If you start with layer 5, you have just opened up a whole new line of "whys." For example, why should everyone be afforded an opportunity to reach his or her highest potential? After all, for most of the history of the world, that has not been the case. If you include references to outside sources (beyond the textbook), make sure you cite them properly. Writing Requirements (APA format) · Length: 1 ½ -2 pages (not including prompts, title page or references page) · 1-inch margins · Double spaced · 12-point Times New Roman font · Title page · References page (as needed) Grading This activity will be graded using the Journal Grading Rubric. Course Outcomes (CO): 1, 4, 6 Due Date: By 11:59 p.m. MT on Sunday Rubric Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Criteria Ratings Pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeLength 5 pts Meets length requirement 0 pts Does not meet length requirement 5 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeContent Reflection 15 pts Reflection demonstrates a high degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Insightful and relevant connections made through contextual explanations, inferences, and examples. 12.75 pts Reflection demonstrates some degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 11.25 pts Reflection demonstrates limited critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions, activities, and/or assignments. Minimal connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 9 pts Reflection lacks critical thinking. Superficial connections are made with key course concepts and course materials, activities, and/or assignments. 0 pts Little or no reflection; copies or repeats text or lecture. 15 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomePersonal Growth 10 pts Conveys strong evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates significant personal growth and awareness of deeper meaning through inferences made, examples, well developed insights, and substantial depth in perceptions and challenges. Synthesizes current experience into future implications. 8.5 pts Conveys evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates satisfactory personal growth and awareness through some inferences made, examples, insights, and challenges. Some thought of the future implications of current experience. 7.5 pts Conveys limited evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates less than adequate personal growth and awareness through few or simplistic inferences made, examples, insights, and/or challenges that are not well developed. Minimal thought of the future implications of current experience. 6 pts Conveys inadequate evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Personal growth and awareness are not evident and/or demonstrates a neutral experience with negligible personal impact. Lacks enough inferences, examples, personal insights and challenges, and/or future implications are overlooked. 0 pts No evidence of reflection. 10 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWriting Quality 5 pts Well written and clearly organized using standard English, characterized by elements of a strong writing style and basically free from grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling errors. 4.25 pts Above average writing style and logically organized using standard English with minor errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3.75 pts Average and/or casual writing style that is sometimes unclear and/or with some errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3 pts Poor writing style lacking in standard English, clarity, language used, and/or frequent errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. Needs work. 0 pts Lacks coherence; errors in grammar, usage and spelling interfere with readability and understanding to significant degree. 5 pts Total Points: 35 Week 8 Assignment: Journal Start Assignment · Due Oct 24 by 12:59am   · Points 35   · Submitting a file upload Required Resources Read/review the following resources for this activity: · Textbook: Chapter 16 · Lesson Introduction Remember – these journal questions require more thinking than writing. Think about exactly what you are asked to do, and then write as economically as possible.  Instructions · Critical Thinking · Go back to your very first journal entry – review your definition of critical thinking. After studying critical thinking for the past eight weeks, would you change your definition in any way? If yes, how and why? If no – if it was perfect – what parts of the text were best reflected in your definition? · Heart of the Matter · Recall in your first journal entry that you discussed the authors' statement that the concepts in Chapters 12, 13 and 14 were "the heart of the matter." After having studied those chapters, answer again, with renewed understanding, the question posed there: Why do you think the authors find these concepts important to critical thinking? · Ethical Decision-Making · The lecture claims that an argument is no good unless it has a "strong and reasoned ethical base." Do you agree that ethics is an essential element of a good argument? If yes, why? If no, why not? · Looking Forward · Do you believe that you now know everything you need to know about critical thinking – or is learning to think critically a life-long task? Explain your answer. Writing Requirements (APA format) · Length: 1 ½ -2 pages (not including prompts, title page or references page) · 1-inch margins · Double spaced · 12-point Times New Roman font · Title page · References page Grading This activity will be graded using the Journal Grading Rubric. Course Outcomes (CO): 1, 3, 4, 6 Due Date: By 11:59 p.m. MT on Saturday Rubric Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Journal Grading Rubric - 35 pts Criteria Ratings Pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeLength 5 pts Meets length requirement 0 pts Does not meet length requirement 5 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeContent Reflection 15 pts Reflection demonstrates a high degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Insightful and relevant connections made through contextual explanations, inferences, and examples. 12.75 pts Reflection demonstrates some degree of critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions activities, and/or assignments. Connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 11.25 pts Reflection demonstrates limited critical thinking in applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating key course concepts and theories from readings, lectures, media, discussions, activities, and/or assignments. Minimal connections made through explanations, inferences, and/or examples. 9 pts Reflection lacks critical thinking. Superficial connections are made with key course concepts and course materials, activities, and/or assignments. 0 pts Little or no reflection; copies or repeats text or lecture. 15 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomePersonal Growth 10 pts Conveys strong evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates significant personal growth and awareness of deeper meaning through inferences made, examples, well developed insights, and substantial depth in perceptions and challenges. Synthesizes current experience into future implications. 8.5 pts Conveys evidence of reflection on own work with a personal response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates satisfactory personal growth and awareness through some inferences made, examples, insights, and challenges. Some thought of the future implications of current experience. 7.5 pts Conveys limited evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Demonstrates less than adequate personal growth and awareness through few or simplistic inferences made, examples, insights, and/or challenges that are not well developed. Minimal thought of the future implications of current experience. 6 pts Conveys inadequate evidence of reflection on own work in response to the self-assessment questions posed. Personal growth and awareness are not evident and/or demonstrates a neutral experience with negligible personal impact. Lacks enough inferences, examples, personal insights and challenges, and/or future implications are overlooked. 0 pts No evidence of reflection. 10 pts This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWriting Quality 5 pts Well written and clearly organized using standard English, characterized by elements of a strong writing style and basically free from grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling errors. 4.25 pts Above average writing style and logically organized using standard English with minor errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3.75 pts Average and/or casual writing style that is sometimes unclear and/or with some errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. 3 pts Poor writing style lacking in standard English, clarity, language used, and/or frequent errors in grammar, punctuation, usage, and spelling. Needs work. 0 pts Lacks coherence; errors in grammar, usage and spelling interfere with readability and understanding to significant degree. 5 pts Total Points: 35 Think Critically A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 1 12/30/14 1:04 PM To students and teachers everywhere, may developing critical thinking help you stay forever young. A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 2 12/30/14 1:04 PM Think Critically Third Edition Peter Facione Carol Ann Gittens Boston Columbus Hoboken Indianapolis New York San Francisco Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 3 12/30/14 1:04 PM Vice-President/Director/Product Development: Dickson Musslewhite Product Data and Operations: Craig Campanella Senior Acquisitions Editor: Debbie Coniglio Editorial Assistant: Veronica Grupico Director of Product Marketing: Maggie Moylan Team Lead Program Management: Amber Mackey Program Manager: Nicole Conforti Team Lead Project Management: Melissa Feimer Project Manager: Richard DeLorenzo Operations Specialist: Mary Ann Gloriande Senior Art Director: Blair Brown Cover Art Director: Maria Lange Director of Digital Media: Sacha Laustsen Digital Product Manager: Claudine Bellanton Digital Media Project Manager: Amanda Smith Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Lumina Datamatics, Inc./Melissa Sacco Printer/Binder: Courier/Kendallville Cover Printer: Courier/Kendallville Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Acknowledgements of third party content appear on pages 405–408 which constitute an extension of this copyright page. PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks in the U.S. and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Facione, Peter A. Think critically / Peter Facione, Carol Ann Gittens. — Third edition. pages cm Includes index. ISBN 978-0-13-390966-1 — ISBN 0-13-390966-2 1. Critical thinking—Textbooks. I. Gittens, Carol Ann. II. Title. B809.2.F33 2014 160—dc23 2014040474 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Student Edition: ISBN 10: 0-13-390966-2 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-390966-1 Instructor’s Review Copy: ISBN 10: 0-13-391412-7 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-391412-2 A la Carte: ISBN 10: 0-13-391413-5 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-391413-9 A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 4 12/30/14 1:04 PM www.pearsoned.com/permissions/ 1 The Power of Critical Thinking 1 2 Critical Thinking Mindset  and Skills 18 3 Solve Problems and Succeed in College 39 4 Clarify Ideas and Concepts 63 5 Analyze Arguments and Diagram Decisions 88 6 Evaluate the Credibility of Claims and Sources 113 7 Evaluate Arguments: Four Basic Tests 138 8 Valid Inferences 158 9 Warranted Inferences 174 10 Snap Judgments: Risks and Benefits of Heuristic Thinking 193 11 Reflective Decision Making 220 12 Comparative Reasoning 239 13 Ideological Reasoning 259 14 Empirical Reasoning 283 15 Write Sound and Effective  Arguments 300 16 Ethical Decision Making 327 17 The Logic of Declarative Statements 349 Appendix: Extend Argument- Decision Mapping Strategies 377 Brief Contents v A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 5 12/30/14 1:04 PM vi Acknowledgments x Preface xi About the Authors xiii 1 The Power of Critical Thinking 1 Risk and Uncertainty Abound 2 Critical Thinking and a Free Society 2 The One and the Many 5 What Do We Mean by “Critical Thinking”? 6 Expert Consensus Conceptualization 6 “Critical Thinking” Does Not Mean “Negative Thinking” 7 Improvement Takes Practice 8 Evaluating Critical Thinking 9 The Students’ Assignment—Kennedy Act 9 The Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric 11 The Students’ Assignment—Haiti 11 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications 2 Critical Thinking Mindset  and Skills 18 Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind 19 The Spirit of a Strong Critical Thinker 20 Positive vs. Negative Habits of Mind 21 Preliminary Self-Assessment 21 Research on the Positive Critical Thinking Mindset 22 Seven Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind 22 • Negative Habits of Mind 23 Is a Good Critical Thinker Automatically a Good Person? 25 Cultivate a Positive Critical Thinking Mindset 26 Core Critical Thinking Skills 27 Interpreting and Analyzing the Consensus Statement 27 The Jury Is Deliberating 28 Critical Thinking Skills Fire in Many  Combinations 28 Strengthening Our Core Critical Thinking Skills 29 The Art of the Good Question 30 Skills and Subskills Defined 32 Looking Ahead 32 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 3 Solve Problems and Succeed in College 39 Differences and Similarities 41 IDEAS: A 5-Step Critical Thinking General Problem-Solving Process 42 Educating the Whole Person 44 Social Relationships 45 STEP 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities 46 Vocation 46 STEp 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities 47 • STEP 2: DETErMINE relevant Information and Deepen Understanding 48 Academics 49 The First Two IDEAS Steps in Maria’s Case 50 Health and Physical Well-being 52 The First Three Steps in Leah’s Case 52 Problems in College and Beyond 55 Emotional Well-Being 55 Spiritual Development 59 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications 4 Clarify Ideas and Concepts 63 Interpretation, Context, and Purpose 64 Meaning Matters 64 But, Clear Enough for What? 65 Worth 1000 Words 67 Communication, Language, and Thought 68 When Vagueness or Ambiguity Cause Misunderstandings 70 Vagueness: “Does the Meaning Include This Case or Not?” 70 Problematic Vagueness 71 Ambiguity: “Which Meaning Are We Using?” 72 Problematic Ambiguity 72 Resolving Problematic Vagueness and Ambiguity 72 Contextualizing 72 Clarifying Original Intent 73 Negotiating the Meaning 75 Using Qualifications, Exceptions, or Exclusions 78 Stipulating the Meaning 78 Donkey Cart Words Signal Twisted Meanings 79 Language Communities 81 National and Global Language Communities 81 Language Communities Formed of People with Like Interests 82 Academic Disciplines as Language Communities 83 Critical Thinking and College Introductory Courses 84 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 5 Analyze Arguments and Diagram Decisions 88 Analyzing Reasons and Claims 89 Accuracy Depends on Context and Purpose 89 Over-Simplification Masks Reality 90 “Reason” and “Premise” 91 Contents A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 6 12/30/14 1:04 PM Contents vii Mapping Claims and the Reasons for Them 93 Interpreting Unspoken Reasons and Claims in Context 95 Interpreting the Use of Irony, Humor, Sarcasm, and More 96 Analyzing Arguments in Context 96 The El Train Argument 96 The “Guns for Kids” Conversation 98 Analyzing and Mapping Decisions 103 “We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #1 104 “We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #2 105 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 6 Evaluate the Credibility of Claims and Sources 113 Assessing the Source: Whom Should I Trust? 114 Claims without Reasons 114 Cognitive Development and Healthy Skepticism 116 Authority and Expertise 116 Learned and Experienced 117 • On-Topic, Up-To-Date, and Capable of Explaining 118 • Unbiased and Truthful 120 • Free of Conflicts of Interest, and Acting in the Client’s Interest 120 • Unconstrained, Informed about the Case at Hand, and Mentally Stable 123 • Twelve Characteristics of a Trustworthy Source 123 Assessing the Substance—What Should I Believe? 125 Personal Muck and Gunk Monitor 125 Self-Contradictions and Tautologies 126 Marketing, Spin, Disinformation, and Propaganda 128 Slanted Language and Loaded Expressions 129 Independent Verification 130 Can the Claim Be Confirmed? 130 Can the Claim Be Disconfirmed? 131 More than a Healthy Sense of Skepticism Only 132 Independent Investigation and the Q-Ray Bracelet Case 133 Suspending Judgment 134 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 7 Evaluate Arguments: Four Basic Tests 138 Giving Reasons and Making Arguments 139 Truthfulness 140 Logical Strength 140 Relevance 141 Non-Circularity 142 The Four Tests for Evaluating Arguments 142 Test #1: Truthfulness of the Premises 143 Test #2: Logical Strength 143 Test #3: Relevance 144 Test #4: Non-Circularity 146 Argument Making Contexts 147 Common Reasoning Errors 148 Fallacies of Relevance 148 Appeals to Ignorance 149 • Appeals to the Mob 149 • Appeals to Emotion 149 • Ad Hominem Attacks 150 • Straw Man Fallacy 151 • Playing with Words Fallacy 152 • Misuse of Authority Fallacy 153 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 8 Valid Inferences 158 The Structure of the Reasoning 160 Inferences Offered as Certain 160 Reasoning with Declarative Statements 161 Denying the Consequent 161 • Affirming the Antecedent 162 • Disjunctive Syllogism 163 Reasoning about Classes of Objects 163 Applying a Generalization 164 • Applying an Exception 165 • The Power of Only 165 Reasoning about Relationships 165 Transitivity, reflexivity, and Identity 166 Fallacies Masquerading as Valid Arguments 167 Fallacies When Reasoning with Declarative Statements 167 Affirming the Consequent 167 • Denying the Antecedent 167 Fallacies When Reasoning about Classes of Objects 167 False Classification 167 • Fallacies of Composition and Division 169 Fallacies of False Reference 170 Personal Infallibility? We Don’t Think So 170 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications 9 Warranted Inferences 174 The Evidence Currently at Hand 175 The “Weight of Evidence” 176 Evaluating Generalizations 178 Was the Correct Group Sampled? 179 • Were the Data Obtained in an Effective Way? 179 • Were Enough Cases Considered? 179 • Was the Sample representatively Structured? 179 Coincidences, Patterns, Correlations, and Causes 180 Coincidences 180 • patterns 180 • Correlations 182 • Causes 184 Fallacies Masquerading as Warranted Arguments 185 Erroneous Generalization 185 • Playing with Numbers 185 • False Dilemma 186 • The Gambler’s Fallacy 186 • False Cause 186 • Slippery Slope 188 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications 10 Snap Judgments: Risks and Benefits of Heuristic Thinking 193 Our Two Human Decision-Making Systems 194 The “Two-Systems” Approach to Human Decision Making 194 reactive (System-1) Thinking 194 • reflective (System-2) Thinking 195 The Value of Each System 196 A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 7 12/30/14 1:04 PM viii Contents Heuristics: Their Benefits and Risks 197 Individual Cognitive Heuristics 198 1. Satisficing and 2. Temporizing 198 • 3. Affect: “Go with Your Gut” 199 • 4. Simulation 200 • 5. Availability 202 • 6. representation 203 • 7. Association 203 • 8. Stereotyping 204 • 9. “Us vs. Them” 206 • 10. Power Differential 208 • 11. Anchoring with Adjustment 210 • 12. Illusion of Control 210 • 13. Optimistic Bias and 14. Hindsight Bias 210 • 15. Elimination by Aspect: “One Strike and You’re Out” 212 • 16. Loss and risk Aversion 213 • 17. “All or Nothing” 213 Heuristics in Action 215 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 11 Reflective Decision Making 220 Dominance Structuring: A Fortress of Conviction 222 “I Would Definitely Go to the Doctor” 222 Explaining and Defending Ourselves 224 A Poorly Crafted Assignment 224 Moving from Decision to Action 225 phase 1: pre-Editing 226 • phase 2: Identifying One promising Option 227 • Phase 3: Testing the Promising Option 227 • Phase 4: Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option 228 Benefits and Risks of Dominance Structuring 228 Self-Regulation Critical Thinking Skill Strategies 230 Precautions When Pre-Editing 231 Be Sure about “The Problem” 231 • Specify the Decision-Critical Attributes 231 • Be Clear about Why an Option Is In or Out 231 Precautions When Identifying the Promising Option 232 Scrutinize Options with Disciplined Impartiality 232 • Listen to Both Sides First 232 Precautions When Testing the Promising Option 232 Use All the Essential Criteria 232 • Treat Equals as Equals 233 • Diligently Engage in Truth-Seeking and remain Impartial 233 Precautions When Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option 233 Be Honest with Yourself 233 Critical Thinking Strategies for Better Decision Making 234 Task Independent Teams with the Same Problem 234 • Decide When It’s Time to Decide 235 • Analyze Indicators and Make Midcourse Corrections 235 • Create a Culture of respect for Critical Thinking 235 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 12 Comparative Reasoning 239 Recognizing Comparative Reasoning 240 Our Minds Crave Patterns 240 Comparative, Ideological, and Empirical Inferences 242 How This Chapter Connects to Others 242 Gardens of Comparatives 243 Powerful Comparisons Connect Intellect and Emotion 245 Evaluating Comparative Inferences 246 Do the Four Tests of Acceptability Apply? 247 Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning 248 Familiarity 248 • Simplicity 249 • Comprehensiveness 249 • productivity 250 • Testability 250 Models and Metaphors Shape Expectations 251 Creative Suggestions vs. Solid Proofs 251 The Center of the Universe for Two Thousand Years 252 The Many Uses of Comparative Inferences 253 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 13 Ideological Reasoning 259 Recognizing Ideological Reasoning 262 Examples of Ideological Reasoning 264 Three Features of Ideological Reasoning 266 Ideological reasoning Is Deductive in Character 266 • Ideological Premises Are Axiomatic 267 • The Argument Maker Takes the Ideological Absolutes on Faith 267 Evaluating Ideological Reasoning 269 Are the Ideological Premises True? 269 Logical Strength and Ideological Belief Systems 272 Relevancy, Non-Circularity, and Ideological Reasoning 274 Uses, Benefits, and Risks of Ideological Reasoning 275 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications 14 Empirical Reasoning 283 Recognizing Empirical Reasoning 285 Characteristics of Empirical Reasoning 285 Empirical reasoning Is Inductive 285 • Empirical reasoning Is Self-Corrective 286 • Empirical reasoning Is Open to Independent Verification 286 Hypotheses, Conditions, and Measurable Manifestations 287 Conducting an Investigation Scientifically 289 Perhaps the First Recorded Empirical Investigation 289 Steps in the Process: An Extended Example 290 Evaluating Empirical Reasoning 293 Benefits and Risks Associated with Empirical Reasoning 295 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications 15 Write Sound and Effective  Arguments 300 What Critical Thinking Questions Do Effective Writers Ask? 301 The Rhetorical Situation 302 Think Author 302 Find Your Voice 303 • Think about Who You read 304 Think Audience 304 What Does the Audience Care About? 305 • Writing for You 306 • Who Is Your Audience? 306 • Same Author and Audience, Different Purpose 308 Think Purpose and Circumstances 310 Think Tactics 310 • Clues from Contextual Cues 311 A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 8 12/30/14 1:04 PM Contents ix Organize and Develop Your Presentation 312 Reach Out and Grab Someone 312 Crafting a Presentation 312 Good News: Writing Is Work 313 An Arguable Thesis Statement and Solid Research 313  •  Map Out the Arguments Pro and Con—Then Outline Your Case 314 “BART’S Decision—Draft” 315 Evaluating the Credibility of Sources 316 Prewriting, Writing, and Rewriting 318 Two Practical Tips 318 Evaluating Effectiveness 319 Features of Sound and Effective Written Argumentation 319 A Tool for Evaluating Critical Thinking and Writing 321 How to Apply the Rubric for Evaluating Written Argumentation 321 Summing up this chapter  •  Key Concepts  •  Applications   16 Ethical Decision Making 327 Ethical Imperatives 331 Think Consequences 331 Think Duties 334 Think Virtues 338 Decision Making and Ethical Decision Making 339 Reactive and Reflective Ethical Decision Making 339 Thinking Through Diverging Ethical Imperatives 342 Prioritize, Create, and Negotiate 342 Establish Priorities 342 •  Create Additional Options 342 •  Negotiate Based on Each Party’s  Interests 343 •  Personal Consistency and Respect for  Others 343 •  Apply the “Golden Rule”—Do Unto Others As You  Would Have Others Do Unto You  344 Summing up this chapter  •  Key Concepts  •  Applications   17 The Logic of Declarative Statements 349 Declarative Statements 352 Simple Statements 352 Negations 353 Statement Compounds: And, Or, If . . . Then, etc. 354 Conjunctions 354  •  Disjunctions  355  •  Conditionals 357 Translating Between Symbolic Logic and a Natural Language 360 Grammatically Correct Expressions 360 Translation to English 360 Translating to Symbolic Logic 361 Example: Translating a Telephone Tree 362  •  What the Telephone Tree Example Teaches about Translation 362 Detecting the Logical Characteristics of Statements 363 Building Truth Tables 364 Tautologies, Inconsistent Statements, and Contingent Statements 367 Testing for Implication and Equivalence 368 Evaluating Arguments for Validity 370 Testing Symbolic Arguments for Validity 370 Testing Natural Language Arguments for Validity 373 Summing up this chapter  •  Key Concepts  •  Applications  Appendix: Extend Argument-Decision Mapping Strategies 377 Glossary 386 Endnotes 389 Credits 405 Index 409 A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 9 1/3/15 10:55 AM x J ust as teaching and learning critical thinking is a collaboration, so is putting together all the words, images, exercises, video clips, page layouts, and digital materials for THINK Critically. This project could not have happened were it not for the wonderful participa- tion, support, and guidance of a great many people. The biggest thank you of all goes to my co-author, Carol Gittens, Associate Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Santa Clara University. Every chapter ben- efits from her hard work, her humane sensitivity, her in- sights, and her attention to the finer points of authoring for learning. Dr. Gittens authored the Instructor’s Manual, a wonderful resource that offers strategies on teaching for thinking. This third edition benefited from Benjamin Hamby’s insightful, positive, and helpfully detailed review of the second edition and from many follow-up conversations during the drafting of this edition. You may download Dr. Hamby’s review of Think Critically from academia.edu. It was again a pleasure be working with the people at Pearson Education. Carol and I are grateful to every- one, including the publisher, the marketing director, the permissions and images people, the designers, the copy- editors, and many more. Our project directors, Melissa Sacco, Richard DeLorenzo, and Veronica Grupico deserve special thanks. We thank our senior editor, Debbie Coni- glio, for her singular drive and vision, and for bringing a plethora of digital assets and resources to Think Critically. Co-author Peter writes, “Good ideas come from thinking and discussing things with other people. Great ideas come when that other person happens to be brilliant and wise. The ideas in this book come from a lifetime of those kinds of experiences, but mostly from talking and thinking with the one brilliant and amazing person who has shared that lifetime with me. Through her words and ideas, she contributed inestimably to this book, to other books, to a myriad of projects both professional and do- mestic, and to every other part of my life. No ‘thank you’ can do justice to all that I owe to her. But let me say it any- way. Thank you, Noreen.” Co-author Carol Gittens writes, “When Pete asked me to join him as a main author of the second and sub- sequent editions, I jumped at the opportunity to add my voice to a text that is designed to nurture students’ critical thinking skills and habits of minds, not only to promote success in the academic arena, but to promote success in life. I would like to express my gratitude to my long-time research colleague and professional mentor Peter Facione and by extension his wife and fellow colleague, Noreen, for extending our scholarly partnership to include this project. Even more importantly, I want to acknowledge and thank my wonderful husband William who sup- ported me unconditionally even when my efforts on this book required more of my attention than he or our chil- dren would have wished to share.” Acknowledgments A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 10 12/30/14 1:04 PM xi I n “Forever Young” songwriter Bob Dylan expressed our hopes for all who learn with and teach with THINK Critically. What more could we wish for one another than we all should seek to know the truth, walk in the light of well-trained reason, be courageous, have the intellectual integrity to stand strong, and that, no matter what our chronological age, that we should stay mentally forever young? This book aims to strengthen critical thinking skills and nurture the courageous desire to seek truth by fol- lowing reasons and evidence wherever they lead. We all may have different beliefs, values, perspectives, and experiences influencing our problem solving and deci- sion making. But we share the human capacity to be reflective, analytical, open-minded, and systematic about thinking through our problems and choices, so that we can make the best judgments possible about what to believe or what to do. That process of well- reasoned, reflective judgment is critical thinking. Exercising our critical thinking helps our minds become stronger, healthier, and more youthful. Our approach, proven successful by us and by oth- ers, is simple, practical, and focused. To strengthen criti- cal thinking skills, we have to use them. To build positive critical thinking habits of mind, we have to see critical thinking as the optimal approach for solving real-world problems and making important decisions. Every chap- ter of this book builds critical thinking skills and engages critical thinking habits of mind in every way possible. Why? Because we believe with every fiber of our beings that critical thinking is all about real life, and so the very best way to build strong critical thinking is to use engag- ing material from the widest possible range of real-life situations. “Knowing about” is not the same as “using.” It is more important that a person learn how to use critical thinking to make the best judgments possible than that the person memorize gobs of technical vocabulary and theory about critical thinking. Yes, learning about critical thinking certainly can expedite things. But engaging in critical thinking is the payoff. That is why there are hun- dreds of exercises of many different kinds woven into the written text and each chapter ’s digital learning support assets. There is no substitute for learning by doing. So, here’s a plan: Chapters 1 and 2 explain what critical thinking is, why it is so vitally important to all of us, and how critical thinking connects to our academic studies and to our personal, professional, and civic lives. Chapter 3 builds immediately on the theme of the practical value of critical thinking by describing the IDEAS approach to problem solving and then applying that approach to the kinds of problems typically encountered by college stu- dents of all ages. Chapters 4–9 are building block chapters, each addressing one or another of the core critical thinking skills in the context of real-world applications. Chapters 4 and 5 focus on the skills of interpretation and analysis; when we can understand what people are saying, we can articulate the reasons being advanced on behalf of a particular claim or choice. Without these vital critical thinking skills we wander in a cloud of confusion, not really knowing what things might mean or why people, including ourselves, think what they think. Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9 focus on the skill of evaluation as applied to the truthfulness of claims, the trustworthiness of so-called experts, and the quality of arguments. Chapters 10 and 11 connect critical thinking to con- temporary understandings of human decision making. Illustrating the risks and the benefits of our heuristically driven snap judgments and releasing ourselves from the grip that our past decisions can have on our current thinking are the two purposes of Chapter 10. Chapter 11, by contrast, provides multiple strategies for approaching decision making reflectively. Together these two chap- ters emphasize the essential critical thinking skills of self- monitoring and self-correction, along with the habits foresight, open-mindedness, and truth seeking The three most important chapters of this book are 12, 13, and 14. Why? Because comparative reasoning, ideo- logical reasoning, and empirical reasoning are the three most widely used methods human beings have for sup- plying reasons on behalf of their beliefs and ideas. With real-world examples, some that are disturbing in fact, these three chapters focus on the core critical thinking skills of inference and explanation, because drawing con- clusions and explaining one’s reasons, even to one’s self, in real life are products of our comparative, ideological, and empirical reasoning. Chapters 15 through 19 are joyful explorations of the diverse applications of critical thinking—in writing, in ethical decision making, in logic, in the social sciences, and in the natural sciences. Thinking like professionals, instead of simply studying about them or trying to memo- rize what they may have said, is way more fun, and much more effective learning. Preface A01_FACI9661_03_SE_FM.indd 11 12/30/14 1:04 PM xii preface We authors offer all who encounter THINK Critically this Dylanesque blessing: That you should have a strong foundation, even in the shifting winds of change, that joy should fill your heart and learning guide your life, and, of course, that by using your mind to reflect on what to believe and what to do, that you should make good deci- sions and stay forever young. Instructor Resources Additional resources found in the Instructor Resource Center include the following: • Critical Thinking in the Social Sciences • Critical Thinking in the Natural Sciences • PowerPoint Presentations • Test Bank • Chapter Opener Videos • Chapter Review Videos • …