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Discussion on Science 12 teaching tips Associate Editors: Diane M. Billings, EdD, RN, FAAN, ANEF Karren Kowalski, PhD, RN, NEA-BC, ANEF, FAAN Author: Copyright © SLACK Incorporated Associate Editors: Diane M. Billings, EdD, RN, FAAN, ANEF Karren Kowalski, PhD, RN, NEA-BC, ANEF, FAAN Author: Karren Kowalski, PhD, RN, NEA-BC, ANEF, FAAN Most of us associate the term coach with our favorite sport. Some of us who love basketball think of Coach K from Duke University and the coach of several Olympic Goal Metal teams, or if we are slightly more contro- versial, Coach Bobby Knight from Indiana University. Originally, the term coach described an instructor at Oxford University in the early 1800s who guided a student through a course or an examination. Nursing leaders at every level are responsible for the growth and the performance of their colleagues. In this process, it has been suggested by the Gallup organization (StrengthsFinder 2.0) that everyone could benefit from coaching. This process can support people in embracing change, learn- ing from their work, growing pro- fessionally as human beings, and advancing in the workplace. Notice how coaching differs from mentor- ing (see the December Teaching Tips article by Karren Kowalski [2019b]). Coaching is much more structured and focuses on the pres- ent and the near future. Mentoring is much more casual and is focused more on the professional career and how to advance one’s career within a specific organization or on the deci- sion to change organizations. To be an effective coach, it helps to have been coached at some time in one’s career. I had a coach for close to 15 years. She was a master at ask- ing questions and coached from the philosophic perspective that I had the answers inside of me and only needed encouragement to identify and implement them. She held me to my agreements regarding what actions I would take. She consis- tently questioned me to encourage me to learn from my experiences— what happened, what worked, what did not work, and what I would do differently in future situations. She supported me in delving deeper, to understand the motivation for my behavior and my reactions to diffi- cult situations. THE COACHING PROCESS In coaching, the coachee comes to a session with specific goals and can report on what was accomplished from the previous session. The em- phasis is on mutual respect, openness, empathy, and a strong commitment to speaking truthfully. Sometimes it is difficult to hear a truthful observa- tion about behavior. When these ob- servations are shared compassionately and from a point of view of personal responsibility, learning is maximized. Notice the collaborative relationship and a focus on possibilities rather than an authoritarian approach or one of a supervisor–subordinate perspective. From a philosophical perspective, the coachee is a complete individual who is naturally creative, resourceful, and whole and can discover solutions to problems and issues (Kimsey-House, Kimsey-House, Sandahl, & Whit- worth, 2018). PHASES OF COACHING From the coach’s perspective, coaching can be divided into phases. The first phase establishes the foun- dation for the coaching relationship through building a relationship, set- ting realistic expectations, observing coachee behavior, and establishing the practice of self-reflection for both the coach and the coachee (Kowalski & Casper, 2007). This is a cocreative relationship—a partnership founded on the belief that both are highly functioning individuals. The rela- tionship can be established by learn- ing and knowing about each other as abstract An effective tool for the growth and learning of health care employ- ees is coaching. This process can use either an external or an internal coach. The coaching process is usu- ally formalized and consists of four phases. Some suggest that lead- ers should spend 40% of their time coaching their staff. [J Contin Educ Nurs. 2020;51(1):12-14.] Dr. Kowalski is President and CEO, Kowalski and Associates, Larkspur, Colorado, and Professor, Texas Tech University, School of Nursing, Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas. The author has disclosed no potential conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise. Address correspondence to Karren Kowalski, PhD, RN, NEA-BC, ANEF, FAAN, President and CEO, Kowalski & Associates; e-mail: [email protected] doi:10.3928/00220124-20191217-04 Coaching 13The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing · Vol 51, No 1, 2020 individuals and understanding each other’s background and strengths. A part of this process is setting realis- tic expectations for structured meet- ing times, such as the coachee being prepared with a specific agenda and a report on any commitments made in the previous coaching session. As much as possible, the coach bases conversations on his/her own obser- vations of the coachee or the report by the coachee of specific situations. To facilitate discussions of learning, it is helpful if both the coach and the coachee enter into a process of reflec- tive practice, which includes writing or journaling about specific events the coachee experienced and what hap- pened during these events, and for the coach to reflect on how sessions pro- gressed and what was learned about the effectiveness of specific questions and observations. The second phase constitutes the body of the coaching process, which consists of an emphasis on being pres- ent and fully focused on the coaching process and the individual, creating a positive atmosphere. This involves the coach asking great questions (Kowal- ski, 2007a, 2007b, 2008a, 2008b, 2009a, 2009b), listening actively (Kowalski, 2019a), and sharing per- ceptions or observations graciously and supportively. Being present is de- fined as being totally focused on the coachee without interruptions such as telephones, computers, or people walking into the office. Interruptions translate into the coachee feeling un- important or discounted. This focus correlates with creating a positive environment for the session. Positive use of the allotted time also supports the coachee to be prepared with an agenda rather than casually discuss- ing whatever is on his/her mind. This ensures that important issues are discussed. The coach also focuses on the positive, to reinforce progress and changes, and to end each session with the coachee identifying a suc- cess since the last meeting. The coach uses powerful and thought-provoking questions. The purpose of these ques- tions is to discover what the coachee is thinking and what they perceive about difficult situations, both about their own behavior and the actions of others. These questions are open- ended; for example, “What did you notice about…” or “What was your response to the other person and what stimulated that reaction?” Questions are complimented by active listen- ing, which demonstrates respect and sensitivity for the coachee. The coach can reflect to the coachee a summary of what the coachee has said and an interpretation of the essence of the communication. Guidelines for a ses- sion can be found in Table 1. The third phase is taking action, which includes suggesting options, requesting behavior changes, clari- fying the action plan, and creating a supportive environment. Action can begin with the coach asking the coachee what the thought process is regarding a specific idea, event, or problem. The coach can also make suggestions, which could begin with “What if?” questions, such as “What if you did…” or “Have you thought about…?” and “What other possibili- ties could be considered?” The coach can also ask for specific behavior change, which might include an ob- servation about specific behavior and how they would act differently in the future. The final phase is completion or ending the coaching relationship. Coaching relationships are usually time limited. The contract is for a specific length of time, which can be extended as needed. However, these relationships do end, and there is val- ue in purposeful completion of the coaching relationship. The comple- tion process can be rewarding as an opportunity to summarize the learn- ing and growth by both the coach and the coachee, as well as serve as an opportunity to express apprecia- tion for learning and opportunities. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL COACHING When the coach is internal to the organization, whether a human resources staff member or another employee, the greatest risk is the fear that confidentiality could be compro- mised. This is a serious concern and its importance must be emphasized. At the same time, the cost of exter- nal coaches when used for many per- TABLE 1 GUIDELINES FOR A CONSTRUCTIVE COACHING SESSION 1. How have you been since our last meeting? 2. What are your agenda items for this session? 3. Are there any interpersonal issues between the two of us that need to be addressed? 4. What are the three most difficult events you have experience since our last meeting? 5. Describe these events, including what worked for you and what you wished you had done differently. 6. Review any agenda items not covered. 7. Review the commitments the coachee has made since the last meeting and what the outcomes are. 8. Identify the three most important things to be accomplished prior to the next meet- ing. 9. Identify at least one success/achievement the coachee has had since the last meeting. 10. Confirm the time and place for the next meeting. 14 Copyright © SLACK Incorporated sonnel is often cost prohibitive. One possible alternative is to work slowly and gradually build the reputation of the coaching staff. If coaching is identified as a high priority, it would be beneficial to have the internal coaches experience formal coach training from an accredited coach- ing firm that is approved by the International Coaching Federation (2019). Another possibility is that trained coaches from the profession- al development department can sup- port leaders in learning the basics of coaching to be used with their staff. In such situations, the leader could ask the employee if they would be amenable to some coaching. This is a way in which leaders can support their employees to learn and grow. With the rapidity of change today, we are all in a steep learning process. External coaches are outside of the organization, which is beneficial in that they pose no confidentiality or favoritism issues that internal em- ployees may face. CONCLUSION Used within the nursing work- force, coaching provides a valuable method for the coachee to learn from their own experiences and process- es, while the nursing leader can not only facilitate the learning but share their knowledge and experience. The four-phase foundation of the coach and coachee relationship works to build learning, know each other, and use each other’s observations for the coachee’s benefit. Finally, the out- come of the coaching relationship, in which the coachee can express appre- ciation and gratitude for the personal growth, can assure the coach about coaching skills and reinforce confi- dence in these abilities. REFERENCES International Coaching Federation. (2019). The gold standard in coaching. Retrieved from https://coachfederation.org/ Kimsey-House, H., Kimsey-House, K., San- dahl, P., & Whitworth, L. (2018). Co-active coaching: Changing business transforming lives – The proven framework for transforma- tive conversations at work and in life (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Nicholas Brealey. Kowalski, K. (2007a). Guidelines for asking questions. The Journal of Continuing Educa- tion in Nursing, 38, 249. Kowalski, K. (2007b). The value of asking ques- tions. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 38, 200. Kowalski, K. (2008a). Difficult questions in dif- ficult situations. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 39, 16. Kowalski, K. (2008b). Tough questions: Rec- ognize and resolve communication break- down. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 39, 57. Kowalski, K. (2009a). More situations in which questions are valuable. The Journal of Con- tinuing Education in Nursing, 40, 393. Kowalski, K. (2009b). Situations in which questions are valuable. The Journal of Con- tinuing Education in Nursing, 40, 344-345. Kowalski, K. (2019a). Building effective teams. In P. Yoder-Wise (Ed.), Leading and man- aging in nursing (pp. 336-357). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. Kowalski, K. (2019b). Mentoring. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 50, 540-541. Kowalski, K., & Casper, C. (2007). The coach- ing process: An effective tool for profes- sional development. Nursing Administration Quarterly, 31, 171-179. Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A THEORY OF TEAM COACHING J. RICHARD HACKMAN Harvard University RUTH WAGEMAN Dartmouth College After briefly reviewing the existing literature on team coaching, we propose a new model with three distinguishing features. The model (1) focuses on the functions that coaching serves for a team, rather than on either specific leader behaviors or lead- ership styles, (2) identifies the specific times in the task performance process when coaching interventions are most likely to have their intended effects, and (3) expli- cates the conditions under which team-focused coaching is and is not likely to facilitate performance. Coaches help people perform tasks. Coaching is pervasive throughout the life course, from childhood (e.g., a parent helping a child learn to ride a tricycle), through schooling (e.g., a teacher coaching a student in the proper conduct of a chemistry experiment), and into adulthood (e.g., a fitness coach helping with an exercise regime or a supervisor coaching an employee in im- proving his or her job performance). The main body of research about coaching is found in the training literature, and it focuses almost entirely on individual skill acquisition (Fournies, 1978). Except for the many popular books and articles that extract lessons for team leaders from the experiences of athletic coaches, relatively little has been published that specifically addresses the coaching of task-performing teams. Here we propose a theory of team coaching that is amenable to empirical testing and cor- rection. The theory has three distinguishing fea- tures. One, it focuses on the functions that coaching serves for a team, rather than on either specific leader behaviors or leadership styles. Two, it explicitly addresses the specific times in the task performance process when coaching interventions are most likely to “take” and have their intended effects. Three, it explicitly identi- fies the conditions under which team-focused coaching is most likely to facilitate perfor- mance. Overall, we show that the impact of team coaching—whether provided by a formal team leader or by fellow group members— depends directly and substantially on the de- gree to which the proper coaching functions are fulfilled competently at appropriate times and in appropriate circumstances. TEAM COACHING Team coaching is an act of leadership, but it is not the only one or necessarily the most conse- quential one. Team leaders engage in many dif- ferent kinds of behaviors intended to foster team effectiveness, including structuring the team and establishing its purposes, arranging for the resources a team needs for its work and remov- ing organizational roadblocks that impede the work, helping individual members strengthen their personal contributions to the team, and working with the team as a whole to help mem- bers use their collective resources well in pur- suing team purposes. Leaders vary in how they allocate their time and attention across these activities, depending on their own preferences; what they believe the team most needs; and the team’s own level of authority, initiative, and maturity. Only the last two sets of activities (helping individual mem- bers strengthen personal contributions and working with the team to help use resources well) are coaching behaviors, however, focusing respectively on individual team members and on the team as a whole. In this paper we deal exclusively with the fourth—team coaching— which we define as direct interaction with a team intended to help members make coordi- nated and task-appropriate use of their collec- tive resources in accomplishing the team’s work. Although team coaching is a distinct and of- ten consequential aspect of team leadership, re- cent evidence suggests that leaders focus their behavior less on team coaching than on other aspects of the team leadership portfolio. In a � Academy of Management Review 2005, Vol. 30, No. 2, 269–287. 269 study of 268 task-performing teams in 88 organi- zations, we (Wageman, Hackman, & Lehman, 2004) asked team leaders and members to rank the amount of attention the team leader gave to activities in each of the four categories listed above (with a rank of “1” signifying the greatest attention). For both leader and member reports, coaching the team as a whole came in last (the combined mean ranks were as follows: structur- ing the team and its work, 1.75; running external interference, 2.16; coaching individuals, 2.88; and coaching the team, 3.02). The lesser attention given to team coaching could simply mean that leaders underestimate the potential benefits of providing coaching as- sistance to their teams. More likely, perhaps, is that leaders do not coach their teams because they do not know how to do so, or they have ventured a coaching intervention or two that did not help and thereafter focused their behavior on seemingly more promising team leadership strategies. By using existing research and the- ory to identify the kinds of leader coaching be- haviors that do help teams operate more effec- tively, we seek here not only to advance basic understanding about team coaching but also to provide practitioners with some of what they need to know to coach their teams competently. EXISTING APPROACHES In a review of existing research and theory, we identified three conceptually driven ap- proaches to team coaching and one eclectic ap- proach that is largely atheoretical. These four approaches, described below, point the way to- ward a more comprehensive research-based model of team coaching, and we draw on them in developing propositions for the present the- ory. Eclectic Interventions Eclectic coaching interventions are activities that derive from no particular theoretical per- spective but have considerable face validity nonetheless, in that a lay person would be likely to assume that they would help a team perform well. Eclectic models are found mainly in the practitioner literature as codifications of the les- sons learned by management consultants whose practice includes team facilitation (e.g., Fischer, 1993; Kinlaw, 1991; Wellins, Byham, & Wilson, 1991). Although varied, these models specify ways that team leaders can develop members’ interpersonal skills, define members’ roles and expectations, deal with conflict and interpersonal frictions, and help a team achieve a level of “maturity” that lessens the team’s de- pendence on its leader (Eden, 1985; Fischer, 1993; Geber, 1992; Manz & Sims, 1987; Patten, 1981; Rees, 1991; Torres & Spiegel, 2000; Woodman & Sherwood, 1980). Process Consultation The process consultation approach developed by Schein (1969, 1988) posits that competent in- terpersonal relations are essential for effective task performance and that group members themselves must be intimately involved in ana- lyzing and improving those relationships. The consultant engages team members in analyzing group processes on two levels simultaneously: (1) the substantive level—to analyze how human processes are affecting work on a specific organ- izational problem—and (2) the internal level—to better understand the team’s own interaction processes and the ways that team processes foster or impede effective group functioning (Schein, 1988: 11–12). Decidedly clinical in orien- tation, this type of coaching requires the process consultant first to directly observe the group as it works on a substantive organizational prob- lem and then, once the group is ready, to intro- duce systematic or confrontive interventions in- tended to help the team deal with its problems and exploit previously unrecognized opportuni- ties. Behavioral Models Two distinct models of team coaching are based on theories of individual behavior: (1) the application of Argyris’s (1982, 1993) theory of in- tervention to team-focused coaching by Schwarz (1994) and (2) applications of operant condition- ing to the modification of team behavior, nota- bly those of Komaki (1986, 1998) and her col- leagues. In his approach, Schwarz posits that coaches should provide feedback to a team in ways that help members learn new and more effective team behaviors, especially in how they give and receive feedback. The coaching process in- volves three phases. First is observing actual 270 AprilAcademy of Management Review group behavior both to note behaviors that are impeding the group’s work and to identify be- haviors not presently exhibited that might facil- itate group work. Second is describing to the group what has been observed and testing in- ferences about the meanings of those behaviors. And third is helping group members decide whether they wish to change their behaviors and, if so, how they might do so. The model specifies several specific ground rules both for the facilitators’ behaviors and for team mem- bers’ behaviors, such as providing specific be- havioral examples for points made, publicly testing assumptions and inferences, and explic- itly inviting questions and challenges. The operant conditioning approach to team coaching is based on the well-established prin- ciple of individual learning that behavior is a function of its consequences. Applied to teams, operant coaching involves three kinds of coach- ing behaviors: (1) providing instructions about how to behave, (2) monitoring the team’s perfor- mance, and (3) providing performance-contin- gent consequences to the team (Komaki, 1986; Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979). Because the oper- ant approach to team coaching does not specify any particular patterns of team interaction that facilitate effectiveness across different types of teams and tasks, team coaches must have ex- tensive task knowledge so that they can issue proper instructions about desirable behaviors and reinforce the team when it does well (Komaki, 1998; Komaki, Deselles, & Bowman, 1989; Komaki & Minnich, 2002; Smoll & Smith, 1989). Developmental Coaching The distinguishing feature of the developmen- tal approach to coaching is the central role given to time and timing. Two premises on which this approach is based are (1) that teams need help with different issues at different stages of their development and (2) that there are times in the life cycles of groups when they are more and less open to intervention (Kozlow- ski, Gully, McHugh, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1996; Kozlowski, Gully, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1996). A key coaching intervention in the develop- mental approach is the “learning session,” in which the coach and team members review the team’s purpose, assess its progress thus far, and identify the issues the team needs to deal with next. The focus of learning sessions for newly formed or “novice” groups (whose members are mainly occupied with social issues of inclusion and acceptance and task issues having to do with team goals and with member skills and roles) differs from that for more mature or “ex- pert” groups (whose members have become ready to learn strategies for self-regulation, such as how best to detect and correct errors and how best to adapt to changing external de- mands). Because teams are unlikely to be able to process intensive interventions when task de- mands are also high, learning sessions are re- served for periods of relatively low cognitive demand. During intensive work periods, devel- opmental coaches focus mainly on gathering data about behavior and performance for use guiding subsequent interventions. When task demands diminish, active coaching resumes. Summary Most of the approaches to team coaching just summarized are based on well-established psy- chological principles and findings about human learning and performance. Moreover, research conducted within each tradition has been infor- mative and, especially for the operant and de- velopmental approaches, has generated empir- ical findings that enrich our understanding about coaching processes and outcomes. None of the existing approaches, however, is sup- ported by evidence that addresses all links in the coaching intervention–team process–team performance sequence. We seek here to provide a conceptual model that does explicate all links in that sequence, that takes explicit account of teams’ temporal and organizational contexts, and that provides a sound basis for generating guidance for team coaching practice. DOMAIN We begin by specifying what we mean by a work team and what we mean by performance effectiveness, which together bound the domain of our model. Work Teams We focus only on full-fledged teams that per- form tasks in social system contexts. Such teams 2005 271Hackman and Wageman have three features. First, they are real groups. That is, they are intact social systems, complete with boundaries, interdependence among mem- bers, and differentiated member roles (Alderfer, 1977). Members of real groups can be distin- guished reliably from nonmembers, they are in- terdependent for some common purpose, and they invariably develop specialized roles within the group. Real groups can be either small or large and either temporary or long-lived. Second, work teams have one or more group tasks to perform. They produce some outcome for which members bear collective responsibility and for which acceptability is potentially as- sessable. The kind of outcome produced is not critical—it could be a physical product, a ser- vice, a decision, a performance, or a written report. Nor is it necessary that the outcome ac- tually be assessed; all that is required is that the group produce an outcome that can be identified as its product and that it be theoretically possi- ble to evaluate that product. Social groups and other collectives that generate no identifiable product fall outside our domain. Finally, work teams operate in a social system context. The team as a collective manages rela- tionships with other individuals or groups in some larger social system. Usually this social system is the parent organization that created the team, but it can be people or groups outside that organization as well, such as opponents for an athletic team or customers for a service- providing team. What is critical is that team members be collectively responsible for manag- ing consequential transactions with other indi- viduals and/or groups. Team Performance Effectiveness Criterion measures in empirical research on team performance often consist of whatever quantitative indicators happen to be available or are easy to obtain (e.g., production figures for industrial workgroups or number of correct re- sponses for teams studied in experimental lab- oratories). Such criteria of convenience do not address other outcome dimensions, such as cli- ent assessments of a team’s work, the degree to which a team becomes stronger as a performing unit over time, or the extent to which individual members become more knowledgeable or skilled as a result of their team experiences. Because we believe that these dimensions also are consequential for any team’s long-term or- ganizational performance, we define team effec- tiveness using the following three-dimensional conception (adapted from Hackman, 1987). 1. The productive output of the team (i.e., its product, service, or decision) meets or ex- ceeds the standards of quantity, quality, and timeliness of the team’s clients—the people who receive, review, and/or use the output. It is the clients’ standards and as- sessments that count in assessing team products—not those of the team itself (ex- cept in rare cases where the team is the client of its own work) or those of the team’s manager (who only rarely is the person who actually receives and uses a team’s output). 2. The social processes the team uses in car- rying out the work enhance members’ capa- bility of working together interdependently in the future. Effective teams become adept at detecting and correcting errors before se- rious damage is done and at noticing and exploiting emerging opportunities. They are more capable performing units when they finish a piece of work than when they be- gan. 3. The group experience contributes positively to the learning and personal well-being of individual team members. Work teams can serve as sites for personal learning and can spawn satisfying interpersonal relation- ships, but they also can deskill, frustrate, and alienate their members. We do not count as effective any team for which the net impact of the group experience on members’ learning and well-being is more negative than positive. Although the three criteria vary in importance in different circumstances, effective teams bal- ance them over time, never completely sacrific- ing any one to achieve the others. In the pages that follow, we identify the coaching functions, the temporal imperatives, and the contextual circumstances that affect the degree to which coaching behaviors can help a work team achieve and sustain a high standing on all three of the criteria. FUNCTIONS Over four decades ago, McGrath first sug- gested that “[The leader’s] main job is to do, or get done, whatever is not being adequately han- dled for group needs” (1962: 5). If a leader man- ages, by whatever means, to ensure that all 272 AprilAcademy of Management Review functions critical to group performance are taken care of, the leader has done his or her job well. Thus, a functional approach to leadership leaves room for an indefinite number of ways to get key group functions accomplished, and avoids the necessity of delineating all the spe- cific behaviors or styles a leader should exhibit in given circumstances—a trap into which it is easy for leadership theorists to fall. What functions are most critical for team per- formance effectiveness? Functions whose ac- complishment are critical for group decision making have been identified by Hirokawa and Orlitzky (Hirokawa, 1985; Orlitzky & Hirokawa, 2001), and those that bear on other aspects of group behavior have been comprehensively re- viewed by Hollingshead et al. (in press). For our specific and delimited purposes—that is, iden- tification of the most critical functions served by those who coach work teams—we focus on three aspects of group interaction that have been shown to be especially potent in shaping group performance outcomes (Hackman & Morris, 1975; Hackman & Walton, 1986). Specifically, we posit that team effectiveness is a joint function of three performance pro- cesses: (1) the level of effort group members col- lectively expend carrying out task work, (2) the appropriateness to the task of the performance strategies the group uses in its work,1 and (3) the amount of knowledge and skill members bring to bear on the task. Any team that expends suf- ficient effort in its work, deploys a task- appropriate performance strategy, and brings ample talent to bear on its work is quite likely to achieve a high standing in the three criteria of work team effectiveness specified earlier. By the same token, teams that operate in ways that leave one or more of these functions unful- filled—that is, where members expend insuffi- cient effort, use inappropriate strategies, and/or apply inadequate talent in their work—are likely to fall short in one or more of the effective- ness criteria. Associated with each of the three performance processes are both a characteristic “process loss” (Steiner, 1972) and an opportunity for pos- itive synergy, which we call a “process gain.” That is, members may interact in ways that de- press the team’s effort, the appropriateness of its strategy, and/or the utilization of member talent; alternatively, their interaction may enhance col- lective effort, generate uniquely appropriate strategies, and/or actively develop members’ knowledge and skills. Coaching functions are those interventions that inhibit process losses and foster process gains for each of the three performance pro- cesses. Coaching that addresses effort is moti- vational in character; its functions are to mini- mize free riding or “social loafing” and to build shared commitment to the group and its work. Coaching that addresses performance strategy is consultative in character; its functions are to minimize mindless adoption or execution of task performance routines in uncertain or changing task environments and to foster the invention of ways of proceeding with the work that are espe- cially well aligned with task requirements. Coaching that addresses knowledge and skill is educational in character; its functions are to minimize suboptimal weighting of members’ contributions (i.e., when the weight given to in- dividual members’ contributions is at variance with their actual talents) and to foster the devel- opment of members’ knowledge and skill. The three coaching functions specifically and exclusively address a team’s task performance processes—not members’ interpersonal rela- tionships. This focus distinguishes our model from the great majority of writing and practice about team coaching, especially in the eclectic tradition, which posits (sometimes explicitly but more often implicitly) that coaching interven- tions should primarily address the quality of members’ interpersonal relationships. The pervasive emphasis on interpersonal pro- cesses in the team performance literature re- flects a logical fallacy about the role of those processes in shaping performance outcomes. To illustrate, consider a team that is having perfor- mance problems. Such teams often exhibit inter- 1 A team’s strategy is the set of choices members make about how to carry out the work. For example, a manufac- turing team might decide to divide itself into three sub- groups, each of which would produce one subassembly, with the final product to be assembled later. Or a basketball team might decide to use modified zone defense, with one player assigned to guard the opposing team’s best shooter. Or a team performing a task that requires a creative solution might choose to free associate about possible solutions in the first meeting, reflect for a week about the ideas that came up, and then reconvene to draft the product. All of these are choices about task performance strategy. 2005 273Hackman and Wageman personal difficulties, such as communications breakdowns, conflict among members, leader- ship struggles, and so on. Because both lay per- sons and scholars implicitly rely on an input– process– output framework in analyzing group dynamics, it is natural to infer that the observed interpersonal troubles are causing the perfor- mance problems and, therefore, that a good way to improve team performance would be to fix them. As reasonable as this inference may seem, it is neither logical nor correct. Although serious interpersonal conflicts sometimes do un- dermine team performance (Jehn & Mannix, 2001), it does not necessarily follow that the proper coaching intervention in such cases is to help members improve their interpersonal rela- tionships. In fact, research suggests that, in some cir- cumstances, the causal arrow points in the op- posite direction—that is, performance drives in- terpersonal processes (or, at least, perceptions of those processes), rather than vice versa. For example, Staw (1975) gave task-performing teams false feedback about their performance and then asked members to provide “objective” descriptions of how members had interacted. Teams randomly assigned to the high perfor- mance condition reported more harmonious and better communications, among other differ- ences, than did groups assigned to the low per- formance condition (see also Guzzo, Wagner, Maguire, Herr, & Hawley, 1986). Doubt also is cast on interpersonal ap- proaches to coaching by action research that seeks to improve team performance by improv- ing the quality of members’ interactions. Some of these studies use interventions based on the process consultation approach to coaching re- viewed earlier; others employ a broader set of interventions that generally are referred to as team building or group development activities. Although interventions that address members’ relationships and interaction can be quite en- gaging and do affect members’ attitudes, they do not reliably improve team performance (for reviews, see Kaplan, 1979; Salas, Rozell, Mullen, & Driskell, 1999; Tannenbaum, Beard, & Salas, 1992; Woodman & Sherwood, 1980). Moreover, those experimental studies that have directly compared teams given task-focused and inter- personally focused interventions have found the former to significantly outperform the latter (Kernaghan & Cooke, 1990; Woolley, 1998).2 Proposition 1: Coaching interventions that focus specifically on team effort, strategy, and knowledge and skill fa- cilitate team effectiveness more than do interventions that focus on mem- bers’ interpersonal relationships. TIMING The efficacy of coaching interventions de- pends not just on their focus, as discussed above, but also on the time in the group’s life cycle when they are made. Regularities in group life cycles have been explored empirically for many decades, beginning with Bales and Strodt- beck’s (1951) classic study of phases in group problem solving. In a number of conceptual frameworks, scholars have sought to summarize research findings about group development, the most prominent being the “forming-storming- norming-performing” model proposed by Tuck- man (1965). Almost all of these frameworks have treated group development as following a fixed set of stages, with each successive stage being contingent on successful completion of the prior one. In recent years, research on temporal issues in group behavior has raised doubt about the gen- erality and validity of stage models (Ancona & Chong, 1999; Gersick, 1988; Ginnett, 1993; McGrath & Kelly, 1986; Moreland & Levine, 1988; for a recent attempt to reconcile alternative tem- poral models, see Chang, Bordia, & Duck, 2003). Gersick’s findings are particularly relevant for our purposes. In a field study of the life histories of a number of project teams whose performance periods ranged from several days to several months, Gersick (1988) found that each of the groups she tracked developed a distinctive ap- proach toward its task as soon as it commenced work, and each stayed with that approach until precisely halfway between its first meeting and its project deadline. At the midpoint of their 2 Woolley’s main effect finding was significantly condi- tioned by the timing of the intervention, and the Kernaghan and Cook finding was obtained only for groups composed of members with ample task-relevant abilities. We discuss the moderating effects of timing and of group design on the impact of coaching interventions later. 274 AprilAcademy of Management Review lives, almost all teams underwent a major tran- sition. In a concentrated burst of changes, they dropped old patterns of behavior, reengaged with outside supervisors, and adopted new per- spectives on their work.3 Following the midpoint transition, groups entered a period of focused task execution, which persisted until very near the project deadline, at which time a new set of issues having to do with termination processes arose and captured members’ attention. Gersick (1989) subsequently replicated these findings in the experimental laboratory for groups that all had the same amount of time to complete their task (for alternative views of temporal dynamics in task-performing groups, see Seers & Woo- druff, 1997, and Waller, Zellmer-Bruhn, & Giam- batista, 2002). Gersick’s findings about the natural develop- mental processes of task-performing groups raise the possibility, consistent with both the process consultation and developmental ap- proaches to team coaching previously summa- rized, that the readiness of work teams for coach- ing interventions changes systematically across their life cycles. By “readiness for coaching” we mean (1) the degree to which the issues to be addressed are among those naturally on team members’ minds at the time of the intervention, coupled with (2) the degree to which the team as a whole is not at that time preoccupied with more pressing or compelling matters. We posit that coaching interventions are more effective when they address issues a team is ready for at the time they are made and, more- over, that readiness varies systematically across the team life cycle. In contrast, even com- petently administered interventions are un- likely to be helpful if they are provided at a time in the life cycle when the team is not ready for them. Indeed, ill-timed interventions may actu- ally do more harm than good by distracting or diverting a team from other issues that do re- quire members’ attention at that time. We next discuss the kinds of interventions that are most appropriate at the beginnings, midpoints, and ends of work team life cycles. Beginnings When team members first come together to perform a piece of work, the most pressing piece of business, both for members and for the team as a whole, is for them to get oriented to one another and to the task in preparation for the start of actual work. This involves establishing the boundary that distinguishes members from nonmembers, starting … Nola babycakes Financial Project Willie collins Amu 27 November 2020 Introduction This presentation will include the following: Financial concepts. Capital budget for the stadium Operational budget for one year. A five-year Return on Investment (ROI) Capital structure of the project Financial Concepts Capital Budget– It is the process that a business uses to determine which fixed proposed fixed asset it should accept and which it should decline. Operations budget- it comprises of revenues and expenses over a period of time which is typically a year. Capital budgeting is the process a business undertakes to evaluate potential major projects or investments. The operating budgets include the budgets for sales, manufacturing costs, selling expenses and general and administrative expenses (Lusardi 2019). 3 Financial Concepts cont.’ Return on investment (ROI)- it is a performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or compare the efficiency of a number of different investments. Capital Structure- Corporate structure is the way in which the project finances its assets through some combination of equity, debt or hybrid securities. To calculate ROI, the benefit/return of an investment is divided by the cost of the investment. The result is expressed as a percentage ratio. A goof ROI should be above 6%. Capital structure refers to the make up of the project’s capitalization. It is the composition of its liabilities. It is a combination of debt and equity used by an organization to finance its overall operations and growth (Lusardi 2019). 4 Capital Budget Year Cashflow PVIF,10% PVCIF 1 186,000.00 0.9091 169,092.6 2 218,160.00 0.8264 180,287.4 3 194,735.00 0.7513 146,304.4 4 282,480.00 0.683 192,933.8 5 314,640.00 0.6209 195,360.0 ∑PVCif '000'     883,978.2 PVCoF '000'     126,000.0 NET PRESENT VALUE     757,978.2 The table above shows the project appraisal using the net present value criteria assuming a 10% cost of capital. It is evident that the cashflows are greater than the present values thereby making the investment a profitable option. 5 Capital Budget Cont.’ The column chart represents the cashflows as well as the PVCIF for the project. The cashflows are represented by the green columns while the Present values are represented by the orange columns. This clearly shows that the project is visible as the cashflows generated from the operations will be higher than investing the money where it will earn a 10% interest. 6 Graph Showing the NPV of the Project cashflow 1 2 3 4 5 186000 218160 194735 282480 314640 PVCiF 1 2 3 4 5 169092.6 180287.424 146304.40549999999 192933.84000000003 195359.976 PVIF,10%, 1 2 3 4 5 0.90910000000000002 0.82640000000000002 0.75129999999999997 0.68300000000000005 0.6209 0000000000001 Year Amounts Capital Budget Cont.’ Investors will analyze the capital budgeting decision to ensure profit maximization. They will focus on increasing the prices of the tickets or reduce the costs of operating the arena. In this case, the project should be accepted. The project will be accepted since the rate of return for the project is less than the cost of capital. Some of the factors to consider before making a decision will include the availability of funds, the government policy, taxation policy among others (Fehrenbacher, Kaplan & Moulang 2020). 7 Operational Budget Operational Budget For the year Ended xx/xx/xx/ Sales (tickets) $600,000   other revenues generated from the stadium $100,000   Total Revenues   $700,000 Direct Materials $70,000   Direct Labour $100,000   Overheads $214,000   Prime Cost   $384,000 indirect costs   $130,000 Total Costs   $514,000 Profit   $186,000 The information provided above shows the operational budget for one year. This represents the amount of profit that the stadium is expected to earn in the first year of operations. Their main activity is selling of tickets which carries 85% of their revenues. The organization also has its expenses which have been classified as the prime costs and the indirect costs. The prime cost is the sum of all direct costs within the stadium. This means that any expense that involves the stadium such as paying the employees that work within the stadium, electricity, water and other utilities used in the stadium, will be expensed in the prime cost sections. The indirect costs include the administrative expenses which are essential for the business. Profit is generated from getting the difference between the total revenues and the total cost. If he revenues are greater than the expenses, the organization will earn a profit, as evidenced above. If the expenses are greater than the revenues the organization will suffer a loss (Amir 2020). 8 Operational Budget cont.’ The graphical representation shows the proportion of revenues to expenses. The revenues are represented by the green column while the expenses are represented by the purple column. From the look of the graph, it is evident that the revenues exceed the costs. 9 Revenues and Expenses Total Revenues 2 700000 Total Costs 2 514000 Amounts Operational Budget cont.’ The management will look at the following elements to ensure profitability: The number of seats Ticket price for the seats Spectator attendance for all games The organization has to ensure profitability (Amir 2020). This is by checking whether the stadium has enough seats to accommodate large crowds of people who will be attending different matches. They will also look at the market. There is a great spectator demand. The organization has to ensure that they understand the income of these persons. They have to ensure that tickets prices are fair enough for all persons. They will also look at tournaments that are in great demand. They will work. This will go hand in hand with the prices for the tournaments. In case of a tournament that is expected to have full capacity of spectators, the administration can adjust the price upwards to cater for the small revenues earned in small tournaments. 10 Five Year- Return on Investment (ROI) Return on Investment has the following benefits. It is a better measure of profitability. One can achieve goal congruence It can be used for comparative analysis It can be used for performance investment decision. A ROI relates net income to investment made in a division giving a better measure of divisional profitability. All managers know that their performance will be judged in terms of how much they have utilized assets to earn profit. This will encourage them to make optimum use of assets. ROI also ensures congruence between the different departments and the firm. An increase in departmental ROI will bring improvement in overall ROI of the entire organization (Brockway et al. 2019). ROI helps in making comparison between different business units in terms of profitability and asset utilization. It may be used for inter firm comparisons, provided that the firm whose results are being compared are of comparable size and of the same industry. ROI is significant in measuring the performance of investment division which focuses on earning maximum profit and making appropriate decisions regarding acquisition and disposal of capital assets (Brockway et al. 2019). 11 Five Year- Return on Investment (ROI) Cont.’ Year Cashflows Total Cashflow 0 -1,000,000 -1,000,000 1 186,000.00 -814,000 2 218,160.00 -595,840 3 194,735.00 -401,105 4 282,480.00 -118,625 5 314,640.00 196,015 The organization used $1,000,000. future cashflows will be calculated by subtracting the projected expenses related to the facility from projected revenues from the facility. 12 Five Year- Return on Investment (ROI) Cont.’ Number of years prior to full recovery= 4 years. Unrecovered cost at start of the year 4= $118,625. Cashflow during the full recovery year (Year 5)= $314,640 ROI= 4+ (118625/314640)= 4.377. It will take 4.377 years to fully recover the initial $1,000,000 spent to construct the facility. Payback period= Number of years prior to full recovery + (unrecovered cost at start of the year/cash flow during full recovery year.) 13 Capital Structure of the project Debt structure draws on the concept of debt which is a sum of cash a borrower must repay through periodic installments or in a lumpsum. Debt Structure Short term debt $ 75,969 Accounts payable $ 20,620 Long-term debt $ 180,985 Debt structure provides a historical window into the organization’s liabilities, indicating to investors the maturity dates of corporate debts. The accounts payable are at the lowest amount possible. This is brought about by the credit purchases of inventory and services that the stadium will pay as per the agreed upon policy. The long term debt carries a huge proportion of the debt structure. The amount is obtained from the financing institutions such as bank loans with low interest rates. The stadium should work to reduce the amount of debt as the higher the debt structure, the higher the interest rates which is bad for business (Klasa et al. 2018). 14 Capital Structure of the project Cont.’ Equity structure comprises of an organization’s common and preferred stock plus retained earnings. It is considered invested capital and it appears in the shareholder’s equity section of the balance sheet. Equity Structure Common Equity 541,900 Preferential Shares 107,943 Approved Reserves 72,583 Capital Structure of the project Cont.’ A healthy capital structure reflects a low level of debt and high level of equity. This is a positive sign of investment quality. The organization will prefer equity financing to debt financing. the project requires external money to maintain their operations and invest in future growth. The main benefit of equity financing is that funds do not require to be repaid. Equity financing is a greater risk to the investor than debt financing is to the lender. As result, the cost of equity is always higher than the cost of debt (Klasa et al. 2018). 16 References Lusardi, A. (2019). Financial literacy and the need for financial education: evidence and implications. Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics, 155(1), 1. Fehrenbacher, D. D., Kaplan, S. E., & Moulang, C. (2020). The role of accountability in reducing the impact of affective reactions on capital budgeting decisions. Management Accounting Research, 47, 100650. 17 References Cont.’ Amir, A. (2020). Public Policy Implementation: Study on Educational Budgeting of Palopo. Journal La Sociale, 1(1), 5-11. Brockway, P. E., Owen, A., Brand-Correa, L. I., & Hardt, L. (2019). Estimation of global final-stage energy-return-on-investment for fossil fuels with comparison to renewable energy sources. Nature Energy, 4(7), 612-621. References Cont.’ Klasa, S., Ortiz-Molina, H., Serfling, M., & Srinivasan, S. (2018). Protection of trade secrets and capital structure decisions. Journal of Financial Economics, 128(2), 266-286. Gender Issues: Importance Sports Program for Women Student’s Name Institution Demographics Sunshine University is located in Michigan It has a population of 10,547 students; 7,201 male and 3,346 female 1,897 students engage in different sports such as soccer, rugby, basketball, hockey, volleyball, tennis, and running among others The sports are played at an unprofessional level Sunshine university has a population of more than 10,500 students. There are more male than female students in the university. More than 1800 of the students engage in different sports such as soccer, basketball,rugby, and among others. 2 Importance of keeping the women’s sports program Sports are important for everybody that engages in them Institutions should support sports programs for different reasons Women need regular exercises as it is good for their bodies It keeps them fit physically and mentally Different sports have different benefits It is important to have a female sports program in a learning institution because of the advantages associated with it. The program enables students to be physically fit and psychologically stable (Leeds, 2013). 3 1. Healthy Sports keep women healthy Regular exercising reduces the risk of breast cancer The disease affects 1 in 8 American women Through sports, the risk is reduced by 60% Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women. One out of every 8 women in the United States suffers from breast cancer. Through sports the risk of breast cancer is reduced by up to 60%. This enables the female students to stay healthy (Smith, 2010). 4 2. Improves confidence Sports such as soccer improve confidence in women It enables them to feel good about themselves Their self-esteem is greatly boosted It also enables them to effectively deal with depression Sports also enable women to feel good about themselves. Is significantly boosts their self-esteem as well as confidence (Leeds, 2013). This is a form of inspiration and motivation for them to handle other duties and responsibilities effectively. 5 3. Physical Fitness Women are very much concerned about their body image Sports help them to burn excess fat They become physical fit This also boosts their psychological health Physical fitness is an essential element in everyday life. One of the best ways to achieve this is to engage in regular physical exercises. By investing in the women sports program, the women will benefit because it will help them to be physically fit and have a positive body image of themselves. 6 Benefits to the institution Sunshine University is also set to benefit form the women’s sports program It will basically receive positive reviews for being gender sensitive This will make it a choice for many female students It will create a friendly environment for sports lovers The institution also benefits in different ways through the women sports program. Despite the fact that they do not perform so well when they compete with others, the presence of the program in the school is beneficial especially from the perspective of an external stakeholder (O’Reilly & Cahn, 2007). 7 1. Increased performance Sports such as soccer have a positive impact on mental health This helps students to concentrate in class They will eventually perform better because they are relaxed This is beneficial to the institution since it will attract more students One of the major benefits of the sports program in the institution is improved performance. The impact on their mental health will help them to concentrate in class (Cabri, 2017). This will help them to improve in their class performance which will create a positive image of the institution. 8 2. Discipline All sports have instructions The participants are trained to be obedient This helps them to also obey school rules It enables the school to breed highly disciplined students It makes it easier for the institution to manage the students Sports are about following instructions from the coach and those in charge. This assists the students to develop a culture of following instructions and being disciplined. It will give an easy time for the institution to manage the students because the sports department will be assisting to ensure the students are disciplined. 9 3. Better Leadership Sports have leadership positions such as the captain It gives students a chance to learn leadership skills The institution will end up breeding leaders who will apply their skills in the outside world Sports also have areas of possibilities that the captain or the team manager. This ensures that the students are equipped with leadership skills that can be applicable outside the institution after completing their studies. It enables the institution to breed leaders that will be effective in the outside world. Many students will be interested to join such an institution. 10 Conclusion As much as the women do not perform well in sports, there are benefits in sports Sports enable the to be healthy physically and mentally They learn to follow instructions and be leaders The institution also benefits through improved performance Even when the students are not performing well in sports, it is important to have the program in place due to the other benefits associated with it (Cabri, 2017). The female students will benefit through improved health while the institution will benefit by producing leaders and disciplined citizens. 11 References Cabri, J. (2017). Sports Science Research and Technology Support. New York: Springer. Leeds, M. (2013). Handbook on the Economics of Women in Sports. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. O’Reilly, J. & Cahn, S. (2007). Women and Sports in the United States. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Smith, L. (2010). Sports Psychology. Hoboken: Wiley. Coaching Willie Collins AMU/APUS Coaching Philosophy My philosophy is to Develop players passion Provide sufficient tools and equipments Provide positive and safe environment Insist on technical, tactical, physical and psychological skills Shun micromanage games Do not sacrifice health, safety, and long-term development for winning games. All players and their parents and community matter My coaching philosophy is to develop all rounded players in safe and well equipped environments. This is why I insist on the four fundamental training skills that are objective. These are technical, tactical, physical fitness and psychological skills. I let the players grow and develop into sensible community embers and thus do not micro-manage games but adhere to collective responsibility of transforming each other towards set game objectives. Player development is important far above short term winning goals. the community and parents of the players are critical in the development and growth of the player (Jenkins, 2010). 2 Coaches Responsibilities Recruits players based on interest and talent Coach is in charge of the players discipline Schedules training and gaming times Informs players of trends in sports and policies Create responsible members of the society Plans traveling schedules and provisions Networks players for potential development As a coach, the responsibility of developing all rounded players begin with individual interest, capability and talent. Coach shapes the discipline of players, schedules and performs their training, informed players about current trends in the sport, and develop individuals that are responsible community members. It is also important for a good coach to network players and allow exploitation of better pastures out there (Seitz et al., 2014). 3 Team Rules First rule is general discipline Members have to be orderly and organized Time management/consciousness Emphasize on effective communication Respect, empathy, resilience, teamwork Receptive to constructive criticism Positive self image and motivation Every team is guided by certain set standards, rules and regulations that direct their conducts, dressing and communication channels. The team is sound and has well structured rules and regulations. However, the rules guide individual conducts with the rest, public presentation and personalities. We emphasize on the orderliness and organization, respect, resilience, time consciousness, and teamwork. Being a positive member of a team is important in developing psychological skills of dealing with pressure in life (Jenkins, 2010). 4 Player Conduct Players conducts defines the character Emphasize on character and skill building Players should value teamwork Avoid conducts that are culturally insensitive The image of the player reflects the team Respect community values and leadership Always presentable and hospitable Any team is defined by the discipline and conducts of every player. Players must be respectful, and of good character. We encourage and develop character just as we do develop individual skills. Many strategies are used to attain this. Adherence to community norms and values is important. A team has to reflect the image of the community (Jenkins, 2010). 5 Community Involvement A community plays a big role in defining team Community is a catchment of players It supports players with accessories/equipments It provides moral support and sense of belonging It provides safe playing ground It defines the teams norms and values It is the source of managerial skills and support A community plays a critical role in the establishment and performance of any team. For instance, a community produces managers and sponsors of the team. The players that join the team come from that community. During games, community members cheer the team giving them moral support and safety. Again, the team image is defined by the community moral standards and values (Druckman et al., 2015). 6 Drugs Use Use of stimulant drugs is uncompromised Drugs have many side effects Long term player development overrides wining Habitual testing and drug documentation Adhere to international drug policies Drug users are rehabilitated on voluntary basis Unruly drug addict players are dismissed Many teams collapse because of drug abuse. Good players lose sense of morality when they begin using substances. Using drugs jeopardizes the long term developmental goals for players. Use of drugs encourage short term wining goals. drugs are prohibited internationally. Again they have many side effects that may negatively affect the players performance (Druckman et al., 2015). 7 Team Formation Team formation procedure is formidable Emphasis is on character, talent and capacity Willing to learn and availability is considered Every team member is resourceful Making a team entails the very specific processes of team formation. However, individuals must agree to form mutual goals that will direct their interactions. Our process is formidable and emphasizes on character, talent and ability. Individual character may cause high degree of learning new skills and abilities. Individual player has to be available and willing to learn to attain these goals. every member is resourceful and thus respected in that capacity (Sherlin et al., 2011). 8 Determining Playing Time Playing time is crucial for skill and fitness growth Playing time is fixed externally Training time is determined collectively Communication is made verbal and tabulated Flexibility allows for other social responsibility Family and personal development time is reserved Team development stage also impacts time Playing time is important in learning different skills and knowledge. However, a good playing time is determined collectively with players and coach involved. Tournaments plying time is determined by the sponsors or managers of the game. Our playing time is flexible and inclusive. It is designed collectively depending on the individuals personal goals and roles in the team. 9 Travel Guidelines Team traveling schedule is key in performance Planning takes place on a separate day Team members take part in making it A convenient and cost-effective schedule Members should be on time and fully equipped Always 24 hours before playing International travel guidelines are observed Every team travels to and fro different matches. Traveling guide gives the rules and regulations that must be met before the team commences its journey. For instance, every instance involving raveling must be planned for early enough (Sproule, 2015). The coach and players plan for it. every member is expected to observe the traveling guides and respond appropriately. Time consciousness and cost effectiveness is fast considered. For better performance, our guide recommends that team players travel 24 hours before the game. 10 Training Programs Technical, tactical, physical & psychological skills Beginners- Establish self-worth and passion Younger players-Technical proficiency This is followed by tactical flexibility Mature players-Physical strength & endurance Program aims at: longer-term development of well-rounded players Player attain maximum potential Every team’s training program must be SMART. In our team, the program aims at establishing all rounded players that are capable of meeting the challenges in the field. Four fundamental skills are emphasized here. These are tactical, technical, physical and psychological. These skills are learnt progressively and encourage development of long term winning team (Todd, 2011). 11 Sample Practice Plan Here is a sample practice program that runs for 4 week. Every day, players must perform specific activities that build up their muscular strength, endurance, flexibility and speed. 12 Motivational Messages A well trained player is a skillful player I do not micromanage teams or games Every player is important irrespective of age Every player should be respected &listened to Availability and hard work shapes player skills Parents & community members form a team A coach transforms a team It is important to note that players are human beings and basic motivational messages uplift their morale and performance. giving the coach's philosophy, individual expectations and team abilities encourages players to live to the standard. 13 Game Expectations Players are expected to develop and grow Long-term development-attain full potential Wining or losing with dignity Respectable means justify the results Develop self determination and identity Grow team and community image Responsibility in the community In games, many coaches have different expectations. For this case, it is the desire of every team members that every one grows and develops to the full potentials. We expect wins but even when lost, it should be with dignity, because means justify the results (Sproule, 2015). 14 Offensive and Defensive Philosophies OFFENCE Play exciting and enjoyable brand Play up tempo style that fatigues opponent Emphasize assertiveness, attacking team Score in first half Utilize close and distant chances Make memorable shots from free throw line Our offensive philosophy is that we play exciting and enjoyable game. We should use the best strategies that will make our opponents fatigued. This way, we will get a chance to maneuvers and make a win. Therefore assertiveness, resilience, teamwork and attacking spirit is important. Always, we aim at making scores as soon as possible (Sproule, 2015). 15 Offensive and Defensive Philosophies cont… DEFENSE Create unfathomable pressure for opponent Pile pressure that makes opponent blunder often Aim is control the game by: Applying full court an half court defense Use switching tactic to confuse the opponent Penetrate and defend opponents shots Minimize “silly” fouls and challenge all shots Defense philosophy, we aim at piling substantial amount of pressure on the opponent until we gain control of the game. After that we should maintain half court game and attack every shots with tactics that make opponents foul and blinder often (Sproule, 2015). 16 References Druckman, J. N., Gilli, M., Klar, S., & Robison, J. (2015). Measuring drug and alcohol use among college student‐athletes. Social Science Quarterly, 96(2), 369-380. Jenkins, S. (2010). Coaching philosophy. Sports coaching: Professionalisation and practice, 233-242. Seitz, C. M., Wyrick, D. L., Rulison, K. L., Strack, R. W., & Fearnow-Kenney, M. (2014). The association between coach and teammate injunctive norm reference groups and college student-athlete substance use. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 58(2), 7-26. Sherlin, L., Gervais, M., Talley, C., & Walshe, A. (2011). Comprehensive sport performance program. Biofeedback, 39(3), 119-122. Sproule, J. (2015). The importance of a coaching philosophy. Practical sports coaching, 54-68. Todd, T. (2011). Improving optimal performance—and life—for young athletes. Biofeedback, 39(3), 109-111. (No more than 300 words) Must post first. In this week’s discussion you’re going to take a moment to look back at what you’ve learned and accomplished over the course of the Sports Management Program. This will provide an opportunity for each of you to share how the work you’ve done has, hopefully, enhanced your educational experience, and how the work transfers to your chosen profession. Do you feel you are better prepared to take on the responsibilities and challenges of your chosen profession whether it’s a career or job change, or it is a move up your current career ladder.(It’s a move up because its my passion) Please share with your classmates some of the coursework, projects, etc. you’ve completed during your studies, and how they have impacted you. Please also share how you feel the work has prepared your for your chosen profession. If you are already working in your chosen profession(High School Coach), please share how the work has helped you in your chosen profession. Kowalski, K. (2020). Coaching. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 51(1), 12–14. https://doi.org/10.3928/00220124-20191217-04 Hackman, J. R., & Wageman, R. (2005). A Theory of Team Coaching. The Academy of Management Review, 30(2), 269–287. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2005.16387885 Today, on the evening of Thursday, September 2nd I had the privilege of interviewing Bill Colin. Mr. Colin has applied for the open Defensive Coordinator position here at our school. Mr. Colin brings a great deal of experience and knowledge with him, and I thoroughly enjoyed our conversation as I got to know him a little better. Below you will see some key points I took out of our interview. The first thing that stuck out to me regarding Mr. Colin was his experience in not only football, but also life. Bill has 22 years of experience in the military, this stood out to me as I know it will lead to discipline and structure for our student athletes. He also has experience in football and working with different diversities and cultures. His commitment to a goal shows he is determined and will complete whatever he is tasked with. Mr. Colin also informed me of his desire to give back to the community. Being a presence is a great look for our university and Bill would look forward to the opportunity to make appearances at youth programs and other community events. The traits he would look for in athletes also stuck out to me, as he mentioned family, character, and their grades. All of which are great qualities for a football player representing our university to possess. I would like to bring Mr. Colin in for a sit-down interview. I’m a little curious about his experience in football and would like to hear more about that. As far as his character and standards go, I believe he would be a good fit. If he is able to provide some insight on his knowledge of the game and experiences, I believe we are looking at someone who could do a great job of representing our team and university. Coaching Willie Collins AMU/APUS Coaching Philosophy My philosophy is to Develop players passion Provide sufficient tools and equipments Provide positive and safe environment Insist on technical, tactical, physical and psychological skills Shun micromanage games Do not sacrifice health, safety, and long-term development for winning games. All players and their parents and community matter My coaching philosophy is to develop all rounded players in safe and well equipped environments. This is why I insist on the four fundamental training skills that are objective. These are technical, tactical, physical fitness and psychological skills. I let the players grow and develop into sensible community embers and thus do not micro-manage games but adhere to collective responsibility of transforming each other towards set game objectives. Player development is important far above short term winning goals. the community and parents of the players are critical in the development and growth of the player (Jenkins, 2010). 2 Coaches Responsibilities Recruits players based on interest and talent Coach is in charge of the players discipline Schedules training and gaming times Informs players of trends in sports and policies Create responsible members of the society Plans traveling schedules and provisions Networks players for potential development As a coach, the responsibility of developing all rounded players begin with individual interest, capability and talent. Coach shapes the discipline of players, schedules and performs their training, informed players about current trends in the sport, and develop individuals that are responsible community members. It is also important for a good coach to network players and allow exploitation of better pastures out there (Seitz et al., 2014). 3 Team Rules First rule is general discipline Members have to be orderly and organized Time management/consciousness Emphasize on effective communication Respect, empathy, resilience, teamwork Receptive to constructive criticism Positive self image and motivation Every team is guided by certain set standards, rules and regulations that direct their conducts, dressing and communication channels. The team is sound and has well structured rules and regulations. However, the rules guide individual conducts with the rest, public presentation and personalities. We emphasize on the orderliness and organization, respect, resilience, time consciousness, and teamwork. Being a positive member of a team is important in developing psychological skills of dealing with pressure in life (Jenkins, 2010). 4 Player Conduct Players conducts defines the character Emphasize on character and skill building Players should value teamwork Avoid conducts that are culturally insensitive The image of the player reflects the team Respect community values and leadership Always presentable and hospitable Any team is defined by the discipline and conducts of every player. Players must be respectful, and of good character. We encourage and develop character just as we do develop individual skills. Many strategies are used to attain this. Adherence to community norms and values is important. A team has to reflect the image of the community (Jenkins, 2010). 5 Community Involvement A community plays a big role in defining team Community is a catchment of players It supports players with accessories/equipments It provides moral support and sense of belonging It provides safe playing ground It defines the teams norms and values It is the source of managerial skills and support A community plays a critical role in the establishment and performance of any team. For instance, a community produces managers and sponsors of the team. The players that join the team come from that community. During games, community members cheer the team giving them moral support and safety. Again, the team image is defined by the community moral standards and values (Druckman et al., 2015). 6 Drugs Use Use of stimulant drugs is uncompromised Drugs have many side effects Long term player development overrides wining Habitual testing and drug documentation Adhere to international drug policies Drug users are rehabilitated on voluntary basis Unruly drug addict players are dismissed Many teams collapse because of drug abuse. Good players lose sense of morality when they begin using substances. Using drugs jeopardizes the long term developmental goals for players. Use of drugs encourage short term wining goals. drugs are prohibited internationally. Again they have many side effects that may negatively affect the players performance (Druckman et al., 2015). 7 Team Formation Team formation procedure is formidable Emphasis is on character, talent and capacity Willing to learn and availability is considered Every team member is resourceful Making a team entails the very specific processes of team formation. However, individuals must agree to form mutual goals that will direct their interactions. Our process is formidable and emphasizes on character, talent and ability. Individual character may cause high degree of learning new skills and abilities. Individual player has to be available and willing to learn to attain these goals. every member is resourceful and thus respected in that capacity (Sherlin et al., 2011). 8 Determining Playing Time Playing time is crucial for skill and fitness growth Playing time is fixed externally Training time is determined collectively Communication is made verbal and tabulated Flexibility allows for other social responsibility Family and personal development time is reserved Team development stage also impacts time Playing time is important in learning different skills and knowledge. However, a good playing time is determined collectively with players and coach involved. Tournaments plying time is determined by the sponsors or managers of the game. Our playing time is flexible and inclusive. It is designed collectively depending on the individuals personal goals and roles in the team. 9 Travel Guidelines Team traveling schedule is key in performance Planning takes place on a separate day Team members take part in making it A convenient and cost-effective schedule Members should be on time and fully equipped Always 24 hours before playing International travel guidelines are observed Every team travels to and fro different matches. Traveling guide gives the rules and regulations that must be met before the team commences its journey. For instance, every instance involving raveling must be planned for early enough (Sproule, 2015). The coach and players plan for it. every member is expected to observe the traveling guides and respond appropriately. Time consciousness and cost effectiveness is fast considered. For better performance, our guide recommends that team players travel 24 hours before the game. 10 Training Programs Technical, tactical, physical & psychological skills Beginners- Establish self-worth and passion Younger players-Technical proficiency This is followed by tactical flexibility Mature players-Physical strength & endurance Program aims at: longer-term development of well-rounded players Player attain maximum potential Every team’s training program must be SMART. In our team, the program aims at establishing all rounded players that are capable of meeting the challenges in the field. Four fundamental skills are emphasized here. These are tactical, technical, physical and psychological. These skills are learnt progressively and encourage development of long term winning team (Todd, 2011). 11 Sample Practice Plan Here is a sample practice program that runs for 4 week. Every day, players must perform specific activities that build up their muscular strength, endurance, flexibility and speed. 12 Motivational Messages A well trained player is a skillful player I do not micromanage teams or games Every player is important irrespective of age Every player should be respected &listened to Availability and hard work shapes player skills Parents & community members form a team A coach transforms a team It is important to note that players are human beings and basic motivational messages uplift their morale and performance. giving the coach's philosophy, individual expectations and team abilities encourages players to live to the standard. 13 Game Expectations Players are expected to develop and grow Long-term development-attain full potential Wining or losing with dignity Respectable means justify the results Develop self determination and identity Grow team and community image Responsibility in the community In games, many coaches have different expectations. For this case, it is the desire of every team members that every one grows and develops to the full potentials. We expect wins but even when lost, it should be with dignity, because means justify the results (Sproule, 2015). 14 Offensive and Defensive Philosophies OFFENCE Play exciting and enjoyable brand Play up tempo style that fatigues opponent Emphasize assertiveness, attacking team Score in first half Utilize close and distant chances Make memorable shots from free throw line Our offensive philosophy is that we play exciting and enjoyable game. We should use the best strategies that will make our opponents fatigued. This way, we will get a chance to maneuvers and make a win. Therefore assertiveness, resilience, teamwork and attacking spirit is important. Always, we aim at making scores as soon as possible (Sproule, 2015). 15 Offensive and Defensive Philosophies cont… DEFENSE Create unfathomable pressure for opponent Pile pressure that makes opponent blunder often Aim is control the game by: Applying full court an half court defense Use switching tactic to confuse the opponent Penetrate and defend opponents shots Minimize “silly” fouls and challenge all shots Defense philosophy, we aim at piling substantial amount of pressure on the opponent until we gain control of the game. After that we should maintain half court game and attack every shots with tactics that make opponents foul and blinder often (Sproule, 2015). 16 References Druckman, J. N., Gilli, M., Klar, S., & Robison, J. (2015). Measuring drug and alcohol use among college student‐athletes. Social Science Quarterly, 96(2), 369-380. Jenkins, S. (2010). Coaching philosophy. Sports coaching: Professionalisation and practice, 233-242. Seitz, C. M., Wyrick, D. L., Rulison, K. L., Strack, R. W., & Fearnow-Kenney, M. (2014). The association between coach and teammate injunctive norm reference groups and college student-athlete substance use. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 58(2), 7-26. Sherlin, L., Gervais, M., Talley, C., & Walshe, A. (2011). Comprehensive sport performance program. Biofeedback, 39(3), 119-122. Sproule, J. (2015). The importance of a coaching philosophy. Practical sports coaching, 54-68. Todd, T. (2011). Improving optimal performance—and life—for young athletes. Biofeedback, 39(3), 109-111. ppt order_141159_3739741.ppt Baseball Minor Carolina League Name University Date Instructor * Introduction This presentation focus on target market. The 5Ps are principle elements are utilized in marketing strategy. They are used to meet the customers satisfaction in a target market. The 5Ps are commonly used to by business managers and owners to control and satisfy customers in their target market, add value to their business and help differentiate their business from competitors . Products entails functionality, appearance, warranty, quality and packaging. Prices entails selling price, discounts, payment arrangements, price matching services and credit. Promotion entails sponsorships, advertising, public retentions activities message and media. Place distribution channels, logistics, service levels, location and marketing coverage. Marketing positioning is the business niche or how you want your customers to think about your products or services. * Target market The residents of Charles town WV include:- Whites Hispanics African Americans Asians The composition of the residents of Charles Town WV comprise of the white who are the majority, they are 75 percent of the total population, followed by the Hispanics who contribute 10 % , African Americans 9 %, Asians 3% and other races 2%. This means that the town is a multicultural city. The residents will provide cultural entertainment in the minor baseball league. * Cont. Target market The business that would be interested in the league include:- Hotel industries Sports industry Health and nutrition industry Groceries stores Club houses Sports arenas The terms that would be coming to Charles town WV to participate in the minor league baseball will need a place to stay. They will be bedding down in different hotels and club houses within the town. The visiting teams will stock the club houses with sports attires and equipment's purchased in local sports industries . To feed the teams and audience and to ensure high nutrition the visiting teams will stock their club houses with food stuffs from local restaurants capital markets and grocery stores. They are provided with enough food for pregame and postgame nourishments. The league will be hosted various sports arenas and parks within the city. Healthcare industrie will take care of any health emergencies and injuries. * Market segments Behavioral segment. Geographic segment. Psychographic segment. Demographic segment. Market segmentation is a commonly used process in marketing to define and create distinct market segment from a lager target market segment. Segmenting markets offer tremendous advantages to companies and marketing firms in Charles Town WV during baseball league. Demographic entails measurable aspects of each team member such as age, race, education, gender and relationship status. Geographic information plays a key role on how to target the customers because it means a great deal to the advertisers and the minor baseball league event. Psychographic information allows media professionals to examine an audience and team plays based on the concept like personal values, interest and attitude. Income segment give information on different social statues * Products Baseball shoes Bronx Baseball bat Leather Baseball ball The products offered by the business include Baseball shoes ,Bronx Baseball bat and Leather Baseball ball. These products are of high quality, well packaged, appealing appearances , and long term warranty. These products are essential in baseball sport and would be of high demand before and during the minor baseball league. * Pricing Baseball shoes prices $59-$79 Bronx Baseball bat prices $35-$89 Leather Baseball ball prices $89-$100 Pricing is done using the prevailing market prices, demand, quality, quantity, and sizes. The high the quality of the product the higher the pricing. When the customer purchases more products a discount will be offered after sales services. Being minor league the size of the products will also determine the pricing. * Place Sports houses in Charles town Leading hyper stores Hosts sporting arenas Online sales across the entire city and beyond Place is determined by distribution channels, logistics, service levels, location and marketing coverage. The chosen place are located in heart of Charles town city the host city. In addition, these place will be frequently visited by the teams, umpires and funs. The places are strategy located and hence will make marketing logistics easer. * Promotion Online promotion Alcoholic brands Billboards Media In 21st century, digital advertising is the best promotion and consumer awareness utilized is online advertising. Alcohol brands went beyond just linking their products to celebrities but also to the sports. In fact, some are explicit in their encouragement to consume alcohol as part of the regular baseball sneakers, balls and bats sport promotion and they use messages to suggest that alcohol consumption should be a normal part of baseball sport equipment experience and the team identification. More than 70% of Americans consciously view the Billboards messages while driving and may learn about high quality baseball sneakers, balls and bats used in minor baseball league in Charles Town WV. Media such as the local news in TVs or newspapers will motivate funs to come out to the baseball league venues to come and watch. * Positioning Linking baseball shoes, Bronx baseball bat and leather Baseball ball products with specific beneficial value. Offering competitive pricing. Constant exemplary marketing. Associating the products with high quality. The object of market positioning is to establish the image or identity of the product so that the consumers can perceive it in a specific way. There are several types of positioning strategies for instance product attribute and benefits. Linking baseball shoes, Bronx baseball bat and leather Baseball ball products with specific beneficial value. In addition, the price may be associated with the product competitive pricing. Similarly, the consumers can be made to believe that your products are better than those of your competitors by constant and exemplary marketing. * Conclusion Marketing strategies in sport science is very important Well developed marketing strategies provides cutting edge advantage of the competitors. Target market is essential in sport marketing because it highlight key marketing factors. * References Carlson, J., & O’Cass, A. (2012). Optimizing the Online Channel in Professional Sport to Create Trusting and Loyal Consumers: The Role of the Professional Sports Team Brand and Service Quality. Journal of Sport Management, 26(6), 463-478. https://doi-org.ezproxy1.apus.edu/10.1123/jsm.26.6.463 Westberg, K., Stavros, C., Smith, A. C. T., Munro, G., & Argus, K. (2018). An examination of how alcohol brands use sport to engage consumers on social media. Drug & Alcohol Review, 37(1), 28-35. https://doi-org.ezproxy2.apus.edu/10.1111/dar.12493 White, R. D. (2019, Feb 17). THE SNEAKERS ISSUE; HOW JORDANS SOARED; the meeting that gave rise to the basketball sneaker branding market almost didn't happen. Los Angeles Times Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy1.apus.edu/docview/2182030011?accountid=8289 Women in SPorts order_130595_340437 (1).pptx Gender Issues: Importance Sports Program for Women Student’s Name Institution Demographics Sunshine University is located in Michigan It has a population of 10,547 students; 7,201 male and 3,346 female 1,897 students engage in different sports such as soccer, rugby, basketball, hockey, volleyball, tennis, and running among others The sports are played at an unprofessional level Sunshine university has a population of more than 10,500 students. There are more male than female students in the university. More than 1800 of the students engage in different sports such as soccer, basketball,rugby, and among others. 2 Importance of keeping the women’s sports program Sports are important for everybody that engages in them Institutions should support sports programs for different reasons Women need regular exercises as it is good for their bodies It keeps them fit physically and mentally Different sports have different benefits It is important to have a female sports program in a learning institution because of the advantages associated with it. The program enables students to be physically fit and psychologically stable (Leeds, 2013). 3 1. Healthy Sports keep women healthy Regular exercising reduces the risk of breast cancer The disease affects 1 in 8 American women Through sports, the risk is reduced by 60% Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women. One out of every 8 women in the United States suffers from breast cancer. Through sports the risk of breast cancer is reduced by up to 60%. This enables the female students to stay healthy (Smith, 2010). 4 2. Improves confidence Sports such as soccer improve confidence in women It enables them to feel good about themselves Their self-esteem is greatly boosted It also enables them to effectively deal with depression Sports also enable women to feel good about themselves. Is significantly boosts their self-esteem as well as confidence (Leeds, 2013). This is a form of inspiration and motivation for them to handle other duties and responsibilities effectively. 5 3. Physical Fitness Women are very much concerned about their body image Sports help them to burn excess fat They become physical fit This also boosts their psychological health Physical fitness is an essential element in everyday life. One of the best ways to achieve this is to engage in regular physical exercises. By investing in the women sports program, the women will benefit because it will help them to be physically fit and have a positive body image of themselves. 6 Benefits to the institution Sunshine University is also set to benefit form the women’s sports program It will basically receive positive reviews for being gender sensitive This will make it a choice for many female students It will create a friendly environment for sports lovers The institution also benefits in different ways through the women sports program. Despite the fact that they do not perform so well when they compete with others, the presence of the program in the school is beneficial especially from the perspective of an external stakeholder (O’Reilly & Cahn, 2007). 7 1. Increased performance Sports such as soccer have a positive impact on mental health This helps students to concentrate in class They will eventually perform better because they are relaxed This is beneficial to the institution since it will attract more students One of the major benefits of the sports program in the institution is improved performance. The impact on their mental health will help them to concentrate in class (Cabri, 2017). This will help them to improve in their class performance which will create a positive image of the institution. 8 2. Discipline All sports have instructions The participants are trained to be obedient This helps them to also obey school rules It enables the school to breed highly disciplined students It makes it easier for the institution to manage the students Sports are about following instructions from the coach and those in charge. This assists the students to develop a culture of following instructions and being disciplined. It will give an easy time for the institution to manage the students because the sports department will be assisting to ensure the students are disciplined. 9 3. Better Leadership Sports have leadership positions such as the captain It gives students a chance to learn leadership skills The institution will end up breeding leaders who will apply their skills in the outside world Sports also have areas of possibilities that the captain or the team manager. This ensures that the students are equipped with leadership skills that can be applicable outside the institution after completing their studies. It enables the institution to breed leaders that will be effective in the outside world. Many students will be interested to join such an institution. 10 Conclusion As much as the women do not perform well in sports, there are benefits in sports Sports enable the to be healthy physically and mentally They learn to follow instructions and be leaders The institution also benefits through improved performance Even when the students are not performing well in sports, it is important to have the program in place due to the other benefits associated with it (Cabri, 2017). The female students will benefit through improved health while the institution will benefit by producing leaders and disciplined citizens. 11 References Cabri, J. (2017). Sports Science Research and Technology Support. New York: Springer. Leeds, M. (2013). Handbook on the Economics of Women in Sports. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. O’Reilly, J. & Cahn, S. (2007). Women and Sports in the United States. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Smith, L. (2010). Sports Psychology. Hoboken: Wiley. SPMT 610 FINAL PROJECT.pptx Nola babycakes Financial Project Willie collins Amu 27 November 2020 Introduction This presentation will include the following: Financial concepts. Capital budget for the stadium Operational budget for one year. A five-year Return on Investment (ROI) Capital structure of the project Financial Concepts Capital Budget– It is the process that a business uses to determine which fixed proposed fixed asset it should accept and which it should decline. Operations budget- it comprises of revenues and expenses over a period of time which is typically a year. Capital budgeting is the process a business undertakes to evaluate potential major projects or investments. The operating budgets include the budgets for sales, manufacturing costs, selling expenses and general and administrative expenses (Lusardi 2019). 3 Financial Concepts cont.’ Return on investment (ROI)- it is a performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or compare the efficiency of a number of different investments. Capital Structure- Corporate structure is the way in which the project finances its assets through some combination of equity, debt or hybrid securities. To calculate ROI, the benefit/return of an investment is divided by the cost of the investment. The result is expressed as a percentage ratio. A goof ROI should be above 6%. Capital structure refers to the make up of the project’s capitalization. It is the composition of its liabilities. It is a combination of debt and equity used by an organization to finance its overall operations and growth (Lusardi 2019). 4 Capital Budget Year Cashflow PVIF,10% PVCIF 1 186,000.00 0.9091 169,092.6 2 218,160.00 0.8264 180,287.4 3 194,735.00 0.7513 146,304.4 4 282,480.00 0.683 192,933.8 5 314,640.00 0.6209 195,360.0 ∑PVCif '000'     883,978.2 PVCoF '000'     126,000.0 NET PRESENT VALUE     757,978.2 The table above shows the project appraisal using the net present value criteria assuming a 10% cost of capital. …