Fluent Essays

Please submit your detailed outline (2-3 pages + full-text PDF of each of the 10 articles in the references) here follow these instructions: The outline must have all major sections of the paper and sub topics for each section. See the following link. How to prepare detailed outline.pdfActions Each statement needs to have a citation. You must include and cite at least 10 peer-reviewed articles, 7 of which must be primary literature. References must be properly formatted: Citing References in Scientific Papers.docx Actions Recommended: use reference manager software to handle your citations. There are free services such as Mendeley (Links to an external site.). Please use this Sample outline.pdfActions to help guide you on what your outline should look like. Must include 10 full-text PDF of the cited peer-review articles. Topic The topic I’ve chosen is the “climate change coral reefs algae”. I’m going to address the capacity of coral macroalgal difficulties to recover and the importance to marine life. The effect of temperature, carbon dioxide and benthic algae has on the algo community ecological process. And the negative and positive ways humans are contributing to this fact.REVIEW OCEAN CLIMATE CHANGE, PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY RESPONSES, AND HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS: A FORMIDABLE PREDICTIVE CHALLENGE1 Gustaaf M. Hallegraeff 2 Institute of Marine and Antarctic Studies, and School of Plant Science, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia Prediction of the impact of global climate change on marine HABs is fraught with difficulties. How- ever, we can learn important lessons from the fossil record of dinoflagellate cysts; long-term monitoring programs, such as the Continuous Plankton Recor- der surveys; and short-term phytoplankton commu- nity responses to El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) epi- sodes. Increasing temperature, enhanced surface stratification, alteration of ocean currents, intensifi- cation or weakening of local nutrient upwelling, stimulation of photosynthesis by elevated CO2, reduced calcification through ocean acidification (‘‘the other CO2 problem’’), and heavy precipitation and storm events causing changes in land runoff and micronutrient availability may all produce con- tradictory species- or even strain-specific responses. Complex factor interactions exist, and simulated ecophysiological laboratory experiments rarely allow for sufficient acclimation and rarely take into account physiological plasticity and genetic strain diversity. We can expect: (i) range expansion of warm-water species at the expense of cold-water spe- cies, which are driven poleward; (ii) species- specific changes in the abundance and seasonal window of growth of HAB taxa; (iii) earlier timing of peak production of some phytoplankton; and (iv) secondary effects for marine food webs, notably when individual zooplankton and fish grazers are dif- ferentially impacted (‘‘match-mismatch’’) by climate change. Some species of harmful algae (e.g., toxic dinoflagellates benefitting from land runoff and ⁄ or water column stratification, tropical benthic dinofla- gellates responding to increased water temperatures and coral reef disturbance) may become more suc- cessful, while others may diminish in areas currently impacted. Our limited understanding of marine eco- system responses to multifactorial physicochemical climate drivers as well as our poor knowledge of the potential of marine microalgae to adapt genetically and phenotypically to the unprecedented pace of current climate change are emphasized. The greatest problems for human society will be caused by being unprepared for significant range expansions or the increase of algal biotoxin problems in currently poorly monitored areas, thus calling for increased vigilance in seafood-biotoxin and HAB monitoring programs. Changes in phytoplankton communities provide a sensitive early warning for climate-driven perturbations to marine ecosystems. Key index words: adaptation; algal blooms; climate change; continuous plankton recorder; ENSO; NAO; ocean acidification; range expansion Abbreviations: DMS, dimethylsulfoxidREVIEW TESTING THE EFFECTS OF OCEAN ACIDIFICATION ON ALGAL METABOLISM: CONSIDERATIONS FOR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS1 Catriona L. Hurd,2 Christopher D. Hepburn Department of Botany, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand Kim I. Currie National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd., Centre of Excellence for Chemical and Physical Oceanography, Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand John A. Raven Division of Plant Sciences, Scottish Crop Research Institute, University of Dundee at SCRI, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK and Keith A. Hunter Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand Ocean acidification describes changes in the car- bonate chemistry of the ocean due to the increa- sed absorption of anthropogenically released CO2. Experiments to elucidate the biological effects of ocean acidification on algae are not straightforward because when pH is altered, the carbon speciation in seawater is altered, which has implications for photosynthesis and, for calcifying algae, calcifica- tion. Furthermore, photosynthesis, respiration, and calcification will themselves alter the pH of the sea- water medium. In this review, algal physiologists and seawater carbonate chemists combine their knowledge to provide the fundamental information on carbon physiology and seawater carbonate chem- istry required to comprehend the complexities of how ocean acidification might affect algae metabo- lism. A wide range in responses of algae to ocean acidification has been observed, which may be explained by differences in algal physiology, time- scales of the responses measured, study duration, and the method employed to alter pH. Two meth- ods have been widely used in a range of experimen- tal systems: CO2 bubbling and HCl ⁄ NaOH additions. These methods affect the speciation of carbonate ions in the culture medium differently; we discuss how this could influence the biological responses of algae and suggest a third method based on HCl ⁄ NaHCO3 additions. We then discuss eight key points that should be considered prior to setting up experiments, including which method of manipu- lating pH to choose, monitoring during experiments, techniques for adding acidified seawater, biological side effects, and other environmental factors. Finally, we consider incubation timescales and prior condi- tioning of algae in terms of regulation, acclimation, and adaptation to ocean acidification. Key index words: algae; bicarbonate; calcium car- bonate; carbon; carbon dioxide; climate change; ocean acidification; phytoplankton; seawater car- bonate system; seaweed Abbreviations: AT, total alkalinity; CA, carbonic anhydrase; CCM, carbon-concentrating mecha- nism; CT, total inorganic carbon; pCO2, partial pressure of CO2(g) The term ‘‘ocean acidification’’ describes changes in the carbonate chemistry of the ocean due to increased CO2 absorption since the Industrial Revo- lutOcean Acidification and Its Potential Effects on Marine Ecosystems John M. Guinottea and Victoria J. Fabryb aMarine Conservation Biology Institute, Bellevue, Washington, USA bCalifornia State University San Marcos, San Marcos, California, USA Ocean acidification is rapidly changing the carbonate system of the world oceans. Past mass extinction events have been linked to ocean acidification, and the current rate of change in seawater chemistry is unprecedented. Evidence suggests that these changes will have significant consequences for marine taxa, particularly those that build skeletons, shells, and tests of biogenic calcium carbonate. Potential changes in species distributions and abundances could propagate through multiple trophic levels of marine food webs, though research into the long-term ecosystem impacts of ocean acidification is in its infancy. This review attempts to provide a general synthesis of known and/or hypothesized biological and ecosystem responses to increasing ocean acidification. Marine taxa covered in this review include tropical reef-building corals, cold-water corals, crustose coralline algae, Halimeda, benthic mollusks, echinoderms, coccolithophores, foraminifera, pteropods, seagrasses, jellyfishes, and fishes. The risk of irreversible ecosystem changes due to ocean acidification should enlighten the ongo- ing CO2 emissions debate and make it clear that the human dependence on fossil fuels must end quickly. Political will and significant large-scale investment in clean-energy technologies are essential if we are to avoid the most damaging effects of human-induced climate change, including ocean acidification. Key words: ocean acidification; climate change; carbonate saturation state; seawater chemistry; marine ecosystems; anthropogenic CO2 Introduction The carbonate system (pCO2, pH, alkalin- ity, and calcium carbonate saturation state) of the world oceans is changing rapidly due to an influx of anthropogenic CO2 (Skirrow & Whitfield 1975; Whitfield 1975; Broecker & Takahashi 1977; Broecker et al. 1979; Feely & Chen 1982; Feely et al. 1984; Kleypas et al. 1999a; Caldeira & Wickett 2003; Feely et al. 2004; Orr et al. 2005). Ocean acidification may be defined as the change in ocean chem- istry driven by the oceanic uptake of chemi- cal inputs to the atmosphere, including carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur compounds. Today, the Address for correspondence: John M. Guinotte, Marine Conserva- tion Biology Institute, 2122 112th Avenue NE, Suite B-300, Belle- vue, WA 98004-2947. Voice: +1-425-274-1180; fax: +1-425-274-1183. [email protected] overwhelming cause of ocean acidification is anthropogenic atmospheric CO2, although in some coastal regions, nitrogen and sulfur are also important (Doney et al. 2007). For the past 200 years, the rapid increase in anthropogenic atmospheric CO2, which directly leads to de- creasing ocean pH through air–sea gas ex- change, has been and continues to be caused by the burning of fossil fuels,MINIREVIEW EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON GLOBAL SEAWEED COMMUNITIES1 Christopher D. G. Harley,2 Kathryn M. Anderson, Kyle W. Demes, Jennifer P. Jorve, Rebecca L. Kordas, Theraesa A. Coyle Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T1Z4, Canada and Michael H. Graham Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, California, 95039, USA Seaweeds are ecologically important primary producers, competitors, and ecosystem engineers that play a central role in coastal habitats ranging from kelp forests to coral reefs. Although seaweeds are known to be vulnerable to physical and chemical changes in the marine environment, the impacts of ongoing and future anthropogenic climate change in seaweed- dominated ecosystems remain poorly understood. In this review, we describe the ways in which changes in the environment directly affect seaweeds in terms of their physiology, growth, reproduction, and survival. We consider the extent to which seaweed species may be able to respond to these changes via adaptation or migration. We also examine the extensive reshuffling of communities that is occurring as the ecological balance between competing species changes, and as top-down control by herbivores becomes stronger or weaker. Finally, we delve into some of the ecosystem- level responses to these changes, including changes in primary productivity, diversity, and resilience. Although there are several key areas in which ecological insight is lacking, we suggest that reasonable climate-related hypotheses can be developed and tested based on current information. By strategically prioritizing research in the areas of complex environmental variation, multiple stressor effects, evolutionary adaptation, and population, community, and ecosystem-level responses, we can rapidly build upon our current understanding of seaweed biology and climate change ecology to more effectively conserve and manage coastal ecosystems. Key index words: adaptation; carbon dioxide; climate change; community structure; competition; ecophysi- ology; ecosystem function; herbivory; marine macro- algae; ocean acidification Changes in global temperature and ocean chemistry associated with increasing greenhouse gas concen- trations are forcing widespread shifts in biological systems. In response to warming, species ranges are shifting toward the poles, up mountainsides, and to deeper ocean depths (Parmesan and Yohe 2003, Perry et al. 2005). Factors including warming and ocean acidification are causing the reorganization of local communities as species are added or deleted and as interactions among species change in importance (Wootton et al. 2008, Harley 2011). Because greenhouse gas emission rates continue to accelerate, the climatically forced ecological changes that have been documented over the past half cen- tury will likely pale in comparison to changes in the coming deHigh summer temperatures amplify functional differences between coral- and algae-dominated reef communities FLORIAN ROTH ,1,2,3,10 NILS RäDECKER ,1,4,5 SUSANA CARVALHO ,1 CARLOS M. DUARTE ,1,6 VINCENT SADERNE ,1 ANDREA ANTON ,1,6 LUIS SILVA ,1 MARIA LI. CALLEJA ,1,7 XOSÉ ANXELU G. MORÁN ,1 CHRISTIAN R. VOOLSTRA ,1,4 BENJAMIN KüRTEN ,1,8 BURTON H. JONES ,1 AND CHRISTIAN WILD 9 1Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955 Saudi Arabia 2Baltic Sea Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm 10691 Sweden 3Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Tvärminne Zoological Station, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014 Finland 4Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78457 Germany 5Laboratory for Biological Geochemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015 Switzerland 6Computational Biology Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955 Saudi Arabia 7Department of Climate Geochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry (MPIC), Mainz 55128 Germany 8Project Management Jülich, Jülich Research Centre GmbH, Rostock 52425 Germany 9Marine Ecology, Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen 28359 Germany Citation: Roth, F., N. Rädecker, S. Carvalho, C. M. Duarte, V. Saderne, A. Anton, L. Silva, M. L. L. Call- eja, X. A. G. Morán, C. R. Voolstra, B. Kürten, B. H. Jones, and C. Wild. 2021. High summer tempera- tures amplify functional differences between coral- and algae-dominated reef communities. Ecology 102 (2):e03226. 10.1002/ecy.3226 Abstract. Shifts from coral to algal dominance are expected to increase in tropical coral reefs as a result of anthropogenic disturbances. The consequences for key ecosystem functions such as primary productivity, calcification, and nutrient recycling are poorly understood, par- ticularly under changing environmental conditions. We used a novel in situ incubation approach to compare functions of coral- and algae-dominated communities in the central Red Sea bimonthly over an entire year. In situ gross and net community primary productivity, calci- fication, dissolved organic carbon fluxes, dissolved inorganic nitrogen fluxes, and their respec- tive activation energies were quantified to describe the effects of seasonal changes. Overall, coral-dominated communities exhibited 30\% lower net productivity and 10 times higher calcifi- cation than algae-dominated communities. Estimated activation energies indicated a higher thermal sensitivity of coral-dominated communities. In these communities, net productivity and calcification were negatively correlated with temperature (>40\% and >65\% reduction, respectively, with +5°C increase from winter to summer), whereas carbon losses via respiration and dissolved organic carbon release more than doubled at higher temperatures. In contrast, algae-dominJournal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 534 (2021) 151477 Available online 6 November 2020 0022-0981/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Coral-macroalgal competition under ocean warming and acidification Lena Rölfer a, b, *, 1, Hauke Reuter a, b, Sebastian C.A. Ferse a, b, Andreas Kubicek c, Sophie Dove c, Ove Hoegh-Guldberg c, Dorothea Bender-Champ c a Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Research (ZMT), Fahrenheitstraße 6, D-28359 Bremen, Germany b Faculty of Biology & Chemistry (FB2), University of Bremen, D-28359 Bremen, Germany c Global Change Institute and School for Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Coral-macroalgal interaction Ocean acidification Representative concentration pathways Porites lobata Chlorodesmis fastigiata Climate change A B S T R A C T Competition between corals and macroalgae is frequently observed on reefs with the outcome of these in- teractions affecting the relative abundance of reef organisms and therefore reef health. Anthropogenic activities have resulted in increased atmospheric CO2 levels and a subsequent rise in ocean temperatures. In addition to increasing water temperature, elevated CO2 levels are leading to a decrease in oceanic pH (ocean acidification). These two changes have the potential to alter ecological processes within the oceans, including the outcome of competitive coral-macroalgal interactions. In our study, we explored the combined effect of temperature increase and ocean acidification on the competition between the coral Porites lobata and on the Great Barrier Reef abundant macroalga Chlorodesmis fastigiata. A temperature increase of +1 ◦C above present temperatures and CO2 increase of +85 ppm were used to simulate a low end emission scenario for the mid- to late 21st century, according to the Representative Concentration Pathway 2.6 (RCP2.6). Our results revealed that the net photo- synthesis of P. lobata decreased when it was in contact with C. fastigiata under ambient conditions, and that dark respiration increased under RCP2.6 conditions. The Photosynthesis to Respiration (P:R) ratios of corals as they interacted with macroalgal competitors were not significantly different between scenarios. Dark calcification rates of corals under RCP2.6 conditions, however, were negative and significantly decreased compared to ambient conditions. Light calcification rates were negatively affected by the interaction of macroalgal contact in the RCP2.6 scenario, compared to algal mimics and to coral under ambient conditions. Chlorophyll a, and protein content increased in the RCP2.6 scenario, but were not influenced by contact with the macroalga. We conclude that the coral host was negatively affected by RCP2.6 conditions, whereas the productivity of its symbionts (zooxanthellae) was enhanced. While a negative effect of the macroalga (C. fastigiata) on the coral (P. lobata) was Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 535 (2021) 151489 Available online 13 November 2020 0022-0981/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Irradiance, photosynthesis and elevated pCO2 effects on net calcification in tropical reef macroalgae C. McNicholl , M.S. Koch * Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Coral reef Dissolution pH Climate change Ocean acidification A B S T R A C T Calcifying tropical macroalgae produce sediment, build three-dimensional habitats, and provide substrate for invertebrate larvae on reefs. Thus, lower calcification rates under declining pH and increasing ocean pCO2, or ocean acidification, is a concern. In the present study, calcification rates were examined experimentally under predicted end-of-the-century seawater pCO2 (1116 μatm) and pH (7.67) compared to ambient controls (pCO2 409 μatm; pH 8.04). Nine reef macroalgae with diverse calcification locations, calcium carbonate structure, photophysiology, and site-specific irradiance were examined under light and dark conditions. Species included five from a high light patch reef on the Florida Keys Reef Tract (FKRT) and four species from low light reef walls on Little Cayman Island (LCI). Experiments on FKRT and LCI species were conducted at 500 and 50 μmol photons m− 2 s− 1 in situ irradiance, respectively. Calcification rates independent of photosystem-II (PSII) were also investigated for FKRT species. The most consistent negative effect of elevated pCO2 on calcification rates in the tropical macroalgae examined occurred in the dark. Most species (89\%) had net calcification rates of zero or net dissolution in the dark at low pH. Species from the FKRT that sustained positive net calcification rates in the light at low pH also maintained ~30\% of their net calcification rates without PSII at ambient pH. However, calcifi- cation rates in the light independent of PSII were not sustained at low pH. Regardless of these low pH effects, most FKRT species daily net calcification rates, integrating light/dark rates over a 24h period, were not signif- icantly different between low and ambient pH. This was due to a 10-fold lower dark, compared to light, calci- fication rate, and a strong correspondence between calcification and photosynthetic rates. Interestingly, low-light species sustained calcification rates on par with high-light species without high rates of photosynthesis. Low-light species’ morphology and physiology that promote high calcification rates at ambient pH, may increase their vulnerability to low pH. Our data indicate that the negative effect of elevated pCO2 and low pH on tropical macroalgae at the organismal level is their impact on dark net calcification, probably enhanced dissolution. However, elevated pCO2 and low pH effects on macroalgae daily calcification rates are greatest in species with lower net calcification rates in the light. Thus, macroalgGlob Change Biol. 2020;00:1–14. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gcb  |  1© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Received: 28 July 2020  |  Accepted: 13 November 2020 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15455 P R I M A R Y R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E Ocean acidification locks algal communities in a species-poor early successional stage Ben P. Harvey1  | Koetsu Kon1  | Sylvain Agostini1  | Shigeki Wada1  | Jason M. Hall-Spencer1,2 1Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Shizuoka, Japan 2Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK Correspondence Ben P. Harvey, Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 5-10-1 Shimoda, Shizuoka 415-0025, Japan. Email: [email protected] Funding information Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Grant/Award Number: 17K17622; Ministry of Environment, Government of Japan, Grant/Award Number: 4RF-1701; University of Tsukuba Abstract Long-term exposure to CO2-enriched waters can considerably alter marine biological community development, often resulting in simplified systems dominated by turf algae that possess reduced biodiversity and low ecological complexity. Current un- derstanding of the underlying processes by which ocean acidification alters biologi- cal community development and stability remains limited, making the management of such shifts problematic. Here, we deployed recruitment tiles in reference (pHT 8.137 ± 0.056 SD) and CO2-enriched conditions (pHT 7.788 ± 0.105 SD) at a volcanic CO2 seep in Japan to assess the underlying processes and patterns of algal commu- nity development. We assessed (i) algal community succession in two different sea- sons (Cooler months: January–July, and warmer months: July–January), (ii) the effects of initial community composition on subsequent community succession (by recipro- cally transplanting preestablished communities for a further 6 months), and (iii) the community production of resulting communities, to assess how their functioning was altered (following 12 months recruitment). Settlement tiles became dominated by turf algae under CO2-enrichment and had lower biomass, diversity and complexity, a pattern consistent across seasons. This locked the community in a species-poor early successional stage. In terms of community functioning, the elevated pCO2 commu- nity had greater net community production, but this did not result in increased algal community cover, biomass, biodiversity or structural complexity. Taken together, this shows that both new and established communities become simplified by rising CO2 levels. Our transplant of preestablished communities from enriched CO2 to refer- ence conditions demonstrated their high resilience, since they became indistinguish- able from communities maintained entirely in reference conditions. This shows that meaningful reductions in pCO2 can enable the recovery of algal communities. By understanding the ecological processes responsible for dL E T T E R Ocean acidification reduces coral recruitment by disrupting intimate larval-algal settlement interactions Christopher Doropoulos,1,2* Selina Ward,1 Guillermo Diaz-Pulido,2,3 Ove Hoegh-Guldberg2,4 and Peter J. Mumby1,2 Abstract Successful recruitment in shallow reef ecosystems often involves specific cues that connect planktonic invertebrate larvae with particular crustose coralline algae (CCA) during settlement. While ocean acidification (OA) can reduce larval settlement and the abundance of CCA, the impact of OA on the interactions between planktonic larvae and their preferred settlement substrate are unknown. Here, we demonstrate that CO2 concentrations (800 and 1300 latm) predicted to occur by the end of this century significantly reduce coral (Acropora millepora) settlement and CCA cover by ‡ 45\%. The CCA important for inducing coral settlement (Titanoderma spp., Hydrolithon spp.) were the most deleteriously affected by OA. Surprisingly, the only preferred settlement substrate (Titanoderma) in the experimental controls was avoided by coral larvae as pCO2 increased, and other substrata selected. Our results suggest OA may reduce coral population recovery by reducing coral settlement rates, disrupting larval settlement behaviour, and reducing the availability of the most desirable coralline algal species for successful coral recruitment. Keywords Acropora, coral, crustose coralline algae, electivity, Hydrolithon, ocean acidification, recruitment, settlement, Titanoderma. Ecology Letters (2012) 15: 338–346 INTRODUCTION The effects of ocean acidification (OA) have raised concerns about coral reef ecosystem function by reducing the calcification rates of benthic organisms important to maintaining habitat structure and biodiversity (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007; Kroeker et al. 2010). Anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) have increased atmospheric CO2 from approximately 280 ppm prior to the year 1750 to > 380 ppm in 2005 (Jansen et al. 2007), and these are continuing to rise (Le Quere et al. 2009). The absorption of this atmospheric CO2 by the oceans has reduced global pH by 0.1 units and carbonate saturation state by 20\% since 1800 (Orr et al. 2005). Numerous laboratory studies have demonstrated that corals (Schneider & Erez 2006; Anthony et al. 2008), calcifying algae (Anthony et al. 2008; Kuffner et al. 2008), and coral reef communities (Langdon et al. 2000; Andersson et al. 2009) have reduced calcification in seawater with lower pH due to depleted carbonate saturation. Ecological processes pivotal to coral reef resilience, including coral recruitment, herbivory, trophic integrity, and connectivity (Knowlton 2001; Mumby et al. 2007), under high CO2 levels have hardly been investigated (Doney et al. 2009). Yet, growing evidence suggests that interactions between species are altered as CO2 increases. Under conditions of OA, corals in contact with fleshy macroalgae had higher mortality (DiYour Name Interactions between Plant Semiochemicals and Insects There are many methods of communication prevalent in species interactions. However, some methods allow species from even different kingdoms to communicate with each other. Plants, in order to communicate with insects, release signals known as semiochemicals, which are packets of chemicals used to deliver some sort of message. These semiochemicals vary in their effects, and different plants have evolved different kinds of semiochemicals for certain situations. Examining these chemicals allows humans to understand the varying kinds of insect- plant interactions, as well as give humans a means by which insects can be communicated to through artificial semiochemicals. These examples of the powerful and efficient effects of semiochemicals can show us the importance of cross-species communication. I. There are several introductory elements to semiochemicals which must be known. Plants interact with insects by the way of ‘odor plumes’ carrying plant volatiles that affect the insect’s olfactory senses (Beyaert and Hilker, 2014). Semiochemials, in a general sense, operate with a type of ‘push-pull strategy’ when used on insects (Cook et al. 2006). One basic function of plant semiochemicals is to repel insects. Sometimes this has the added effect of ‘inhibiting’ the insect’s ability to sense pheromones (Reddy and Guerrero, 2004). Normally, plants release defensive compounds only during the day. Some plants, such as the tobacco plant, have evolved to release compounds at night to deal nocturnal herbivores (De Moraes et al. 2001). II. While some plants use semiochemicals as a basic ‘push’ protection, others are able to use them to ‘pull’ insects towards them. Some plants, such as orchids, trick insects into thinking they are potential mates not only through visual mimicry, but also through semiochemicals (Dettner and Liepert, 1994). Some kinds of insects take in plant compounds to use as pheromones of their own (Landolt and Phillips, 1997) Some plants are able to attract other organisms that prey on the herbivores they are being attacked by using volatiles (Bernasconi et al. 1998). There is a specific method by which hunter and parasitoid organisms find their host with plant semiochemicals (Stowe et al. 1995). III. Humans have been able to synthesize semiochemicals for their own uses. Your Name Humans are able to use semiochemicals as an alternative to normal means of pest control (Agelopoulos et al. 1999). There are multiple benefits for using semiochemicals for pest management compared to insecticides (Witzgall et al. 2010). Conclusion: As a basis of many examples of insect-plant interactions, semiochemicals are incredibly important signals to research and utilize. As studies have shown, the complex effects of semiochemicals are invaluable to ensure a plant’s survival against insect herbivory and to bolster other relationshiSteps in the Preparation of an Annotated Bibliography Outline: This outline is an overview of the paper that outlines the scope of the paper, describing the topics to be covered and the order. This outline will contain all the detail you need to write a complete paper. If you prepare your outline correctly, it should be almost as long as the actual paper (don’t freak out, that’s a good thing). Below is a general example of what your outline should look like, except that yours will be much longer. Make sure that your outline includes the following: 1. Topic sentences for each section (marked by Roman numerals) 2. Subtopics: • Major key points 3. References for each point that you intend to cover. Example Title • Should inform the reader of what the paper is about. • When constructing a title, choose informative over cute. I. Introduction: Topic sentence that states the basic idea/premise of your paper. For example, if you are examining the role of neuropeptides in parental behavior, your first sentence might introduce parental behavior and it’s significance in species survival (Reference- see format for in-text citations). a. Introduce your system i. Define the system, its function, types present, etc. (Reference- see format for in-text citations) ii. If you are comparing organisms, briefly introduce the organisms (Reference- see format for in-text citations) b. The main focus of the paper c. Provide the scientific reasoning as to why part b is interesting d. Be brief and concise II. Main Body. Topic sentence focusing on your major points (Reference- see format for in- text citations). a. You may choose to devote one section to describe the behavior/ ecology / scientific relevance or problem that you are focusing on. i. Background information 1. Generalities of the taxon the species belongs to 2. Behavior and ecology of the species 3. Scientific relevance of the species (e.g. research breakthroughs that have been possible thanks to this species) 4. Etc. (Reference- see format for in-text citations) 5. Include as many sections as you deem necessary to cover your main ideas. III. Conclusion a. Summary b. Significance IV. References (see reference instructions)Joseph Martinez 10/16/2020 Topic in Ecology Title: Review of The Impact of Climate Change an Wildfires and It’s Ecological Ramifications I. Introduction: This section will focus on introducing and providing background for wildfires (and its significance ecologically). The introduction will also introduce the concept of climate changes as an amplifying force for intense wildfires in order to set up the structure for the rest of the review paper. A. Wildfires are naturally occurring phenomena that may temporarily change an ecosystem’s composition, however most modern wildfires have had devastating effects on ecosystems (Akaike et al., 1974). B. Anthropogenic climate change makes intense wildfire more common (Abatzoglou & Williams, 2016). C. The main contributing factors are high temperatures, more severe droughts, stronger winds, and more frequent lighting strikes- all side effects of climate change. II. Main Body: This section seeks to explore how wildfires naturally start and what makes an intense wildfire, using evidence from the American West as well as the Australian outback for a more global perspective. The main body will also break down how each factor that contributes to intense wildfires is being amplified by climate change. A. The Conditions Necessary for an “Intense” Wildfire- ​The main point of this section is that wildfires needs certain conditions to thrive: 1. Wildfires need hot weather in order to take hold (Nature, 2019). 2. Wildfires need dry vegetation for “fuel” (Nature, 2019). 3. Wildfires need strong winds for oxygenation and to spread over long distances (Nature, 2019). 4. Wildfires need a “spark” (lightning, campfire, arson, cigarette) in order to ignite the initial flame (Nature, 2019). B. How Climate Change is Amplifying these Conditions-​ As a follow up the the previous section, it will be explained here how each of these conditions have been amplified due to climate change: 1. Climate change contributes to ever hotter air and surface temperatures, leading to “hot weather” (Hansen et al., 2006). 2. Climate change contributes to prolonged and intense droughts leading to vast quantities of dry vegetation (Littell, Peterson, Riley, Liu, & Luce, 2016). 3. Climate change has been linked to contributing to stronger and faster winds, which are an essential source of oxygenation and spreading mechanisms for wildfires (Zeng et al., 2019). 4. Climate change has been linked to an increase in lightning frequency, one of the most common “sparks” that ignite wildfires (Romps, Seeley, Vollaro, & Molinari, 2014). C. The Ecological Impacts Of Intense Wildfires Globally-​ In this section, the ecological effects of wildfires will be explored in order to understand how damaging more frequent wildfires will be in the future as climate change progresses. 1. Wildfires release large amounts of previously trapped carbon into the Invasive reptile species of Florida. I. Introduction: The problem of invasive species is relevant all over the world. In the state of Florida, this issue is especially acute due to the hospitable climate that due to warm temperatures and increases air moisture makes it incredibly easy for newly introduced species to thrive. The invasive species may potentially damage the environment in many ways, human economy, health, safety, and negatively impact native species. Among other animals, the reptiles comprise quite a long list of the invasive species in Florida: Argentine black and white tegu (Tupinambis merianae), black spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis), brown anole (Anolis sagrei), the Burmese python (Python bivittatus), common house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), green iguana (Iguana iguana), Mediterranean gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus), Nile Monitor (Varanus niloticus). In this review paper, some of the most invasive reptile species in the state of Florida will be discussed. Their history, origin, and impact on native species and the environment will be addressed. In final part will focus on the investigation of steps and measures taken or planned to be taken in the future to reduce or eliminate these species from the state. II. History and origin of reptile invasive species in Florida. In this section, the history of invasive reptiles will be discussed, the ways of the invasion as well as some aspects of the dispersal. There are multiple ways the species may be introduced. It may be a natural or human-facilitated event, accidental or deliberate, such as pet trade or zoo escape. The key aspects of their success will be presented (Engeman et al., 2011). i. Green iguana (Krysko et al., 2007) ii. Nile monitor (Enge et al., 2004), (Wood et al., 2016). iii. Burmese python (Wilson et al., 2011). iv. Black and White Tegu (Pernas et al., 2012). v. Human mediated dispersal on the example of common house gecko (Short & Petren, 2011), (Muller et al., 2020). III. Impact on native species. This section will cover particular examples of some invasive reptiles on native species. The introduction of the genetic variation as one of the effects will be introduced. Besides, the interesting effect of the attempt of their extraction will be considered. i. Brown anole effect on native lizard species in Florida (Campbell, 2000). ii. Birds predation by Burmese python (Dove et al., 2011). iii. The decline of the tree snail due to predation by green iguana in Key Biscayne, Florida (Townsend et al., 2005). iv. Discussion of the genetic paradox of the increase in genetic variation during the invasion of brown anole (Kolbe et al., 2004). v. Removal of some invasive species such as green iguanas may negatively affect their predators, such as gray fox and raccoons (Meshaka et al., 2007). IV. Influence on the environment. i. It is important to understand how certain species such as the Burmese python, sele