Fluent Essays

The topic I want to choose will be Pain Management In The Cognitively Impaired Children.  The instructions are below  as follows : Hello Ladies and Gentlemen, this discussion forum is based on your readings from Chapters one and two from your course text. What type of research topic would be of interest to you? Elaborate on factors that motivated you and what are you seeking? Make sure that you select a topic that is something that you are passionate about. Remember this is a subject matter that you will investigate for the duration of our semester. Let us also look at whether or not you want to conduct qualitative versus quantitative methods for your research project. Please take a look at the following article that may provide you with some guidance.  As a reminder, all discussion posts must be minimum 250 words, references must be cited in APA format 6th Edition, and must include minimum of 2 scholarly resources published within the past 5-7 years. WRITIN WRITING & RESEARCH G ANCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY March/April 2012, Vol. 83/No. 4 Developing and Narrowing a Topic Tricia Leggett Melissa Jackowski “Writing & Research” discusses issues of concern to writers and researchers and is typically writ- ten by members of the Editorial Review Board. Comments and suggestions should be sent to [email protected] research. Another search engine to examine is About.com, which has vari- ous Web pages that provide topics such as Best Site of the Day, How to Find Anything on the Web, and Web Search 101 (websearch.about.com). Defining the Scope Once the topic is selected, your scope will be determined by how much detail you want to incorporate. It is important to evaluate the chosen topic to conclude if it is too broad or too narrow. If too narrow, it becomes difficult to find supportive literature or affects only an extremely small audience. A topic is broad enough if there is a definite effect on a specific audience. One of the most common errors is hav- ing an overly broad topic with too many different ideas (eg, thousands of sources appear in your search). To narrow a topic, first ask who, what, where, when, why, and how about the topic. These questions can guide you to specific points within the selected topic. From these basic questions, use more directed, formal rhetorical areas to develop a specific focus. ■ Analyzing a definition can help you define the topic. ■ A comparison provides associa- tions to other topics. ■ Relationships promote examina- tion of possible causes and effects. ■ Testimony asks the researcher to determine the current body of knowledge available on the theme. Looping is a technique that can limit or narrow a broad topic. With looping, the researcher begins with a 5-minute free write on the topic, which gener- ates an idea of interest. That idea then focuses the next round of free writing, inspiring a more limited idea of interest. This process repeats until you narrow the research topic and derive the prob- lem statement.2 The last method to narrow a topic is topic cross. This visual strategy helps bring out common themes. In the When you decide to do research writing, preliminary development is critical for success. First, find ideas for a research topic. It sounds simple, but selecting a topic and developing the problem statement or hypothesis is fun- damental to the entire research project. Look around; topic ideas are every- where. Are you interested in a particular subject? Was there an issue you expe- rienced in the clinical setting? Do you have an intuition about something, but need specific data to confirm it? Your colleagues may even have suggestions for areas of investigation, and collabora- tive research efforts are always welcome! Most importantly, because you will be spending a significant amount of time exploring a subject, select one that truly interests you. Topic Selection When determining a topic, you can generate ideas using brainstorming, free writing, and clustering (or concept mapping), to name a few approaches. In addition, you can use many search engines — besides Google (www.google .com) — to identify credible sources, such as books, journals, and websites. You can ascertain if there is a significant body of knowledge to work with or if there is a gap in the literature where original research is needed (see Box 1). One search engine is Yippy (www. yippy.com), a metasearch tool that clusters search results from a variety of sources and directories. It is a worthy tool to use when initially investigating viable topics for research. Kartoo (www .kartoo.com) is a bit different, present- ing search results visually rather than in text format. Infomine (infomine .ucr.edu) is a “virtual library of Internet resources relevant to faculty, students, and research staff at the university level.”1 Its databases may include elec- tronic journals and books, bulletin boards, mail lists, online library card catalogs, directories, and published WRITING & RESEARCH 406 March/April 2012, Vol. 83/No. 4 RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advanced Search Techniques With some topic awareness, you can begin with a basic search that is broader and more useful in topic development. Using an advanced search with limiters to refine results is the next step. A limiter restricts or narrows a search based on certain criteria, including year, article or document type, journal or text name, full text, or subject (see Figure). first step, brainstorm pertinent words or phrases that come to mind when thinking of the broad topic. Next, determine which words and phrases are most appeal- ing and organize them hierarchically from broad to specific on a vertical axis. Once you select an accept- able topic, provide a list of words and phrases relevant to the identified topic (horizontal axis) to develop a workable topic.2 Box 1 Outline for Comprehensive Literature Reviews Define and Refine Your Topic ■ Choose a research topic of interest, think critically about it, and formulate a title. ■ Start a general review (browse textbooks, encyclopedias, journals, and Web pages). ■ Identify the major ideas, issues, and researchers. ■ Define the time period (ie, how far back do you need to search the literature?). ■ Formulate keywords, main concepts, and related terms; use a thesaurus and subject headings. ■ Craft search statements for indexes, databases, and catalogs; use Boolean operators, truncation, etc; record your methods. ■ Narrow or broaden your topic as appropriate based on literature search results. Search All Relevant Sources Comprehensively and Efficiently ■ Use journal indexes, databases, and e-journals to find citations of articles and full articles. ■ Use bibliographies from relevant journal articles, books, etc. ■ Use citation indexes (eg, Web of Science or Google Scholar) to find the most cited articles on your topic. ■ Identify and browse current issues of journals relevant to your topic. ■ Set up e-mail and RSS alerts to journal tables of contents, indexes, and Web pages. ■ Explore grant databases (eg, National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health), newspaper indexes (eg, LexisNexis Academic and Newsbank), and Internet discussion groups, listservs, blogs, etc. ■ Browse library and book catalogs to find books, government documents, media materials, theses, and dissertations. ■ Use Web search engines. ■ Talk to experts (eg, scientists, scholars, and librarians) at institutions. ■ Reference other literature guides. Find, Evaluate, and Manage the Information ■ Analyze your database search results (citations) and revise or improve your search statement (balance comprehensiveness and precision). ■ Understand the scholarly research and peer-review publication processes. ■ Evaluate the type of information found and its relevance to your topic (eg, determine the source, author credentials, objectivity, accuracy, and currency). ■ Retrieve the information source from the database or library. ■ Critically read and analyze articles. ■ Gather, store, and annotate relevant citations. Synthesize the Literature and Integrate It Into Your Writing ■ Choose the appropriate type and style of publication and presentation. ■ Move back and forth between writing and further literature research. Modified with permission from Brown BN. Research methods for comprehensive science literature reviews. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship website. www.istl.org/09-spring/experts1.html. Published spring 2009. Accessed January 13, 2012. 407RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY March/April 2012, Vol. 83/No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plural terms or use of the same stem (eg, carcinogenesis* would yield carcinogenesis, carcinogenetic agents, etc). A wildcard, often a question mark, permits searching for terms with variant spellings or plural (eg, col?r would yield color or colour).3 Proximity operators help locate 1 word with- in a certain distance of another word. The sym- bols generally used are “w” for within and “n” for near. For example, “television n2 violence” could produce results of television violence or violence on television; however, searching for “Franklin w2 Roosevelt” would produce results of Franklin Roosevelt, but not Roosevelt Franklin.4 Phrase searching involves enclosing spe- cific terms or phrases in quotation marks to ensure the search will keep those words as a group in the specific order provided. It is important to combine several techniques to narrow your search effectively (see Box 2). Perhaps the selected topic is osteosarcoma, for example. This topic is too broad to research everything, so a specific aspect of osteosarcomas would be better. Pediatric osteosarco- mas could be pursued, but this is still widely published on and the topic can be narrowed even further. A bet- ter topic could be the development of osteosarcomas in pediatric patients after radiation exposure. Now ask: Is the topic interesting? Is there significant literature available on this topic? Is there a specific intended audience? Is it manageable for the intended research project? Because the answer to these questions is yes, the topic is sufficiently narrow. Other tools to develop a research topic are Boolean search operators, truncation symbols, proximity opera- tors, and phrase searching. Boolean operators connect and define the relationship between the search words and include and, or, and not. A search with and quali- fies that all the terms provided in the search must be contained in the results; or means that just 1 of the provided terms needs to be present in the results; any words following not will be excluded from search results. These are applicable when using database searches such as CINAHL or PubMed and may not be functional in all searches. Truncation symbols permit you to search vari- ous sources easily. An asterisk allows for searching of Figure. Planning a search of science literature databases. Used with permission from Brown BN. Research methods for comprehensive science literature reviews. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship website. www.istl.org/09-spring/experts1.html. Published spring 2009. Accessed January 13, 2012. WRITING & RESEARCH 408 March/April 2012, Vol. 83/No. 4 RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . comprehensively to become an expert on what has been published on your topic. Then you can articulate how your new research will fill a gap in the literature. Comprehensively Search the Literature To be sure you search your topic thoroughly, con- sider all of the search strategies discussed previously. Once you have developed the topic, write down a spe- cific topic statement and determine keywords associat- ed with it. They will become the search terms for your formal database search. It is important to consider synonyms of each key- word so you do not miss any important articles written on your topic. For example, if 1 of your key terms is “radiographer”, you must remember that this job title has changed throughout the years and older articles published about radiographers may have used the terms “radiologic technologist,” “x-ray technologist,” “radiology technician,” or “x-ray tech.” In this case, it Additional Considerations Writing and research is a continual refinement pro- cess. Typically, the researcher performs searches on the selected topic, evaluates the results, adapts search strategies, narrows or broadens the topic, reviews and synthesizes the literature, and integrates the informa- tion into a research manuscript. Knowing when to stop the search process can be as challenging as initiating it. When you discover credible resources repeatedly in a variety of sources, be assured the topic has been well searched and developed. And who knows, your manu- script could spawn new or additional research. Research submitted for publication must fill a gap and add to the existing body of knowledge to be consid- ered significant. When determining a new researchable problem, consider whether the research question or methods of answering it are original and not published previously. When narrowing the topic, you must make every effort to search, analyze, and map the literature Box 2 Improving Bibliographic Database Search Results If Your Database Search Produces No Citations ■ Check for misspellings. ■ Check for terms that are too specific or unlikely to be used by an author. ■ Check for incorrect or missing field terms or limiters. ■ Ask yourself: Can I expect to find articles with these terms in the title, abstract, or subject headings? ■ Check assumptions (eg, Are you in the right database?) If Your Database Search Produces Too Few Citations ■ Drop multiword phrases and use and between words instead. ■ Decrease the use of the and operator or the number of concepts searched. ■ Increase the number of synonyms or alternative terms (combined with or). ■ Use the scientific name and the common name (eg, “wolves or canis lupus”). ■ Use a search term appropriate to the database (subject headings/descriptors). ■ Use a broader search term; use a thesaurus. ■ Search earlier or more years of the database. ■ Search a different database. If Your Database Search Produces Too Many Citations ■ Decrease the number of synonyms by choosing the most specific subject headings or the most relevant keyword. ■ Increase the number of search concepts with and. ■ Do not search by full text (ie, change the field limiter to keyword). ■ Limit search by field (eg, restrict search to terms found only in the article title). ■ Limit search to peer-reviewed articles, articles in English, etc. ■ Limit search by time period to the past 5 years. ■ Exclude less relevant concepts with not. Modified with permission from Brown BN. Research methods for comprehensive science literature reviews. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship website. www.istl.org/09-spring/experts1.html. Published spring 2009. Accessed January 13, 2012. 409RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY March/April 2012, Vol. 83/No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . list each article and key findings. The purpose of this documentation, analysis, and mapping is to determine similarities and differences in the published literature. You must become an expert on the gaps and discrepan- cies in what has been published so you can explore a new significant research problem. Conclusion Once you have gone through the steps described previously, you will be able to make a case for how your research topic will add to the existing body of litera- ture. An original research topic must answer the ques- tion, “So what?” The audience should recognize your topic as significant, new, and relevant. It should also answer the “Who cares?” question. As an author, you must know who your audience is and consider what is important to them throughout the topic development, original research, and writing process. Developing and narrowing a topic is a process (see Box 3). It takes much work but yields great reward and satisfaction when you see the process to completion. References 1. Boswell W. Use the Web to find research paper topics. About.com website. http://websearch.about.com/od /referencesearch/a/research_topics.htm Accessed January 13, 2012. 2. Research considerations. Colorado State University web- site. http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/topic /pop15d.cfm. Accessed January 13, 2012. 3. Choosing the right database. Oceanside Library website. www.oceansidelibrary.com/how_to_use_databases.htm. Accessed January 12, 2012. 4. Proximity operators. University System of Georgia Online Library Learning Center website. www.usg.edu/galileo would be important to use all of these terms separated by the Boolean operator or to find all articles written about this group of professionals. Choose the Correct Databases When conducting a scholarly search, search the cor- rect databases. In health care research, take your key- words and search a minimum of PubMed (www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pubmed), CINAHL (www.cinahl.com), and Google Scholar (scholar.google.com). Also, work with a reference librarian to assist in choosing other databases that may hold articles related to your subject. Document All Searches Searching a topic comprehensively takes time. To avoid wasting time by duplicating your efforts, record every search you do and include date of search, data- base searched, keywords and search strategies used, and the number of results. By analyzing your records, you can see which keywords and strategies are helping narrow or broaden your search. A reference librarian can be of more help if you share your logs so he or she can see how you have searched previously. Evaluate Articles for Topic Relevance Once you have the best search strategy in place, determine which articles are relevant to your topic statement. You may find that your best search strat- egy produces 200 articles. To further narrow that list, simply look at the titles. Many of the articles likely are not related to your intended topic. Once you have nar- rowed that list, read the abstracts of the articles still in your list. From the abstracts, you can determine which articles relate to your topic and then you have your final reference list. Analyzing and Mapping the Literature Now that you have your comprehensive list of articles related to your topic, read them all, looking for themes and evaluating the findings of each article. It is important to create a summary of each article, including the full citation, key findings, information about the methods used, and any flaws you find in that specific study. As you do that for each article, common themes may emerge; note them on each summary as well. Then group articles into common themes as you create your outline. It is also a good idea to include page numbers next to each theme so you can find that information easily when you begin writing. You can even create a map in the form of a flowchart or table to Box 3 Common Questions to Test Proposed Research Topic ■ Does this topic really interest me? ■ Do I know enough about it now to plan and write the research manuscript? Have I researched the subject matter comprehensively? ■ Is the topic manageable? Is it sufficiently nar- rowed? ■ Is it pertinent to a specific audience? Does it answer the question “Who cares?” ■ Does it answer the “So what” question? Is the topic new, relevant, and significant? WRITING & RESEARCH 410 March/April 2012, Vol. 83/No. 4 RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . /skills/unit04/primer04_10.phtml. Accessed January 15, 2012. Tricia Leggett, DHEd, R.T.(R)(QM), is the radiography program director and an associate professor at Zane State College in Zanesville, Ohio. Melissa Jackowski, EdD, R.T.(R)(M), is an assistant professor in the radiologic science division at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Both authors are members of the Radiologic Technology Editorial Review Board. Copyright of Radiologic Technology is the property of American Society of Radiologic Technologists and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. Perfusion 2015, Vol. 30(7) 537 –542 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0267659114559116 prf.sagepub.com Introduction Qualitative research is characterized by its aims, which relate to understanding some aspect of social life and its methods which (in general) generate words, rather than numbers, as data for analysis. For researchers more familiar with quantitative methods, which aim to mea- sure something (such as the percentage of people with a particular disease in a community or the number of households owning a bed net), the aims and methods of qualitative research can seem imprecise. Qualitative methods generally aim to understand the experiences and attitudes of patients, the community or healthcare worker. These methods aim to answer ques- tions about the ‘what’, ‘how’ or ‘why’ of a phenomenon rather than ‘how many’ or ‘how much’, which are answered by quantitative methods. If the aim is to understand how a community or individuals within it perceive a particular issue, then qualitative methods are often appropriate.1 The personality of the researcher (and his/her integ- rity) may play a much greater role than in quantitative research. Therefore, the quality of raw data is essential. If the data are not of high quality, all statistical calcula- tions will be either wrong or of inferior quality. So, for qualitative research, the researcher will be important to ensure the quality of the process, since he/she will need to interpret data after its acquisition; in contrast, in quantitative research, the quality of the raw data will be more important. Numerous studies have been constructed into the field of research on human services, utilizing both quan- titative and qualitative methodologies and, in some instances, a combination. For the purposes of this paper, quantitative research is selected as a possible methodol- ogy, therefore, elements of this type of research are eval- uated regarding if quantitative research meets the criteria needed when investigating the broad topic per- taining to general human services. Adding to this observation, it is interesting to note that numerous scholars are of the opinion that the “gap” between qualitative and quantitative research is too Research using qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods and choice based on the research K McCusker1 and S Gunaydin2 Abstract Research is fundamental to the advancement of medicine and critical to identifying the most optimal therapies unique to particular societies. This is easily observed through the dynamics associated with pharmacology, surgical technique and the medical equipment used today versus short years ago. Advancements in knowledge synthesis and reporting guidelines enhance the quality, scope and applicability of results; thus, improving health science and clinical practice and advancing health policy. While advancements are critical to the progression of optimal health care, the high cost associated with these endeavors cannot be ignored. Research fundamentally needs to be evaluated to identify the most efficient methods of evaluation. The primary objective of this paper is to look at a specific research methodology when applied to the area of clinical research, especially extracorporeal circulation and its prognosis for the future. Keywords extracorporeal circulation; clinical methodology research; mixed methods; research methodology; human services 1New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York, USA 2Medline Hospital, Eskisehi, Turkey Corresponding author: Kevin McCusker 188 Gosport Road Portsmouth New Hampshire 03801 USA. Email: [email protected] 559116PRF0010.1177/0267659114559116PerfusionMcCusker et al. research-article2014 Original Paper berry Highlight berry Highlight berry Highlight 538 Perfusion 30(7) wide, yet other opinions point out that this gap is con- ducive to facilitate the acquisition of information.2 Accepting the validity of both these methodologies, effort is now directed at ascertaining the feasibility of effectively applying the elements found in quantitative research to the field of interest. This report aims to bring an introduction to the theo- retical concepts, as well as the qualitative and quantita- tive research methods that are used by the main disciplines engaged in research on health and health ser- vices. In order to understand why the various research methods are used, it is important to be aware of the con- ceptual backgrounds and scientific philosophies of those involved in research and evaluation, in particular, in demography, epidemiology, health economics, psychol- ogy and sociology. Methods of accessing information In order to justify the selection of quantitative research and use the preferred methodology, attention should be focused on both perceived differences found within both research methods and their relativity to the field of study. To enable this process, comparisons of the different elements contained within both methodologies were looked at with a view to justifying this paper’s preferred choice of research. We searched for publications using MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, CENTRAL and Web of Science in a three-month period. We used several key words: extracorporeal circulation, clinical methodology research, mixed methods, research methodology, human services. We included studies examining any type of research methodology (qualitative, quantitative or combined) and two reviewers independently extracted data. Effort was directed at accessing sources which provided a current overview of the area of gen- eral human services, while also looking at future pre- dictions. Moreover, these variable sources were also looked at from a “human services” point of view. While the effort was primarily focused on more recent studies, chal- lenges were encountered, resulting in sources being accessed that were published less recently. Perhaps the combination of both recent and ‘historical’ viewpoints may serve to provide a broader outlook on how these methodologies have evolved up until today. Attention was also focused on sources that depicted the applications of both methodologies and the antici- pated or desired results. This report submits that opting to implement only the quantitative method as a means to establish the effectiveness in researching general human services may result in inadequate testing of the- ory or facts. However, accepting this limitation, this response seeks to lend credibility regarding the idea that this methodology is a viable option in which to effec- tively research the field of general human services. Based on the criteria above, 31 sources were accessed in order to enable effective research. Then attention was drawn to different elements found in the quantitative research method. Results While many studies have described transformative designs, few have focused on their advantages and dis- advantages. We are interested in providing information that allows prospective researchers, specifically those working in the perfusion-related arena, to make informed decisions about whether or not to apply these designs in their research. Features of quantitative research The aim is to classify features, count them and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.3 - Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for - Recommended during latter phases of research projects - All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected - Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment, to collect numerical data - Data is in the form of numbers and statistics - Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail - Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter Construction of statistical models The above list clearly depicts a number of elements that are involved in quantitative research. The first element involves the identification of data followed by numeri- cally quantifying it. By deriving statistics from data allows the researcher to fulfill a primary research func- tion, which is to choose what information is needed and “control the acquisition of data”.4 In further pursuing the method of “collecting data”, attention is drawn to the aspect of generalization contained within quantifiable research. According to studies into qualitative research, the focus is narrowed down to data derived from specific participants and their personal viewpoints and opin- ions.5 Alternatively, the utilization of quantitative research requires the extraction of data in a larger vol- ume, using standardized methods that include more berry Highlight McCusker et al. 539 generalized samples, where the emphasis is on statistical information rather than individual perceptions. McRoy points out that such statistical analysis allows a deduc- tive approach, thereby, enabling “hypothesis testing”.5 To determine the future direction of general human ser- vices, a wide “inclusive” method of gaining data is more relevant than merely deriving specific detail, which only reflects the viewpoint of a relatively narrow sample. In today’s socio-economic environment, quantitative research is still utilized as a preferred methodology by many perfusion researchers due to issues relating to time and financial considerations.3 Accessing quantifiable information and data is relatively simple compared to qualitative research. This latter methodology requires time and considerable effort in the field, allocating resources to a relatively small sample of participants. Therefore, when looking at a broad and diverse field such as general human services, perhaps statistics can deliver more valid data in order to ascertain present and future trends. In addition, the process of quantifying can be repeated utilizing the same formula or methods. Repetition of larger and multiple samples under similar conditions allows comparisons to be formulated. Comparing statis- tics is perhaps easier to understand compared with a more subjective and narrow approach. Understanding numeri- cal implications can lead to the assumption that the find- ings are valid, thereby, perceived as “the truth”.6 Furthermore, statistics rather than “real life” scenar- ios tend to remove the researcher from the emotional and subjective bias that can be more prevalent in quali- tative research. Therefore, information and data can be interpreted, utilizing basic figures without the influence of participants compromising neutrality. Adding to these ideas, ‘meta-analysis’ is not a func- tion of qualitative research, but enhances qualitative research methodology. This analytical process enables the acquisition of multiple quantitative findings, fol- lowed by merging data and information to create a more representative viewpoint. This form of analysis is seen as a form of “systematic review which is largely a statistical technique”.7 Meta-analysis allows findings from differ- ent sources to be factored into a broader analysis, thereby, creating a more representative finding of a topic under investigation. When applied to the field of general human services, various findings, each conducted into more specific areas of interest such as social care, health- care and financial security, can be statistically evaluated and correlated into a broader picture, thereby, enabling a more accurate representative conclusion to be drawn. Clear objective of the research phenomenon Another element of quantitative research relates to a more planned sourcing process in which the researcher has a definitive or clean objective as a basis from which to research. Alternatively, by implementing qualitative research, the researcher may only possess an idea or approximation of the objective.3 A study conducted into the theory of qualitative research clearly states, “In many qualitative research studies, there is no specific hypoth- esis at the outset. Instead, hypotheses are produced (or induced) during the early stages of research.”8 Thereby, confirming the lack of an initial definitive objective prior to enacting qualitative research. Further expanding on the application of these two methodologies, another line of thought suggests that, ideally, quantitative research should possess an originat- ing hypothesis, followed by the utilization of measured data, thereby, conclusively enabling either proving or dis- proving the hypotheses.9 Relating to the field of general human services, this paper submits that an initial clear objective regarding the specifics of ascertaining both existing and future prognosis is perhaps lacking or inad- equate when implementing the qualitative approach. Quantitative research - latter phases of research projects A third element pertaining to quantitative research is the supporting role of qualitative research when utilized in combination with quantitative research. According to a recent article, it is suggested that the ‘opening’ phase of research is enacted by first utilizing qualitative research as a ‘lead in”, prior to conducting primary research via quantitative research methodology.10 It is interesting to note that qualitative research assists management per- sonnel when investigating marketing strategies, espe- cially concerning issues that are underlying to the main research question. Another study likewise points out that there is an acceptance among researchers that qual- itative methodologies are applicable to the initial stages or when exploring the validity of the project.11 Planning prior to data collection One significant difference between the two above- mentioned research methods relates to the design and formulation of the research study. In planning the design of the research paper, questions will need to be asked regarding if the research can be “generalized” in order to collect relevant findings in other sources accessed.12 Furthermore, such findings should enable such ‘general- ization’ to be applied to the theory or to “the theory or to the practice”. Another factor to be analyzed prior to determining which research methodology is most applicable pertains to the objective of the study. The objective in looking at general human services is to establish existing condi- tions and possible future outcomes. If the objective has 540 Perfusion 30(7) been to evaluate social processes, perhaps the qualitative research methods would be more suitable. Both research methodologies conduct ‘content’ anal- ysis, yet, regarding the preference of quantitative research, content analysis can be utilized to evaluate the quantity of data and information, thereby, categorizing such content into a format that can be counted.13 In addition, there are many potential risks pertaining to obtaining ‘sensitive’ or ‘personal data’, such as normally derived from qualitative research. Assuming the existence of a plan or goal prior to the research design, focus on an objective lends weight to the argument promoting this paper’s response choice of quantifying data and information in order to estab- lish an overall picture of general human services. To achieve this, an objective truth, as derived by quantita- tive research, needs to be a primary focus rather than a subjective truth.14 This objective approach, incorpo- rating a ‘truth’ or ‘reality’, is also linked with ‘positiv- ism’ which is explained by identifying quantitative research with positivism and further expanded as “that physical and social reality is independent of those who observe it”.15 Utilization of tools For perfusionists who are practicing clinicians, research- ers and scholars using quantitative methods for research purposes, data and information is accessed by the utili- zation of tools from which they can quantify and build on existing theory. However, those applying qualitative methods are perhaps more restricted in their scope of research, due to their role as a tool or instrument in which to collect subjective and more personalized data.3 Another restriction is that it is more challenging for qualitative researchers to attain a general overall picture pertaining to multiple settings.16 In the time-frame needed to conduct qualitative research, in which the researcher personally interviews individual participants, such an allocation of time could have been directed quantitatively at existing sources from which existing data and information could have been gathered on a much broader scale.17 This may act differently if the quality of data was of inferior quality or might the qual- ity of data play an important role. The database of most clinical studies might be too small to allow for a gener- alization. Additionally, utilizing quantitative research enables many factors to be investigated, some of which may be linked or influence each other, allowing the researcher to analyze varying factors in how they relate to the research question. Set within these parameters, tools such as questionnaires or equipment can be applied in multiple areas of the study, allowing more inclusive findings. Statistically-derived data and information One way of achieving relevance when establishing ‘truth’ or proven facts is by gathering quantified data and infor- mation. Mays and Pope argue that detail is also relevant in order to establish if findings are applicable with a similar environment.17 However, they also admit that ‘probability sampling’ is a viable method in which to ascertain the measure of representation, adding that form of ‘sampling’ is often ignored by researchers using qualitative methods. Inference derived by this frequent ‘omission’ by qualitative researchers can lead to the assumption that quantitative research utilizes a more objective probable scenario when enacting the research process. They suggest that quantitative research sam- pling is biased towards statistics rather than theory, as is more the practice with qualitative-based studies. Data in numerical and statistical format objective Two further elements of quantitative research relate to the presence of numbers and statistics when evaluating sources. To facilitate accuracy of measurement and eval- uation of objective concepts, the achievement of such objectives is enabled by tools such as surveys and ques- tionnaires. In a twenty-year study into psychosocial studies by Hawker and Boulton, quantitative research was designed around cross-sectional findings.18 They admitted that there were ‘some design limitations to the studies reviewed, but altogether their results provide a strong background for more complex research in to the course and treatment of victim’s distress”. In their quan- titative research, it was noted that extensive sources were accessed, including electronic databases, utilizing keywords and the names of researchers who had pub- lished studies related to specifics or niche areas within the field of psychosocial studies. Here, it is clearly seen how a large volume of information and data can be effectively evaluated by quantifying rather than qualify- ing the content. Efficiency of quantitative research As this paper has already frequently noted, the element of efficiency is contained within quantitative research methodology. It has also drawn attention previously that the allocation of available time resources may be more effectively managed when enacting the quantita- tive methodology due to the potential of procuring large amounts of data within a given time period. Another aspect of this research method relates to the ability for organizations to act on the findings and for- mulate valid policy based on generalized statistical evi- dence. Arguably, a valid objective from research is by berry Highlight McCusker et al. 541 investigating existing problems and future trends, such as in the field of general human services, thereby, influencing the establishment of ‘informed’ policy by human services organizations’ decision-makers. Supporting this argument, a study into both research methodologies suggests that “in the right circum- stances, quantified models can be valuable tools for policy analysis.”19 Researcher’s role Perhaps the final element contained within quantitative research is regarding the function and objective of the researcher. When discussing quantitative research ver- sus the subject matter, Neill defines the researcher’s role in an objective light while indicating the qualitative researcher is fully involved or immersed within area of consideration.3 When looking at quantifiable research objectives, a primary objective from a ‘human sciences’ perspective is the collection of data and information that verifies or disproves the theory. According to Castellan, such a methodology allows better understanding of a theory “that will allow scientists to state causes and predict human behavior.”14 Throughout the above discussion, emphasis has been placed on the appropriateness of both research methodologies in areas such as general human services. Based on the aforementioned data and information derived from cited sources, it is suggested that quantitative research remains the preferred option to enable an effective and accurate assessment of this paper’s research interest. Perfusion-related research Cardiovascular perfusion is a profession that combines technical expertise and medical knowledge. A scientific approach to extracorporeal circulation and related tech- niques is necessary to solve the problems ahead. Qualitative and mixed methods offer unique oppor- tunities to contribute to the empirical literature on key aspects of cardiovascular outcomes.20 Translation of evi- dence-based practices in primary care is a major focus of outcomes and effectiveness research. Qualitative meth- ods have also been used to examine aspects of organiza- tional change in implementing guidelines for improving timeliness of cardiac care for patients. Development of patient-centered outcomes measures has been identified as a primary goal in outcomes research. Patient-centered outcomes research requires the development of func- tional assessment benchmarks that reflect patient per- ceptions of important aspects of function in everyday life.21,22 Disentangling the potential sources of docu- mented disparities in access to and outcomes of cardiac care has been identified as a priority. Conclusion Research is the systematic and rigorous process of enquiry which aims to describe phenomena and to develop and test explanatory concepts and theories. Ultimately, it aims to contribute to a scientific body of knowledge. More specifically, in relation to the focus of this paper, it aims to improve health, health outcomes and health services. However, it is not possible to place research methods in a hierarchy of excellence, as different research meth- ods are appropriate for addressing different research questions. It should be pointed out that research on health services is not insulated from the society within which it is placed. It is often responsive to current policy and political issues23 and is, thus, dependent upon deci- sions taken by others in relation to research topics and research funding. The strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quan- titative research are a perennial, hot debate, especially in the health sciences. The issues invoke classic ‘paradigm war’. The personality/thinking style of the researcher and/ or the culture of the organization is under-recognized as a key factor in the preferred choice of methods. Overly focusing on the debate of “qualitative versus quantitative” frames the methods in opposition. It is important to focus, also, on how the techniques can be integrated, such as in mixed methods research. More good can come of healthcare researchers developing skills in both realms than debating which method is superior. Mixed methods designs can provide pragmatic advantages when exploring complex research questions. The qualitative data provide a deep understanding of survey responses and statistical analysis can provide detailed assessment of patterns of responses. However, the analytic process of combining qualitative and survey data by quantifying qualitative data can be time-con- suming and expensive and, thus, may lead researchers working under tight budgetary or time constraints to reduce sample sizes or limit the time spent interviewing. Ultimately, these designs seem most appropriate for research that does not require either extensive deep analysis of qualitative data or multivariate analysis of quantitative data. Research that draws on the strengths of both quanti- tative and qualitative approaches has become increas- ingly recognized as essential in a number of fields intrinsic to outcomes research. A clear understanding of such methodologies and systematic incorporation of established techniques for ensuring rigor can help out- comes researchers successfully adopt and integrate qualitative approaches when they are appropriate. Declaration of Conflicting Interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. berry Highlight berry Highlight berry Highlight 542 Perfusion 30(7) Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. References 1. Baruch Y. Response role in academic studies-a compara- tive analysis. Human Relations 1999; 52: 421–438. 2. Clark JP. Balancing qualitative & quantitative method- ology in health services research: how can qualitative research methods best complement administrative data? CEHIP, Ontario 13Y4X1. Canada, 2000. 3. Neill J. Qualitative versus quantitative research: key points in a classic debate, 2005. Retrieved 23-October 2012 from http://wilderdom.com/research:QualitativeV esusuQuantitativeresearch.html 4. Leedy P, Ormond JH. Practical research: planning and design. (8th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Publishing, 2005. 5. McRoy RG. Qualitative research, 2009. 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