Fluent Essays

 How to Write the Week 8 Assignment Sara Turpel All Sections I want to give you some guidance on the Week 8 assignment. What Ive found from working with previous classes in this course, is that the research critique papers tend to be more of a synopsis or retelling of the research, than a true critique.  I want to give you some helpful hints on completing this assignment because it is NOT a synopsis of the research, it is a scholarly critique of the study. 1.  For each section, there are questions to ask yourself as you go about writing the paper.  For example, is the methodology chosen by the researcher appropriate for the research question?  We have talked in our discussions about the di�erent approaches of qualitative and quantitative research.  If the study is comparing two interventions, it is likely a quantitative study, right?  You do this for every section.  Is the data collection method appropriate for the research methodology?  Is the data analysis method appropriate for the research question?   Do not write this in a Q & A format - write it in regular paragraph format.   2.  You will need other sources to help you answer the questions about the research study.  You cant just write, the chi squared test was used to analyze the data.  You need to know whether or not chi squared is appropriate in this type of study.  To �nd that out, youll need to consult a source.  Your Schmidt and Brown text is a good source, but it may not be the best source for all of the questions you need to answer.  You might need additional sources.  For example, you may need to look up the statistical tests that were done in another source. This is just one example, you need to do this for all sections.  Every time I give this example, I get papers where the only thing that is supported is the statistics.  You have to support ALL assertions. So...when you are reading your article for the �rst time, use a highlighter and highlight some of the key elements in the paper.  The themes of the literature review, the research question, the method, the data analysis, etc.   When you identify the research question and then the methodology, youll use one of your additional resources (the Schmidt and Brown text, for example) to decide whether the research methodology is appropriate for the research question.   Again, heres the important thing:  Dont just write that the methodology is appropriate for the research study, you need to write WHY it is appropriate.  One sentence is good, you dont need a whole paragraph on WHY, but you do need to PROVIDE A SCHOLARLY ARGUMENT for ALL of your assertions.  3.  As always, the submission should be scholarly.  You need to use APA format, appropriately cite and reference your sources (including the study you are critiquing).  NO FIRST PERSON!  Remember - this is not an opinion essay, you should be supporting the reasons you make your conclusions for each section.   https://canvas.westcoastuniversity.edu/courses/8098/users/17454 https://canvas.westcoastuniversity.edu/courses/8098/users/17454 Week 8: Summative Assignment: Critique of Research Article Due Oct 18 by 2:59am Points 280 Submitting a text entry box or a file upload Start Assignment A research critique demonstrates your ability to critically read an investigative study. For this assignment, choose a research article related to nursing. Articles used for this assignment cannot be used for the other assignments (students should find new research articles for each new assignment). The selected articles should be original research articles. Review articles, concept analysis, meta-analysis, meta-synthesis, integrative review, and systemic review should not be used. Mixed-methods studies should not be used. Dissertations should not be used. Your critique should include the following: Research Problem/Purpose State the problem clearly as it is presented in the report. Have the investigators placed the study problem within the context of existing knowledge? Will the study solve a problem relevant to nursing? State the purpose of the research. Review of the Literature Identify the concepts explored in the literature review. Were the references current? If not, what do you think the reasons are? Was there evidence of reflexivity in the design (qualitative)? Theoretical Framework Are the theoretical concepts defined and related to the research? Does the research draw solely on nursing theory or does it draw on theory from other disciplines? Is a theoretical framework stated in this research piece? If not, suggest one that might be suitable for the study. Variables/Hypotheses/Questions/Assumptions (Quantitative) What are the independent and dependent variables in this study? Are the operational definitions of the variables given? If so, are they concrete and measurable? Is the research question or the hypothesis stated? What is it? Conceptual Underpinnings, Research Questions (Qualitative) Are key concepts defined conceptually? Is the philoosoophical basis, underlying tradition, conoceptual framework, or ideological orientation made explicit and is it appropriate for the problem? Are research questions explicitly stated? Are the questions consistent with the studys philosophical basis, underlying tradition, conceptual framework, or ideological orientation? Methodology What type of design (quantitative, qualitative, and type) was used in this study? Was inductive or deductive reasoning used in this study? State the sample size and study population, sampling method, and study setting. Did the investigator choose a probability or non-probability sample? State the type of reliability and the validity of the measurement tools (quantitative only) Qualitative studies (answer the following questions in addition to those above except the last bulleted item) Were the methods of gathering data appropriate? Were data gathered through two or more methods to achieve triangulation? Did the researcher ask the right questions or make the right observations and were they recorded in an appropriate fashion? Was a sufficient amount of data gathered? Was the data of sufficient depth and richness? Were ethical considerations addressed? Were appropriate procedures used to safeguard the rights of study participants? NURS_350_OL - NURS350-Research Critique Data Analysis What data analysis tool was used? Was saturation achieved? (qualitative) How were the results presented in the study? Were the data management (e.g., coding) and data analysis methods sufficiently described? (qualitative) Identify at least one (1) finding. Summary/Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations Do the themes adequately capture the meaning of the data? Did the analysis yield an insightful, provocative and meaningful picture of the phenomenon under investigation? Were methods used to enhance the trustworthiness of the data (and analysis) and was the description of those methods adequate? Are there clear explanation of the boundaries/limitations, thick description, audit trail? What are the strengths and limitations of the study? In terms of the findings, can the researcher generalize to other populations? Explain. Evaluate the findings and conclusions as to their significance for nursing (both qualitative and quantitative). The body of your paper should be 4–6 double-spaced pages plus a cover page and a reference page. The critique must be attached to the article and follow APA guidelines. Need APA Help? (https://westcoastuniversity.edu/resources/online-student-resources/apa.html) You must submit the research study articles along with your assignment. Review the rubric for further information on how your assignment will be graded. https://westcoastuniversity.edu/resources/online-student-resources/apa.html Criteria Ratings Pts 28 pts 42 pts 28 pts 14 pts Research Problem/Purpose 28 to >24.92 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations Research problem, purpose of research, and relevance to nursing are clearly identified. 24.92 to >21.0 pts Mostly Meets Expectations Research problem, purpose of research, and relevance to nursing are somewhat identified. 21 to >16.52 pts Below Expectations Research problem, purpose of research, and relevance to nursing are mostly absent or misidentified. 16.52 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations Research problem, purpose of research, and relevance to nursing are absent. Review of the Literature 42 to >37.38 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations Concepts explored in the literature review are clearly identified. Critique of the references is included and well developed. 37.38 to >31.5 pts Mostly Meets Expectations Concepts explored in the literature review are somewhat identified. Critique of the references is included, but may not be fully developed. 31.5 to >24.78 pts Below Expectations Concepts explored in the literature review are misidentified. Critique of the references is severely lacking. 24.78 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations Concepts explored in the literature review are absent. Critique of the references is absent. Theoretical Framework 28 to >24.92 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations A theoretical concept/framework is identified and well analyzed for appropriateness. If the article lacks a concept/framework, a suitable one is suggested. 24.92 to >21.0 pts Mostly Meets Expectations A theoretical concept/framework is somewhat identified and analyzed for appropriateness. If the article lacks a concept/framework, a potential concept/framework is suggested, but it is somewhat inappropriate. 21 to >16.52 pts Below Expectations A theoretical concept/framework is somewhat identified and analyzed for appropriateness. If the article lacks a concept/framework, a potential concept/framework is suggested, is not identified or is grossly inappropriate. 16.52 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations A theoretical concept/framework is misidentified or not analyzed for appropriateness. Variables, Hypotheses, Questions, and Assumptions 14 to >12.46 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations IV and DV are identified and defined. Discussion on measurability is included. Research question and hypothesis are identified. 12.46 to >10.5 pts Mostly Meets Expectations IV and DV are somewhat identified and or partially defined. Discussion on measurability is somewhat included. Research question and hypothesis are partially identified. 10.5 to >8.26 pts Below Expectations IV and DV identification and definition are absent or severely lacking. Discussion on measurability is absent or inaccurate. Research question and hypothesis are not identified or grossly misidentified. 8.26 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations IV and DV identification and definition are absent. Discussion on measurability is absent. Research question and hypothesis are not identified. Total Points: 280 Criteria Ratings Pts 56 pts 42 pts 56 pts 14 pts Methodology 56 to >49.84 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations Type of design, sample size, study population, sampling method, and type of reasoning are properly identified. Reliability and validity of measurement tools, ethical considerations, and probability vs. non- probability sampling are discussed. 49.84 to >42.0 pts Mostly Meets Expectations Type of design, sample size, study population, sampling method, and type of reasoning are somewhat identified. Reliability and validity of measurement tools, ethical considerations, and probability vs. non-probability sampling are discussed, but some information is inaccurate. 42 to >33.04 pts Below Expectations Type of design, sample size, study population, sampling method, and type of reasoning are absent or misidentified. Reliability and validity of measurement tools, ethical considerations, and probability vs. non-probability sampling are either absent or grossly inaccurate. 33.04 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations Type of design, sample size, study population, sampling method, and type of reasoning are absent. Reliability and validity of measurement tools, ethical considerations, and probability vs. non- probability sampling are absent. Data Analysis 42 to >37.38 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations Data analysis tool is identified. An explanation on how the results are presented in the study is included and accurate. At least one finding is appropriately identified. 37.38 to >31.5 pts Mostly Meets Expectations Data analysis tool is somewhat identified. An incomplete explanation on how the results are presented in the study is included. At least one finding is identified. 31.5 to >24.78 pts Below Expectations Data analysis tool is absent or misidentified. An explanation on how the results are presented in the study is absent or grossly unclear. Findings are not included or are grossly inaccurate. 24.78 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations Data analysis tool is absent. An explanation on how the results are presented in the study is absent. Findings are not included. Summary, Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations 56 to >49.84 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations Strengths and limitations of the study are identified. A discussion on whether or not the study can be generalized is included. An evaluation of the findings, conclusions, and significance to nursing is included and appropriate. 49.84 to >42.0 pts Mostly Meets Expectations Strengths and limitations of the study are somewhat identified. A discussion on whether or not the study can be generalized is included but may not be fully developed. An evaluation of the findings, conclusions, and significance to nursing may not be fully developed. 42 to >33.04 pts Below Expectations Strengths and limitations of study are absent or lacking. A discussion on whether or not the study can be generalized is absent or lacking. An evaluation of the findings, conclusions, and significance to nursing is absent or inappropriate. 33.04 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations Strengths and limitations of study are absent. A discussion on whether or not the study can be generalized is absent. An evaluation of the findings, conclusions, and significance to nursing is absent. Mechanics and APA Format 14 to >12.46 pts Meets or Exceeds Expectations Written in a clear, concise, formal, and organized manner. Responses are mostly error free. Information from sources is appropriately paraphrased and accurately cited. 12.46 to >10.5 pts Mostly Meets Expectations Writing is generally clear and organized but is not concise or formal in language. Multiple errors exist in spelling and grammar with minor interference with readability or comprehension. Most information from sources is correctly paraphrased and cited. 10.5 to >8.26 pts Below Expectations Writing is generally unclear and unorganized. Some errors in spelling and grammar detract from readability and comprehension. Sources are missing or improperly cited. 8.26 to >0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations Writing is unclear and unorganized. Errors in spelling and grammar detract from readability and comprehension. Sources are missing. Appraisal and Application of Research EVIDENCE-BASED FOR NURSES PRACTICE © Ma dre dus /Sh utte rsto ck THE PEDAGOGY Evidence-Based Practice for Nurses: Appraisal and Application of Research, Fourth Edi-tion, drives comprehension through various strategies that meet the learning needs of students while also generating enthusiasm about the topic. This interactive approach addresses different learning styles, making this the ideal text to ensure mastery of key concepts. The pedagogical aids that appear in most chapters include the following: Chapter Objectives These objectives provide instructors and students with a snapshot of the key information they will encounter in each chapter. They serve as a checklist to help guide and focus study. Key Terms Found in a list at the beginning of each chapter and in bold within the chapter, these terms will create an expanded vocabulary in evidence-based practice. At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: Key terms CHAPter OBJeCtiVes ‹ Define evidence-based practice (EBP) ‹ List sources of evidence for nursing practice ‹ Identify barriers to the adoption of EBP and pinpoint strategies to overcome them ‹ Explain how the process of diffusion facilitates moving evidence into nursing practice ‹ Define research ‹ Discuss the contribution of research to EBP ‹ Categorize types of research ‹ Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research approaches ‹ Describe the sections found in research articles ‹ Describe the cycle of scientific development ‹ Identify historical occurrences that shaped the development of nursing as a science ‹ Identify factors that will continue to move nursing forward as a science ‹ Discuss what future trends may influence how nurses use evidence to improve the quality of patient care ‹ Identify five unethical studies involving the violation of the rights of human subjects abstract applied research barriers basic research cycle of scientific development deductive reasoning descriptive research discussion section early adopters empirical evidence evidence-based practice (EBP) explanatory research inductive reasoning innovation introduction Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital study laggards list of references methods section model of diffusion of innovations Nazi experiments Nuremberg Code predictive research pyramid of evidence qualitative research quantitative research replication study research research utilization results section review of literature theoretical framework theory Tuskegee study Willowbrook studies 9781284048902_CH01_Pass2.indd 2 10/05/14 2:56 AM Critical Thinking Exercises As an integral part of the learning process, the authors present scenarios and questions to spark insight into situations faced in practice. Test Your Knowledge These questions serve as benchmarks for the knowledge acquired throughout the chapter. After an outcome has been selected and measured, data are compiled and evaluated to draw conclusions. Demonstrating the effectiveness of an innovation is a challenge, and conclusions must not extend beyond the scope of the data. Evaluation is facilitated when appropriate outcomes and associated indicators are chosen. If the outcome is not clearly defined, then the measurements and subsequent evaluation will be flawed. For example, suppose that you are a member of an interdisciplinary team that has developed a nursing protocol that reduces the amount of time the patient remains on bed rest after a cardiac catheterization procedure from 6 hours to 4 hours. The outcome selected is absence of bleeding from the femoral arterial puncture site. No other indicators are measured. The results obtained after implementing the protocol revealed that there was an increase in bleeding at the femoral arterial site in the 4-hour bed rest patients compared to the 6-hour bed rest patients. Before concluding that a shorter bed rest time leads to an increase in femoral bleeding, a few additional questions need to be considered. First, was absence of bleed- ing defined in a measurable way? Because bleeding might be interpreted in several different ways, a precise definition of bleeding should have been provided to ensure consistency in reporting. Second, when should patients be assessed for absence of bleeding? Is the absence of bleeding to be assessed when the patient first ambulates or at a later time? Input from the staff prior to changing the nursing protocol could have clarified these questions, resulting in more reliable results. Another consideration in outcome evaluation is to obtain data relative to current practice for comparison purposes. To document the need for a practice change and to support a new protocol, baseline data might need to be collected tEst YOur knOWlEdgE 18-3 true/False 1. Baseline data are unimportant in outcome measurement. 2. Precise description of indicators is essential. 3. For complex analyses, the assistance of a statistician may be needed. 4. Input from staff can help clarify outcome measurement. How did you do? 1. F; 2. T; 3. T; 4. T FYi After an outcome has been selected and measured, data are compiled and evaluated to draw conclusions. Evaluation is facilitated when appropriate outcomes and associated indicators are chosen— conversely, if the outcome is not clearly defined, then the measurements and subsequent evaluation will be flawed. 498 ChaptER 18 Evaluating Outcomes of Innovations 9781284048902_CH18_Pass2.indd 498 17/05/14 10:29 AM treatment of human response, and advocacy in the care of individuals, fami- lies, communities, and populations” (ANA, 2003, p. 6). From the early days of the profession, students have been taught that a scientific attitude and method of work combined with “experience, trained senses, a mind trained to think, and the necessary characteristics of patience, accuracy, open-mindedness, truthfulness, persistence, and industry” (Harmer, 1933, p. 47) are essential components of good practice. Harmer goes on to say, “Each time this habit of looking, listening, feeling, or thinking is repeated it is strengthened until the habit of observation is firmly established” (p. 47). This still holds true today. Benner (1984) studied nurses in practice and concluded that to become an expert nurse one has to practice nursing a minimum of 5 years. There are no shortcuts to becoming an expert in one’s field. The development of knowledge and skill takes time and work. As nurses encounter new situations, learning takes place. Nursing knowledge develops and is refined as nurses practice (Waterman, Webb, & Williams, 1995). In this way, nurses adapt theories to fit their practices. Unfortunately, much that is learned about theory during practice remains with the nurse because nurses rarely share their practice expertise through conference presentations and publications. The discipline will be enriched when nurses engage more formally in disseminating their knowledge about theory in practice. The Relationships Among Theory, Research, and Practice Practice relies on research and theory and also provides the questions that require more work by theorists and researchers. Each informs and supports the other in the application and development of nursing knowledge. When the relationships among theory, research, and practice are in harmony, the discipline is best served, ultimately resulting in better patient outcomes (Maas, 2006). The relationships are dynamic and flow in all directions. CRiTiCAL THinking ExERCisE 5-2 A nurse on a surgical floor observes that several new approaches are being used to dress wounds. She observes that some methods appear to promote healing faster than others do. While reviewing the research literature, she is unable to locate any research about the dressings she is using. How might she go about testing her theory that some methods are better than others? Can this be done deductively, inductively, or using mixed methods? Are any theories presently available related to wound healing, and if so, where might she locate these? What concepts might be important in forming the question? © Ju les_ Kita no/ Shu tter Sto ck, Inc. 5.1 How Are Theory, Research, and Practice Related? 141 9781284048902_CH05_Pass2.indd 141 10/05/14 2:44 AM FYI Quick tidbits and facts are pulled out in chapter margins to highlight important aspects of the chapter topic. THE PEDAGOGY iii Rapid Review This succinct list at the end of the chapter compiles the most pertinent and key information for quick review and later reference. Apply What You Have Learned This outstanding feature applies newly acquired knowledge to specific evidence-based practice scenarios and research studies. apparent. Organizing the review with a grid is a positive strategy to overcome the barrier of lack of time because it reduces the need to repeatedly sort through articles during future discussions. Also, within this text’s digital resources, you will find a grid to use for this exercise. Two articles (Cohen & Shastay, 2008; Tomietto, Sartor, Mazzocoli, & Palese, 2012) are summarized as an example. Read Kliger, Blegen, Gootee, and O’Neil (2009). Enter information about this article into the first two columns. In column 1, use APA format, like in the example, because this is the most commonly used style for nursing publications. Rapid Review » Today’s work environment requires that nurses be adept at gathering and appraising evidence for clinical practice and assisting patients with healthcare information needs. » Literature reviews provide syntheses of current research and scholarly literature. A well-done literature review can provide support for EBP. » An understanding of the scientific literature publication cycle provides a basis for making decisions about the most current information on a topic. » Primary sources are original sources of information presented by the people who created them. Secondary sources are resulting commentar- ies, summaries, reviews, or interpretations of primary sources. » Many research journals involve peer review. » There are many ways to categorize sources. Scholarly, trade, and popular literature is one way. Another categorizing system involves periodicals, journals, and magazines. » There are four types of review: narrative, integrative, meta-analysis, and systematic. » Understanding how sources are structured can simplify a search of the literature. » Sources can be identified through both print indexes and electronic data- bases. Topics, subject matter, and format may vary but all include citation information. » Helpful strategies to use when conducting a search include cita- tion chasing, measurements of recall and precision, keyword and controlled vocabulary searches, Boolean operators, truncation, 4.5 Keeping It Ethical 129 9781284048902_CH04_Pass2.indd 129 10/05/14 2:32 AM reFerenCes Aitken, L. M., Hackwood, B., Crouch, S., Clayton, S., West, N., Carney, D., & Jack, L. (2011). Creating an environment to implement and sustain evidence based practice: A developmental process. Australian Critical Care, 24, 244–254. American Medical Association. (1998). Information from unethical experiments (CEJA Report 5–A-98). Retrieved from http://www.ama-assn .org/resources/doc/code-medical-ethics/230a.pdf American Nurses Association. (2010). National Database of Nursing Quality Indicators: Guidelines for data collection on the American Nurses Association’s National Quality forum endorsed measures: Nursing Care Hours per Patient Day, Skill Mix, Falls, Falls with Injury. Retrieved from http://www.odh.ohio.gov/~/media/ODH/ASSETS/Files/dspc/health\%20 care\%20service/nursestaffing7-13-10materials.ashx Barnsteiner, J., & Prevost, S. (2002). How to implement evidence-based practice. Some tried and true pointers. Reflections on Nursing Leadership, 28(2), 18–21. Barta, K. M. (1995). Information-seeking, research utilization, and barriers to research utilization of pediatric nurse educators. Journal of Professional Nursing, 11, 49–57. Benner, P. (1984). From novice to expert: Excellence and power in clinical nursing practice. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. aPPlY What YOu havE lEarnED Sign into a database for nursing literature (i.e., CINAHL, ProQuest, PubMed). For this chapter, you will need to obtain the following two articles: Pipe, T. B., Kelly, A., LeBrun, G., Schmidt, D., Atherton, P., & Robinson, C. (2008). A prospective descriptive study exploring hope, spiritual well-being, and quality of life in hospitalized patients. MEDSURG Nursing, 17, 247–257. Flanagan, J. M., Carroll, D. L., & Hamilton, G. A. (2010). The long-term lived experience of patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators. MEDSURG Nursing, 19, 113–119. One of these articles used qualitative methods, and the other used quantitative methods. Identify which is which. After you have done that, for each article identify the various sections that make up a research article. You may want to share these articles with nurses during your next clinical experience and consider ways the recommendations can be incorporated into practice. ©  Li so vs ka ya N at ali a/ Sh ut te rS to ck , In c. 36 CHAPter 1 What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 9781284048902_CH01_Pass2.indd 36 10/05/14 2:56 AM iv THE PEDAGOGY Case Examples Found in select chapters, these vignettes illustrate research questions and studies in actual clinical settings and provide critical thinking challenges. Some researchers claim their work is nursing research because the researcher is a nurse or because the researcher studied nurses. But it is the focus on nurs- ing practice that defines nursing research. The mere fact that the research was conducted by a nurse or that nurses were studied does not necessarily qualify the research as nursing research. Historically, and even today, approaches to practice are often based on “professional opinion” when research is absent. Case Example 5-1 provides such a historical illustration. It also demonstrates the value of systematically studying the effects of interventions. CAsE ExAmPLE 5-1 Early methods of Resuscitation: An Example of Practice Based on Untested Theory T hroughout the past century, nursing students have been taught how to resuscitate patients who stop breathing. As early as 1912, students were taught a variety of methods for providing artificial respiration. It was theorized that moving air in and out of the lungs would be effective. One of these techniques was designed for resuscitating infants. Byrd‘s Method of Infant Resuscitation (Goodnow, 1919) directed the nurse to hold the infant‘s legs in one hand, and the head and back in the other. The nurse would then double the child over by pressing the head and the knees against the chest. Then the nurse would extend the knees to undouble the child. This would be repeated, but “not too rapidly” (Goodnow, 1919, p. 305). At intervals, the nurse would dip the child into a mustard bath in the hope that this would also stimulate respiration. The nurse would continue this until help arrived. Other methods of artificial respiration taught included Sylvester‘s method for adults (Goodnow, 1919). The patient was placed flat on his back. The nurse would grasp the patient‘s elbows and press them close to his sides, pushing in the ribs to expel air from the chest. The arms would then be slowly pulled over the head, allowing the chest to expand. The arms would be lowered to put pressure on the chest, and the cycle was then repeated. This was to be done at the rate of 18 to 20 cycles per minute. By 1939, postmortem examinations after unsuccessful resuscitations showed veins to be engorged while the arteries were empty (Harmer & Henderson, 1942). Although this evidence indicated other factors needed to be considered, resuscitation techniques continued to focus only on the respiratory system. The same methods of resuscitation that were in use in 1919 were still being taught in 1942. Although students were still being taught the Sylvester method, they were also learning the new “Schäfer method” (Harmer & Henderson, 1942, p. 9401). This method involved placing the patient in a prone position. The nurse would straddle the thighs, facing the patient‘s head, and alternatively apply and remove pressure to the thorax. Eventually, it was noted that what was believed to be best practice was not effective. Results of postmortem examinations indicated that something was missing in the techniques, and therefore research was begun to determine best practice. Today, nursing students are taught cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques based on updated research and theories. 136 CHAPTER 5 Linking Theory, Research, and Practice 9781284048902_CH05_Pass2.indd 136 10/05/14 2:44 AM fully operational in 1996. It aims to improve the effectiveness of nursing practice and healthcare outcomes. Some initiatives include conducting systematic reviews, collaborating with expert researchers to facilitate development of practice infor- mation sheets, and designing, promoting, and delivering short courses about EBP. 2.2 keeping It Ethical Ethical research exists because international, national, organizational, and individual factors are in place to protect the rights of individuals. Without these factors, scientific studies that violate human rights, such as the Nazi experiments, could proceed unchecked. Many factors of ethical research, which evolved in response to unethical scientific conduct, are aimed at pro- tecting human rights. Human rights are “freedoms, to which all humans are entitled, often held to include the right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law” (Houghton Mifflin, 2007). Rights cannot be claimed unless they are justified in the eyes of another individual or group of individuals (Haber, 2006). When individuals have rights, others have obligations, that is, they are required to act in particular ways. This means that when nursing research is being conducted, subjects participating in stud- ies have rights, and all nurses are obligated to protect those rights. International and National Factors: guidelines for Conducting Ethical research One of the earliest international responses to unethical scientific conduct was the Nuremberg Code. This code was contained in the written verdict at the trial of the German Nazi physicians accused of torturing prisoners during medical experiments. Writers of the Nuremberg Code (Table 2-3) identified that voluntary consent was absolutely necessary for participation in research. Research that avoided harm, produced results that benefited society, and allowed participants to withdraw at will was deemed ethical. The Nuremberg Code became the standard for other codes of conduct. Key Terms human rights: Freedoms to which all humans are entitled obligations: Requirements to act in particular ways At the end of this section, you will be able to: ‹ Discuss international and national initiatives designed to promote ethical conduct ‹ Describe the rights that must be protected and the three ethical principles that must be upheld when conducting research ‹ Explain the composition and functions of IRBs at the organizational level ‹ Discuss the nurse’s role as patient advocate in research situations 2.2 Keeping It Ethical 55 9781284048902_CH02_Pass2.indd 55 10/05/14 4:01 AM Keeping It Ethical Relevant ethical content concludes each chapter to ensure that ethics are a consideration during every step of the nursing process. THE PEDAGOGY v Appraisal and Application of Research Edited by Nola A. Schmidt, PhD, RN, CNE Professor College of Nursing and Health Professions Valparaiso University Valparaiso, Indiana Janet M. Brown, PhD, RN Professor Emeritus College of Nursing and Health Professions Valparaiso University Valparaiso, Indiana FOURTH EDITION EVIDENCE-BASED FOR NURSES PRACTICE World Headquarters Jones & Bartlett Learning 5 Wall Street Burlington, MA 01803 978-443-5000 [email protected] www.jblearning.com Jones & Bartlett Learning books and products are available through most bookstores and online booksellers. To contact Jones & Bartlett Learning directly, call 800-832-0034, fax 978-443-8000, or visit our website, www.jblearning.com. Substantial discounts on bulk quantities of Jones & Bartlett Learning publications are available to corporations, professional associations, and other qualified organizations. For details and specific discount information, contact the special sales department at Jones & Bartlett Learning via the above contact information or send an email to [email protected]ng.com. Copyright © 2019 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, an Ascend Learning Company All rights reserved. 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Cella Director of Product Management: Amanda Martin Product Assistant: Christina Freitas Associate Production Editor: Alex Schab Senior Marketing Manager: Jennifer Scherzay Production Services Manager: Colleen Lamy Product Fulfillment Manager: Wendy Kilborn Composition: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Cover Design: Kristin Parker Rights & Media Specialist: Wes DeShano Media Development Editor: Troy Liston Cover Image (Title Page, Part Opener, Chapter Opener): © Madredus/Shutterstock  Printing and Binding: LSC Communications Cover Printing: LSC Communications Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Schmidt, Nola A., editor. | Brown, Janet M. (Janet Marie), 1947–     editor. Title: Evidence-based practice for nurses : appraisal and application of     research / [edited by] Nola A. Schmidt and Janet M. Brown. Description: Fourth edition. | Burlington, Massachusetts : Jones & Bartlett     Learning, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017036581 | ISBN 9781284122909 Subjects: | MESH: Nursing Research--methods | Evidence-Based Nursing Classification: LCC RT81.5 | NLM WY 20.5 | DDC 610.73072--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017036581 6048 Printed in the United States of America 21 20 19 18 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 https://lccn.loc.gov/2017036581 © Ma dre dus /Sh utte rsto ck DEDICATION For Mom, whose love and support are endless. —N. A. S. To my husband, my children, and my granddaughters and grandson, who enrich my life in every way. —J. M. B. © Ma dre dus /Sh utte rsto ck Contributors xix Reviewers xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxix UNIT 1 Introduction to Evidence-Based Practice 1 CHAPTER 1 What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 3 Nola A. Schmidt and Janet M. Brown 1.1 EBP: What Is It? 3 1.2 What Is Nursing Research? 14 1.3 How Has Nursing Evolved as a Science? 23 1.4 What Lies Ahead? 31 1.5 Keeping It Ethical 34 CONTENTS CHAPTER 2 Using Evidence Through Collaboration to Promote Excellence in Nursing Practice 43 Emily Griffin and Marita G. Titler 2.1 The Five Levels of Collaboration 43 2.2 Keeping It Ethical 54 UNIT 2 Acquisition of Knowledge 67 CHAPTER 3 Identifying Research Questions 69 Susie Adams 3.1 How Clinical Problems Guide Research Questions 69 3.2 Developing Hypotheses 77 3.3 Formulating EBP Questions 84 3.4 Keeping It Ethical 87 CHAPTER 4 Finding Sources of Evidence 93 Patricia Mileham 4.1 Purpose of Finding Evidence 93 4.2 Types of Evidence 96 4.3 How Sources Are Organized 102 4.4 How to Search for Evidence 110 4.5 Keeping It Ethical 123 CHAPTER 5 Linking Theory, Research, and Practice 131 Elsabeth Jensen 5.1 How Are Theory, Research, and Practice Related? 131 5.2 Keeping It Ethical 141 xii CONTENTS UNIT 3 Persuasion 147 CHAPTER 6 Key Principles of Quantitative Designs 149 Rosalind M. Peters 6.1 Chart the Course: Selecting the Best Design 149 6.2 What Is Validity? 155 6.3 Categorizing Designs According to Time 161 6.4 Keeping It Ethical 166 CHAPTER 7 Quantitative Designs: Using Numbers to Provide Evidence 171 Rosalind M. Peters 7.1 Experimental Designs 171 7.2 Quasi-Experimental Designs 177 7.3 Nonexperimental Designs 180 7.4 Specific Uses for Quantitative Designs 186 7.5 Keeping It Ethical 188 CHAPTER 8 Epidemiologic Designs: Using Data to Understand Populations 193 Amy C. Cory 8.1 Epidemiology and Nursing 193 8.2 Infectious Diseases and Outbreak Investigations 195 8.3 Measures of Disease Frequency 197 8.4 Descriptive Epidemiology 200 8.5 Descriptive Study Designs 204 CONTENTS xiii 8.6 Analytic Study Designs 208 8.7 Screening 213 8.8 Evaluating Health Outcomes and Services 215 8.9 Keeping It Ethical 216 CHAPTER 9 Qualitative Designs: Using Words to Provide Evidence 221 Kristen L. Mauk 9.1 What Is Qualitative Research? 221 9.2 The Four Major Types of Qualitative Research 230 9.3 Keeping It Ethical 244 CHAPTER 10 Collecting Evidence 253 Jan Dougherty 10.1 Data Collection: Planning and Piloting 253 10.2 Collecting Quantitative Data 255 10.3 Validity and Reliability 263 10.4 Collecting Qualitative Data 271 10.5 Keeping It Ethical 278 CHAPTER 11 Using Samples to Provide Evidence 285 Ann H. White 11.1 Fundamentals of Sampling 285 11.2 Sampling Methods 290 11.3 Sample Size: Does It Matter? 299 11.4 Keeping It Ethical 302 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER 12 Other Sources of Evidence 309 Cynthia L. Russell 12.1 The Pyramid of the 5 Ss 309 12.2 Using the Pyramid of the 5 Ss for Evidence-Based Practice 320 12.3 Keeping It Ethical 324 UNIT 4 Decision 329 CHAPTER 13 What Do the Quantitative Data Mean? 331 Rosalind M. Peters, Nola A. Schmidt, and Moira Fearncombe 13.1 Using Statistics to Describe the Sample 331 13.2 Using Frequencies to Describe Samples 333 13.3 Measures of Central Tendency 337 13.4 Distribution Patterns 341 13.5 Measures of Variability 344 13.6 Inferential Statistics: Can the Findings Be Applied to the Population? 352 13.7 Reducing Error When Deciding About Hypotheses 355 13.8 Using Statistical Tests to Make Inferences About Populations 361 13.9 What Does All This Mean for EBP? 370 13.10 Keeping It Ethical 373 CHAPTER 14 What Do the Qualitative Data Mean? 379 Kristen L. Mauk 14.1 Qualitative Data Analysis 379 CONTENTS xv 14.2 Qualitative Data Interpretation 385 14.3 Qualitative Data Evaluation 391 14.4 Keeping It Ethical 396