Fluent Essays

6 pages in total.Midterm Take-Home Examination PSCI 24733: Global Disaster Politics Spring 2021 Answer ONE essay from EACH GROUP (for a total of two). Each essay should be 3-4 pages, typed, double-spaced, and rigorously apply a standard academic source citation style. Be sure to address all aspects of the questions, to relate your answers carefully to course material and any other supporting evidence. You should submit this as a single Word document, and you can used a combined Bibliography or Works Cited at the end of the two essays. Please note: Your answers should not overlap significantly with previous written work for the class (e.g., past Response Papers). These midterm essays are due in the Moodle submission portal by Wednesday, March 17, by 12:00 noon (Wooster time). Group I: Answer ONE of the following questions (worth 50 points): 1. What is a disaster, and how should governments respond to them? Develop a detailed essay that first defines disasters and draws strong connections to course readings and theories. Next, critically analyze the political and moral implications to respond to disasters that flow from such a definition. For the last third of your essay, apply these arguments to analyze developments in the Iceland-Z crisis simulation. 2. What does the theory of bureaucratic politics tell us about disaster response? What are the implications of Schneider’s arguments about bureaucratic and emergent norms in this context? For the last third of your essay, apply Schneider’s framework to analyze developments in the Iceland-Z crisis simulation. 3. Critically analyze all dimensions of the following claim: “Democracies provide the most effective responses to disasters.” Develop a detailed essay incorporates arguments from Tilly, Hannigan, Fenner, Kleinfeld, and others to speak to this question. Finally, relate these arguments to our experiences in the Iceland-Z crisis simulation. 4. Which is more essential to effective disaster response—leadership or public trust—and why? Develop an essay in which you champion one of these dimensions over the other based on your studies of comparative public policy, and draw in detailed examples and arguments from course material. How did these perspectives inform your experiences in the Iceland-Z crisis simulation? Group II: Answer ONE of the following questions (50 points): 5. Develop an essay that compares and contrasts the following two comparative public policy theories: Punctuated Equilibrium Theory and the Advocacy Coalition Framework theory. What are the primary arguments or assumptions of these theories? Who are the most important actors that they study? How are they similar or different? Finally, describe how one of these theories works to provide sound analysis in a mini-case study. 6. Which is a more serious disaster: COVID-19 or climate change—and why? Develop a carefully constructed comparative public policy analysis of this question bThe Iceland-Z Virus: National Security Council Disaster Management Simulation Handbook Global Disaster Politics: Comparative Public Policy, Emergency Management, and Problem-Solving Political Science 24733: Special Topics in Comparative Politics Simulation Designed by Professor Jeffrey S. Lantis The College of Wooster 2020-2021 2 Part I: Simulation Overview Welcome to a role-playing simulation of crisis meetings of the National Security Council dealing with a global pandemic. The theme of this crisis decision-making simulation is: What should the United States do to respond to an increasingly severe outbreak of a deadly virus? This is a perennial and highly relevant theme for national security, human security, and global public health. You will be assigned to work in teams to represent roles as national security “principals,” including the President of the United States, the Director of the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Director of Central Intelligence, the Secretary of Homeland Security, etc. Participants will engage in a series of deliberations on the best response to a hypothetical policy crisis scenario. Your goal is twofold: to faithfully represent your assigned role and to try to develop strategies and interagency agreements that you believe will most keep the U.S. population safe. You will make decisions about how to proceed in the face of an emergency, how to prepare and protect the community, and how to ensure such a crisis can never happen again. The simulation will run for approximately one week of the term. This handbook provides you with the necessary tools to begin your research and preparation, including background information on the crisis, web resources, rules of procedure and suggestions for further readings. The handbook also includes information about your role groups and directions and themes for further investigation during the exercise. There are three major “rounds” of the simulation, divided between intra-group and inter-group deliberations and negotiations. The simulation is structured to fit the class meeting schedule, building to an effort to develop a working consensus on the third day of the simulation. We will also follow a set of rules of procedure, designed to facilitate negotiations and allow for simulation time to be divided between informal deliberations and formal presentations. During informal periods, players meet with each other to debate and design policy solutions. In our formal presentations, bureaucratic representatives make speeches, respond to questions, and introduce and debate resolutions to these problems. Role-playing simulations are popular active teaching and learning approaches, and their effectiveness in promoting engagement and critical thinking is well documented in the scholarship on teaching and learning. The simulation is also designed to promote knowledge of iS Y M P O S I U M Leadership Tasks in Crisis Management Crises and disasters put leaders, and their leadership, to the test. In extreme circumstances marked by col- lective stress and extensive damage, leaders are expected to mount an eff ective response, protecting citizens and minimizing consequences. Leaders must organize a set of activities that includes sensemaking (understanding the crisis), critical decision making, vertical and hori- zontal coordination, meaning-making (formulating an authoritative defi nition of the situation), and commu- nication (Boin, ‘t Hart, Stern, & Sundelius, 2005; Boin, Kuipers, & Overdijk, 2013). Th ese executive tasks are hard to accomplish in the best of circumstances. Th e dynamics of crises and disasters make it even harder. Joint sensemaking is particularly important to eff ective crisis management: if decision makers do not have a shared and accurate picture of the situation, they cannot make informed decisions and communicate eff ectively with partners, politicians, and the public. Many crises—ranging from 9/11 to Katrina, from ORCHESTRATING JOINT SENSEMAKING ACROSS GOVERNMENT LEVELS: CHALLENGES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR CRISIS LEADERSHIP ARJEN BOIN AND CYNTHIA RENAUD Making sense of a crisis is an important task for leaders at both the operational and strategic level. In the current article, we argue that there is a difference between sensemaking at the strategic and operational levels of a disaster response. An “appreciative gap” may emerge between the two levels as a result. Such a gap can cause stress and strife between the operational and strategic layers work- ing on the same crisis event. Bridging the gap poses very specifi c demands on leadership at both the strategic and operational level. Sandy to Boston—have shown how hard it is to make sense of a fast-moving threat that defi es plans and eludes collective experience. To develop a quick understanding of a new and inconceivable threat typically requires a large number of actors, operating at diff erent levels of the system, to share and compare their picture of the situation. Th e more actors and the more variety in organizational stripes and feathers, however, the harder it becomes to establish a shared picture of a dynamic situation. In the response to large-scale disasters, we should distinguish between the strategic and the operational level. Th e strategic layer of decision makers is normally comprised of the top echelons of response organizations: police and fi re chiefs, city managers, Federal Bureau of Investigation and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) leaders, elected offi cials, and chief executive offi cers of private businesses. Th ey typically gather at an emergency operation center (EOC) and manage a crisis from that location. Th is level of decision makers will bear the scrutiny of after-incident reviews. JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES, Volume 7, Number 3, 2013 ©2013 U4/23/20, 9)17 AMThe Cold Calculations Americaʼs Leaders Will Have to Make Before Reopening - The New York Times Page 1 of 7https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/22/us/politics/coronavirus-reopening-governors-trump.html?auth=login-email&login=email With no vaccine or cure, the president, governors, mayors and county executives will have to decide how many deaths would be acceptable to restore a shattered economy. By Peter Baker April 22, 2020 WASHINGTON — How many deaths are acceptable to reopen the country before the coronavirus is completely eradicated? “One is too many,” President Trump insists, a politically safe formulation that any leader would instinctively articulate. But that is not the reality of Mr. Trump’s reopen-soon approach. Nor for that matter will it be the bottom line for even those governors who want to go slower. Until there is a vaccine or a cure for the coronavirus, the macabre truth is that any plan to begin restoring public life invariably means trading away some lives. The question is how far will leaders go to keep it to a minimum. Some of the more provocative voices on the political right say that with tens of millions of Americans out of work and businesses collapsing, some people must be sacrificed for the greater good of restoring the economy quickly. To many, that sounds unthinkable, but less inflammatory experts and policymakers also acknowledge that there are enormous costs to keeping so much of the work force idle, with many of the unemployed struggling to pay for food, shelter or medical care for other health challenges. And so the nation’s leaders are left with the excruciating dilemma of figuring out how to balance life and livelihood on a scale unseen in generations. “Every governor in the nation is asking that,” Gov. Gretchen Whitmer of Michigan, where 2,700 have died and more than 1 million have lost The Cold Calculations America’s Leaders Will Have to Make Before Reopening https://nyti.ms/2xONRc4 https://www.nytimes.com/by/peter-baker https://www.nytimes.com/by/peter-baker https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/18/us/politics/gretchen-whitmer-michigan-protests.html https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/04/16/michigan-unemployment-claims-recession/5143750002/ https://www.nytimes.com/ 4/23/20, 9)17 AMThe Cold Calculations Americaʼs Leaders Will Have to Make Before Reopening - The New York Times Page 2 of 7https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/22/us/politics/coronavirus-reopening-governors-trump.html?auth=login-email&login=email jobs, said this week. “There’s no such thing as zero risk in the world in which we’re living. But we know that not taking measures to control the spread means that’s going to translate into lives lost.” With no cure available for the coronavirus and no vaccine likely for another year or more, governors in hard-hit states are seeking ways to minimize the number of additional deaths by staging and structuring any reopening. Time and testing are keyhttps://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-05-06/trump-americans-warriors-fight-to-open-economy Trump calls Americans ‘warriors’ in fight to open the economy President Trump on Tuesday tours a factory in Phoenix that manufactures protective masks for healthcare workers. By CHRIS MEGERIANSTAFF WRITER MAY 6, 2020 12:19 PM UPDATED2:24 PM WASHINGTON — Donald Trump has described himself as a “wartime president” during the coronavirus crisis, and now he seems to have found his army as he pushes the country to reopen despite the risks. In recent days, he’s begun describing citizens as “warriors” in the battle against the pandemic and suggested some of those fighters might have to die if that will help boost the economy. “Will some people be affected? Yes,” he said on a trip to Arizona this week, his first outside of the Washington area in nearly two months. “Will some people be affected badly? Yes. But we have to get our country open, and we have to get it open soon.” Trump previously described healthcare workers as “warriors” for risking their safety to treat coronavirus patients, wording he used again on Wednesday when signing a proclamation honoring nurses. But his decision to expand the characterization to everyday Americans is a noticeable shift from his previous declarations that “one is too many” deaths. The toll from the illness surpassed 70,000 this week and seems on track to top 100,000 by the end of the month, numbers far larger than Trump recently predicted. Asked Wednesday if the nation needs to accept greater loss of life, Trump said “hopefully it won’t be the case, but it may very well be the case.” “We have to be warriors,” he said from his seat behind the Resolute desk in the Oval Office. “We can’t keep our country closed down for years.” The new language shows Trump appears to view people as “collateral damage to salvage the economy,” said Jeffrey Levi, a public health expert at George Washington University. https://www.latimes.com/people/chris-megerian https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-05-06/trump-americans-warriors-fight-to-open-economy “Good generals do not send their soldiers into battle without knowing that there will be a net gain,” Levi said. “And here we know reopening too soon will be a net loss, both in lives and the long-term stability of the economy.” White House Press Secretary Kayleigh McEnany denied that Trump was suggesting that citizens must put themselves in harm’s way to fight the coronavirus — “not in the slightest,” she said. Although the president has repeatedly said that Americans must be “warriors” to reopen the economy, McEnany offered an alternative explanation for the description. “They’re warriors because they’ve stayed home,” she said at a White House briefing Wednesday. “They’re warriors because they’ve social distanced. They’re warriors because this mitigation effort is something that could only be don3/8/20, 11)22 AMInside Trump Administration, Debate Raged Over What to Tell Public - The New York Times Page 1 of 5https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/07/us/politics/trump-coronavirus.html https://nyti.ms/2PWFalT The administration’s response to the coronavirus has repeatedly matched public health experts against a hesitant White House, where worry of panic dominates. By Michael D. Shear, Sheri Fink and Noah Weiland March 8, 2020, 9:06 a.m. ET WASHINGTON — After weeks of conflicting signals from the Trump administration about the coronavirus, the government’s top health officials decided late last month that when President Trump returned from a trip to India, they would tell him they had to be more blunt about the dangers of the outbreak. If he approved, they would level with the public. But Dr. Nancy Messonnier, the director of the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, got a day ahead of the plan. At noon on Feb. 25, just as Mr. Trump was boarding Air Force One in New Delhi for his flight home, she told reporters on a conference call that life in the United States was about to change. “The disruption to everyday life might be severe,” she said. Schools might have to close, conferences could be canceled, businesses might make employees work from home. She had told her own children, she said, to prepare for “significant disruption to our lives.” The stock market plummeted, cable news blared apocalyptic headlines and by the time Mr. Trump landed at Joint Base Andrews early the next morning, his critics were accusing him of sowing confusion on an issue of life or death. The president immediately got on the phone with Alex M. Azar II, his secretary of health and human services. That call scared people, he shouted, referring to Ms. Messonnier’s warnings. Are we at the point that we will have to start closing schools? the president added, alarmed, according to an official who heard about the call. To health officials, the message needed to change with the outbreak. “The epicenter was shifting” as the number of new cases outside China surpassed those inside, said Dr. Anne Schuchat, the principal deputy director of the C.D.C. “The issue of what this might mean to us became more important.” From the beginning, the Trump administration’s attempts to forestall an outbreak of a virus now spreading rapidly across the globe was marked by a raging internal debate about how far to go in telling Americans the truth. Even as the government’s scientists and leading health experts raised the alarm early and pushed for aggressive action, they faced resistance and doubt at the White House — especially from the president — about spooking financial markets and inciting panic. Inside Trump Administration, Debate Raged Over What to Tell Public https://www.nytimes.com/ https://www.nytimes.com/by/michael-d-shear https://www.nytimes.com/by/sheri-fink https://www.nytimeshttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/13/world/asia/new-zealand-coronavirus-lockdown-elimination.html New Zealand Beat the Virus Once. Can It Do It Again? Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern has revived her “go hard, go early” approach as officials grapple with a mysterious cluster that might have originated in a frozen food warehouse. A coronavirus test center in Auckland, New Zealand, on Thursday.Credit...Dean Purcel/The New Zealand Herald, via Associated Press By Damien Cave and Serena Solomon Published Aug. 13, 2020Updated Oct. 7, 2020 SYDNEY, Australia — As the week began, New Zealanders were celebrating 100 days without community spread of the coronavirus, drinking at pubs, packing stadiums and hugging friends. Two days later, that suddenly changed: Four new cases, all related, emerged in Auckland. On Thursday, officials said the cluster had grown to 17, as they struggled to map out how the virus had returned to an isolated island nation championed for its pandemic response. One theory is that it could have come through cargo. Some of the infected New Zealanders worked at a cold storage warehouse with imported food. Another focus is quarantine facilities for returning travelers, the source of an outbreak tearing through Melbourne, Australia. A mystery and a few cases — that’s all it took for New Zealand to say goodbye to normalcy. Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern immediately announced a new lockdown for Auckland, a city of 1.7 million people, along with a huge testing, contact tracing and quarantine blitz that aims to quash Covid-19 for the second time. “Going hard and early is still the best course of action,” Ms. Ardern said on Thursday as she had relaunched her daily coronavirus news briefings. “We have a plan.” https://www.nytimes.com/by/damien-cave https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/australia/new-zealand-coronavirus.html https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/04/world/australia/coronavirus-melbourne-lockdown.html https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/13/world/asia/new-zealand-coronavirus-lockdown-elimination.html Many other places have faced a similar challenge — Hong Kong, Australia and Vietnam have all confronted new waves after early triumphs. New Zealand, while disappointed by the abrupt resurgence, has reacted with an extraordinary level of urgency and action that it hopes will be a model for how to eliminate a burst of infection and rapidly get on with life. Drive-through testing in Christchurch on Thursday.Credit...Mark Baker/Associated Press “We were totally back to hugging, handshaking, restaurants, cinemas — all the stuff apart from going on holiday overseas,” said Siouxsie Wiles, a microbiologist at the University of Auckland. “What we’ve had time to do in the meantime is massively ramp up our testing and contact tracing, so this is going to be a real test of how quickly you can stamp it out again.” “Everything about the time frame,” she added, “has been really https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2020/04/01/coronavirus-covid-19-china-radical- measures-lockdowns-mass-quarantines/2938374001/ This is what China did to beat coronavirus. Experts say America couldnt handle it Kim Hjelmgaard, Eric J. Lyman and Deirdre Shesgreen In late February as coronavirus infections mounted in Wuhan, China, authorities went door-to-door for health checks – forcibly isolating every resident in makeshift hospitals and temporary quarantine shelters, even separating parents from young children who displayed symptoms of COVID-19, no matter how seemingly mild. Caretakers at the citys ubiquitous large apartment buildings were pressed into service as ad hoc security guards, monitoring the temperatures of all residents, deciding who could come in and implementing inspections of delivered food and medicines. Outside, drones hovered above streets, yelling at people to get inside and scolding them for not wearing face masks, while elsewhere in China facial-recognition software, linked to a mandatory phone app that color-coded people based on their contagion risk, decided who could enter shopping malls, subways, cafes and other public spaces. We couldnt go outside under any circumstances. Not even if you have a pet, said Wang Jingjun, 27, a graduate student who returned to Wuhan from the Chinese coastal province of Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau, in mid-January to live with her elderly mother and grandparents. Those with dogs had to play with them inside and teach them to use the bathroom in a certain spot. China’s zero contact: ‘It seems extreme. It works’ As the epicenter of the coronavirus pandemic has moved to the USA, Chinese officials and public health experts insist that even if President Donald Trump were to immediately adopt all the strict testing and lockdown measures that Western scientific advisers advocate, these actions would still not be sufficient to stem the spread of a disease that is swiftly approaching a million worldwide cases. Mike Pompeo: Americans abroad wanting to return home should do so immediately More severe steps are needed in the USA, these officials say, although they cast doubt on whether Americans could do what the Chinese did, for a mixture of reasons: political will and deep- rooted cultural inclinations among them. To help quell its outbreak, Beijing embarked on one of the largest mass mobilization efforts in history, closing all schools, forcing millions of people inside, quickly building more than a dozen vast temporary hospitals, deploying thousands of extra medical staff to Wuhan and the surrounding Hubei province and meticulously testing and tracing anyone and everyone who may have encountered the virus. It did a lot more than that. Lockdowns, bans on gatherings, basic quarantines, testing, hand-washing, this is not enough, Huiyao Wang, a senior adviser to Chinas government, told USA TODAYhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/29/health/Trump-coronavirus-taskforce.html Who’s on the U.S. Coronavirus Task Force Published Feb. 29, 2020Updated May 7, 2020 Several of the nation’s top health officials are among those sitting on an advisory panel formed by President Trump. Administration health officials gave the House Energy and Commerce committee an update on preparedness for the potential spread of the coronavirus in the U.S.Credit...T.J. Kirkpatrick for The New York Times President Trump formed a coronavirus task force in late January, and members have been meeting regularly. But as the virus began to spread around the globe and infections were confirmed in the United States, Mr. Trump named Vice President Mike Pence as his point person at the end of February, and more administration officials were added to the panel. Among them are internationally known AIDS experts; a former drug executive; infectious disease doctors; and the former attorney general of Virginia. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/29/health/Trump-coronavirus-taskforce.html https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/11/us/politics/anthony-fauci-coronavirus.html https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/07/us/politics/coronavirus-task-force-trump.html https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/29/health/Trump-coronavirus-taskforce.html DR. DEBORAH L. BIRX Credit...Mandel Ngan/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images The new coronavirus response coordinator for the White House, Dr. Deborah L. Birx, also holds the rank of ambassador as the State Department’s global AIDS director. An experienced scientist and physician, Dr. Birx will report to Vice President Pence, though White House officials did not specify how her duties will differ from those of Mr. Pence or Alex M. Azar II, the secretary of health and human services who is the chairman of the nation’s coronavirus task force. Nominated by President Obama in 2014 to the State post, Dr. Birx has spent more than three decades working on HIV/AIDS immunology, vaccine research and global health. For the past six years, Dr. Birx, a former Army colonel, has been in charge of the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and America’s participation in the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. From 2005 to 2014, she also was director of the division for Global HIV/AIDS at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A biography distributed by the White House said she had “developed and patented vaccines, including leading one of the most influential HIV vaccine trials in history.” During her confirmation hearing in 2014, Dr. Birx spoke with admiration of the government’s ability to come together to confront a deadly disease that threatened the health and welfare of people around the globe. “The history of the end of the 20th century will be forever recorded with the emergence of a new and deadly viral plague that challenged us scientifically, socially and politically,” sPlease! cite! this! article! in! press! as:! K.W.! Cho! and! K! Jung.! Illuminating! the! Sewol! Ferry! Disaster! using! the! institutional! model of! punctuated! equilibrium! theory.! The! Social! Science! Journal! (2019),! https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.12.010 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelSOCSCI-1565;! No.! of! Pages! 16 The! Social! Science! Journal! xxx! (2019)! xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect The ! Social ! Science ! Journal j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / s o s c i j Illuminating ! the ! Sewol ! Ferry ! Disaster ! using ! the ! institutional model ! of ! punctuated ! equilibrium ! theory Ki ! Woong ! Cho a,! Kyujin ! Jung b,∗ a Department! of! Public! Administration,! Korea! University,! Seoul,! 02841,! South! Korea b Department! of! Public! Administration! and! the! Graduate! School! of! Governance,! Sungkyunkwan! University,! Seoul,! 03063,! South! Korea a ! r ! t ! i! c ! l ! e ! i ! n ! f ! o Article! history: Received! 15! February! 2018 Received! in! revised! form 31! December! 2018 Accepted! 31! December! 2018 Available! online! xxx Keywords: Punctuated! equilibrium! theory Sewol! Ferry! Disaster Three! Sewol! Acts Policy! process Google! Trends a ! b ! s ! t ! r ! a ! c ! t The ! Sewol ! Ferry ! Disaster ! undermined ! the ! South ! Korean ! government’s ! efforts ! to ! establish the! country ! as! a ! crisis-free ! region. ! Considering ! the ! number ! of ! fatalities ! and ! the ! immensity of! the ! disaster, ! the ! South ! Korean ! legislators ! passed ! three ! acts ! concerning ! the ! Sewol ! Ferry Disaster:! the ! Sewol ! Special ! Act,! the ! Government ! Organization ! Act, ! and ! the ! Yoo ! Byung- eun ! Act.! The ! strength ! of! this ! study ! is! that ! it! illuminates ! the ! Sewol ! Ferry ! Disaster ! using! the institutional ! model ! of ! the ! punctuated ! equilibrium ! theory ! (PET), ! applied ! in ! a! Korean ! setting. Moreover, ! it! elucidates ! the ! concept ! of ! punctuated ! events ! and ! their ! impact ! on ! budgets ! and public! attention, ! primarily ! using ! Google ! Trends, ! as! it! examines ! policy ! changes ! following ! the disaster ! and! demonstrates ! inconsistencies ! in! the ! PET. ! The! authors ! conducted ! a! case ! study ! on the ! Sewol ! Ferry ! Disaster ! and ! the ! three ! subsequent ! Sewol ! Acts ! to! illuminate ! the! effect ! of ! the disaster! on ! policy ! processes. ! Using ! the ! prior ! history ! of ! punctuated ! events ! in! South ! Korea, ! we demonstrated ! a! higher ! propensity ! for! punctuation ! and ! the ! functions ! of ! positive ! feedback after ! the ! policy ! monopoly ! collapse ! that ! followed ! the ! Sewol ! Ferry ! Disaster ! in ! South ! Korea. We! also! demonstrated ! that ! fewer ! instances ! of! negative ! feedback ! are ! observed ! in! South Korea ! than! in! the ! United ! States. ! Based ! on ! these ! findings, ! PET ! can ! be ! applied ! and ! developed