Fluent Essays

The assignment for this module is to create a Graphic Organizer that synthesizes and conveys your understanding of the information presented in Module 4.  I have attached three sample Graphic Organizers in Module 4 related to different content for your review. External Environments of Schools External Influences and Constituencies for School Districts Colleges and Universities Educational Association Accrediting Agencies Legislatures Regulatory Agencies Unions Taxpayers Parents School District Five Problematic Situations that might arise for Administrators Preferences Regarding Possible Outcomes Alternative Courses of Action and their Outcomes Strategies and Tactics Potential Outcomes Lack of Knowledge Internal Coping Strategies Internal Coping Strategies Buffering Planning and Forecasting Boundary Spanning Influence Tactics of Interest Groups Engaging the Mass Media Protesting And Demonstrating Litigating Generating Constituent Influence Contacting legislators and other officials directly Testifying at legislative hearings Forming Coalitions Influence Tactics of Interest Groups Conformity and Institutional Environments (Three Mechanisms that promote conformity) Conformity and Institutional Environments Coercive Conformity Imitative Conformity Normative Conformity Challenging Administrative Practices Multiple stakeholders prefer different effectiveness criteria Definitions of what constitutes organizational effectiveness do not remain constant Issues of school effectiveness Challenging Administrative Practices National Education Goals Adult Literacy and Lifelong Learning Parental Participation Teacher Education and Professional Development Student Achievement and Citizenship School Completion Ready to Learn Safe, Disciplined, and Alcohol and Drug-Free Schools National Education Goals Social Systems and School Effectiveness Transformation Processes Academic Achievement Job Satisfaction Input-Output Research Performance outcomes Input Criteria School Effectiveness Orderly Climate Sense of Community Parental Support and Environment Staff Development Time On Task Planned and Purposeful Curriculum Staff Stability Clear Goals and High Expectation Instructional Leadership Effective Schools Smith and Purkey The Drive for Accountability Three underlying Principles Schools Schools Schools Higher Standards Of Performance Assistance to build capacities for improved Education Increased Quality of Performance Outcomes Accountability Plans Generally Include: Standards to identify the subject matter knowledge and skills to be learned Tests aligned with the standards Consequences to recognize goal attainment Systematic Comprehensive School Reform Promotes Coherence Reduces Fragmentation Aligns the state accountability system Common Elements of Culture Innovation •The degree to which employees are expected to be creative and take risks Stability •The degree to which activities focus on the status quo rather than change Attention to Detail •The degree to which ther is concern fo rprecision and detail Outcome Orientation •The degree to which management decisions ae sensitive to individuals. People Orientation •The degree to wich management emphasizes results Team Orientation •The degree of emphasis on collaboration and teamwork Aggressiveness •The degree to which employees are expected to be competitive rather than easygoing Aspects of Organizational Citizenship The Clinical Strategy for Change Gaining Knowledge of the Organization Diagnosis Prognosis Prescription Evaluation A Growth-Centered Strategy for Change Change is a property of healthy school organizations Cjamge has direction Change shoudld imply progress Teachers have high potential for the development and implementation of change The Norm-changing strategy for change Identify the surface norms Articulate new directions Establish new norms Identify culture gaps Close the culture gaps Sources of Authority Charismatic • Rests on devotion to an extraordinary individual who is leader by virtue of personal trust or exemplary qualities Traditional • Is anchored in an established beleif in the sanctity of the status of those exercising authority in the past. Legal • I based on enacted laws that can be changed by formally correct procedures Formal • Is vested in the organization and is legally established in positions, rules, and regulations Functional • Has a variety of sources, including authority of competence and authority of person Informal • Is still another source of legitimate control stemming from personal behavior and attributes of individuals Sources of Power Rewarding • Influence subordinates by rewarding their desirable behavior Coercive • Ability to influence subordinates by punishing them for undesirable behavior Legitimate • Ability to influence the behavior of subordinates simply becuase of formal position Referent • Ability to influence behavior based on subordinates' liking and identificaiton wi the administrator Expert • Ability to influence subordinates behavior on the basis of specialized knowledge and skill Political Tactics Ingratiating • used to gain the goodwill of another through doing favors, being attentive, and giving favors Networking • The process of forming relationships wiht influential people Information Management • Individuals use to control others or build their own status Impression Management • A simple tactic that almost everyone uses from time to time to create a favorable image Coalition Building • The process of individuals banding together to achieve common goals Scapegoating • Blaming and attacking others when things go wrong or badly Increasing Indispensability • Tactic by which individuals or units make themselves necessary to the organization Chapter 9: Decision Making in Schools (Hoy & Miskel) Decision Theory Basic Assumptions of the Satisficing Administrative Model Identify the problem Establish goals and objectives Generate all possible alternatives Consider the consequences of each alternative evaluate alternatives in terms of goals and objectives select the best alternative implement and evaluate the alternative Assumption 1 • Administrative decision making is a dynamic process that solves some organizational problems and creates others Assumption 2 • Complete rationality in decision making is impossible; therefore, administrators seek to satisfice because they have neither the ability not the cognitive capacity to optimize the decision-making process Assumption 3 • Decision making is a general pattern of action found in the rational administration of all major tasks and functional areas in organizations Assumption 4 • Values are an integral part of decision making. Decision Making Traps Anchoring Comfort Overconfidence Recognition Representative Sunk-Cost Framing Prudence Memory If uncertain, fractionalize decisions Stagger your decisions If uncertain, procrastinate Be tentative; proceed with caution Use focused trial and error MIXED SCANNING MODEL What is the organization's mission and policy? What decisions will move the organization toward its mission and policy? Contingency Model Garbage Can Model: (does not begin with a problem and end with a solution) Important? Sufficient Time? Sufficient Information? Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No • occasions when choices are expected to be made: hiring/fire, money spent, resources allocated... • personnel are fluid • problems and solutions can change • can exist independently of problems • attractiveness of an idea can lead to a search for a problem to justify the idea • problems may not lead to solutions • problems may not be solved when a solution is implemented Problems Solutions Choice opportunities Participants Are the risks serious if I don't change? If no, change is unlikely Are the risks serious if I do change? If no, first popoular option likely to be accepted Is it realistic to hope to find a better solution? if no, avoidance of making a decision Is there sufficient time to search and deliberate? If no, possibility of seizing on first opportunity contrived solution taht offers relief. Vigilance (requires risk taking, determiniation, and engaging in reflection and contigency planning) Chapter 10: Shared Decision Making: Empowering Others (Hoy & Miskel) Vroom Model of Shared Decision Making •Quality Rule: use a unilateral approach to decision making only if... •quality requirement is low and matter unimprotant to subbordinates •quality requirement is low, the decision is important, and will be readily accepted by subbordinates •Leader Information Rule: don't make a unilateral decision if... •quality of decision is important and you don't possess sufficient information/expertise to solve the problem alone •Trust Rule: make unilateral decsions when... •quality of the decision is important and can't rust subbordinates to decide on the basis of organizational goals •Problem Structure Rule: involve knowledgeable subbordinates to collect relevent information when... •quality of the decision is important, problem is unstructured, and you lack sufficient knowledge/expertise Enhancing the QUALITY of decisions •Acceptance Rule: involve subbordinates if... •their acceptance is critical and you are unsure of their acceptance of an autocratic decision •Subbordinate Conflict: involve subbordinates when... •conflict among subbordinates, acceptance is critical, unlikely to accept autocratic decision •Subbordinate Commitment Rule: a group decision should be made... •acceptance is a critical problem even if the quality of decision is not important. •Subbordinate Information Rule: subbordinates should not be called upon... •to make decisions for which they have insufficient information or expertise Enhancing the ACCEPTANCE of decisions •Time Constraint (Motivation-Time): Time is often critical •amount of time used is a cost expressed in terms of loss of attention to other activities •Development Constraint (Motivation-Development): Subbordinates often don't have the best knowledge to contribute. •to empower subbordinates is to give them skills and opportunities to make decisions CONSTRAINTS on decision making •Autocratic: leader makes decision using existing information •Informed-Autocratic: leader solves the problem unilaterally after obtaining necessary information from subbordinates •Individual-Consultative: leader shares problem with subbordinates. solicits ideas, and makes decision that may or may not reflect subbordinate influence •Group-Consultative: leader shares problem with group, solicits ideas, and makes decision that may or may not reflect influences form group •Group-Agreement: leader shares problem with subbordinates as a group and generates/evaluates alternatives as a group. Leader willingt oaccept the decision of the group DECISION MAKING styles Decision Making Tree stages: Groupthink Map 1 • Quality 2 • Commitment 3 • Information 4 • Structure 5 • Acceptance 6 • Goal Congruence 7 • Conflict 8 • Information * • Appropriate Decision Style Group Characteristics • strong cohesion • insulation of group • charasmatic leadership • like-mindedness of group • homogeny of group • lack of norms for methodical procedures Contextual Characteristics • high stress from threat • low self esteem by recent failures, excessive complexity, moral dilemmas GROUPTHINK Overestimation/Close- Mindedness/Pressure for Unanimity Low Vigilance High probablility of a defective decision and Low Probablility of Success