Fluent Essays

Personality Psychology Professor Schyrokyj Exam Two Instructions: This exam is open book, open notes. Please give full answers, elaborating beyond text material based on your thoughts. Please note that there may be more than one right answer. 1. What is Evolutionary Personality Theory? How does it impact us in terms of relationships? How do we observe it in society? 2. Describe Plomin and Buss’s model of Personality. Then, explain how environmental factors around noise and stimulation may impact the expression of these personality traits 3. a. What is Rotter’s Locus of Control? b. How do expectancies impact thoughts and behavior, according to Rotter? c. 4. What impact do genes have in trait expression of introversion/extroversion? 5. Define Bandura’s self-efficacy. Then, describe how it may impact how we learn. 6. a. Give one example of a Cognitive sex difference and one example of a Social sex difference. b. Where do these differences come from? Are they fixed based on personality or can they be changed?Male – Female Differences * Gender-Role Standards and Stereotypes This field continues to be very controversial. This is a prime example of a politically sensitive area--i. e., one where the attitudes of the scientists have to be scrutinized Defining sex and gender Gender: masculine or feminine behaviors Sex: biological and physical attributes Gender typing: culturally assigned roles * Gender-Role Standards and Stereotypes Defining sex and gender Gender-based beliefs: expectations Gender stereotypes: based on beliefs Gender roles: distinct behaviors displayed Gender identity: perception of self Gender-role preferences: desires * Gender-Role Standards and Stereotypes Gender socialization begins at birth: Parents have a role in socializing gender: Dress boys and girls differently, select toys based on gender, and often react negatively if they behave in ways they think are gender inappropriate. Gender stereotypes Males: controlling, dominant, independent, controlling and manipulating the environment; assertive, dominant, competitive. Females: relatively passive, loving, sensitive, and supportive in social relationships, especially in their family roles as wife and mother. Warmth in personal relationships, the display of anxiety under pressure, and the suppression of overt aggression and sexuality as more appropriate for women than men. * Gender-Role Standards and Stereotypes These stereotypes are true cross-culturally as well. This implies that the origins of these stereotypes does not lie in local cultures. But there are some variations. Culture Generation * Gender-Role Standards and Stereotypes Sex stereotypes that men are more aggressive than women and women more interpersonally sensitive than men are very robust, even among more educated people, both sexes, all social classes. -Keep in mind that male/female distributions overlap. * Gender-Role Standards and Stereotypes Some recent findings Age differences: Young children are especially rigid in gender stereotyping; children between ages 3-6 are more gender stereotypes than adults. This reflects a general tendency for young children to have rigid, absolutist sense of rules. (This is also the case in moral reasoning where young children allow no exceptions to rules like stealing is bad.) * NOTE: There are overlaps in all of these areas so that, for example, some girls are more physically aggressive than some boys. Physical Sex Differences: Girls more advanced physically throughout childhood; they mature earlier and their development stops sooner. Boys have larger lungs and heart, and they are superior at activities involving gross motor activities and strength; males more likely to suffer a wide range of developmental disorders (speech defects, ADHD, mental impairement) Girls tend to have a few intimate friends Boys have a larger number of pals—guys they hang out with but dThe Psychology of the Person Behavioral-Social Learning Approach The Beginning of Behaviorism John B. Watson (1878-1958) was a member of the faculty at John Hopkins University. He started his academic work in philosophy, but then switched to psychology, and In 1913 published his milestone paper:” Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it” Watson’s Main Idea in His 1913 paper Watson argued that if psychology were to become a science, psychologists must stop their engagement in such topics as mental processes and states of consciousness, which were the main topics of the earlier schools, such as structuralism and Functionalism Only observable behaviors can be the subject matter of science. Emotions, thoughts, etc, were of interest to behaviorists only if they could be defined in terms of observable behaviors Watson’s main Ideas (cont-d) Thinking , according to Watson, was simply a variant of verbal behavior, a “sub-vocal speech”, as evident by small vocal-cords movements he claimed accompanied thoughts. Watson claimed that observed behavior can be predicted, and eventually controlled by scientists. Watson’s Conclusions Personality, he said was “the end product of our habit system”. That is, over the course of our lives we are conditioned to respond to certain stimuli in more or less predictable ways, which explains the consistency observed in personality characteristics. Control over the environment Watson is famous (or infamous) that given enough control over the environment, he can take any baby, and regardless of the child innate abilities and features, he can mold the child into becoming anything or anyone that he, Watson, wanted. (see next slide) Watson’s Infamous Statement He made his infamous statement: “ Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I will guarantee to take any one at random, and train him to become any type of specialist I might select– doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even a beggerman and a thief” (1924). Little Albert (cont-d) Watson’s perspective is deterministic people can be conditioned to react (emotionally or behaviorally) to stimuli without their awareness In this sense, referring to the old philosophical question whether we have control over out life, he seems to advocate the position that we do not have FREE WIILL. Watson’s Legacy Watson’s main legacy is seen in the shift from subjective introspection into a system of explanation that advocated the operational definition of variables- that is- any variable studied needs to be defined in terms of specific operations that can be used to measure it and to quantify it. In addition, his idea that learning is the core of psychology has become quite prevalent. Shaping In many situation we want to use reinforcement to increase desirable behavior, but the behavior is not emitted by the subject We use shThe Psychology of the Person Biological Approach Background Researchers have recognized that our personality cannot be separated from our biology For many years, the “Tabula Rasa” (blank Slate) has been very popular The Blank Slate view of human nature, suggesting that we are born empty and void of any tendencies, abilities, etc, was espoused by the behavioral perspective This approach signifies the decline of behaviorism and the “tabula rasa” idea of human nature. Tabula Rasa- Blank Slate (The view of t he mind as empty) Reflects the approach that we are born “blank”, to be written upon by the environment What is “Biology”? Physiological differences among individuals that translate into differences in behavior, The familial genetic link The evolutionary perspective: The understanding of the survival value of our tendencies and behavioral characteristics. Natural Selection : Evolutionary Perspective In prehistoric times, humans who werent smart enough to kill their prey or avoid being eaten by them died. Those who survived passed on their survival skills to their offspring. The Pioneering Work of Eysenck In the 1960’s Eysenck introduced the idea that biological makeup, and not parental child-raising methods or other environmental factors determine our personality. Using factor-analysis, he identified 3 personality Super-Traits: Extraversion-introversion, neuroticism (emotional instability), and psychoticism (egocentric and aggressive, impersonal). Structure of Supertraits From a specific response, to a habitual response, to a trait, to a Super-Trait. Eysenck noted stability of these dimensions over time, their similar cross-cultural manifestations, and kinship studies (run in families) Environmental factors play a role in the expression of the inborn personality tendencies. Extraversion-Introversion Eysenck was especially interested in this dimension Originally he suggested that introverts and extraverts differ in terms of their cortical arousal (extraverted were under-aroused and thus seek stimulation) Studies did not find differences between the two tendencies while measures of brain activity in a resting state were taken Currently, researchers describe the Ex.-Int. differences in terms of sensitivity to stimulation, introverted being more sensitive. Sensitivity to Stimulation See the difference between the two little girls? Temperament: Your style of responding to the world Temperaments are inborn (inherited) general dispositions that are regarded as the basis for later development of more specific traits. Buss and Plomin identified 3 temperamental dimensions: emotionality, activity, and sociability Thomas and Chess identified 9 dimensions Examples: quality of mood, intensity of reaction, adapting to novel situations, etc Effortful control- emotional self-regulation, is currently regarded as an important dimension Plomin and Buss MThe Psychology of the Person Neo-Freudians Background for the Emergence of the Neo-Freudians Many scholars who gathered around Freud in Vienna eventually broke away from the Vienna group to develop their own theories of personality and establish their own schools of psychology. Collectively, these theorists are known as the neo- Freudians because they retained many basic Freudian concepts and assumptions. Limitations of Freudian Theory According to the Neo-Freudians Among the limits they saw in Freuds theory were: His failure to recognize personality change after the first few years of life His emphasis on instinctual over social influences The generally negative picture he painted of human nature. (Cont-d) They differed from Freud along some aspects of his theory Freud put emphasis on early childhood and on instinctual drives, without considering social factors. The neo-Freudians also objected to the overall pessimistic tone of Freud, and his views of female inferiority. Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology Adler was an eye-doctor, who was a weak and sick child His autobiography is important for the understanding of his ideas Alfred Adler introduced the concept of striving for superiority to account for most human motivation. It is the ONLY motivation in life Superiority and Inferiority Adler argued that we are motivated to overcome feelings of helplessness that are rooted in the infant’s dependence on others The striving for superiority is not expressed a an egotistic sense of grandiosity, but rather in Social Interest Meaning- working to benefit others Parental Behavior and Birth order Adler also identified parental pampering and neglect as two sources of later personality problems. He argued that middle born children were the most achieving and were less likely to experience psychological disorders than were first-born or last-born. Birth Order First children: Prone to perfectionism and need for affirmation (the child losing the parents undivided attention and compensating throughout life by working to get it back) In addition, this child may be expected to set an example and be given responsibility for younger siblings. Middle: More competitive, rebellious and consistent in attempting to be best. May struggle with figuring out their place in the family and, later, in the world. May be the most flexible and diplomatic members of the family. Youngest: Only: Birth Order Youngest: May be dependent and selfish due to always being taken care of by family members. However, this child may also possess positive traits of confidence, ability to have fun and comfort at entertaining others. Only: May have a hard time when they are told no, and school may be a difficult transition as they are not the sole focus of the teacher. More mature, feel more comfortable around adults and even do better in intellectual and creative pursuits. Twins: One is usually seen as the older