Fluent Essays

(Chapter 4, Jesus)  On the chapter that you are assigned, please write a 300 word (1-page) Synopsis and Reflection. The Synopsis will include a 150-word (½ page) summary of the assigned chapter followed by 150 words (½ page) of personal reflections and questions. Include in this Journal Summary details of information from the chapter that is new and particularly interesting to you. 2 3 © 2009, 2018 by Mark Allan Powell Published by Baker Academic a division of Baker Publishing Group P.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287 www.bakeracademic.com Ebook edition created 2018 Ebook corrections 10.02.2018 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC. ISBN 978-1-4934-1313-3 Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989, by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved. All maps are based upon originals created by International Mapping. Interior design by Brian Brunsting, Baker Publishing Group 4 http://www.bakeracademic.com For Missy Baby I love you 5 Contents Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Dedication 5 List of Maps 9 Preface 11 1. New Testament Background: The Roman World 17 2. New Testament Background: The Jewish World 39 3. The New Testament Writings 59 4. Jesus 77 5. The Gospels 95 6. Matthew 119 7. Mark 141 8. Luke 161 9. John 183 10. Acts 205 11. New Testament Letters 231 12. Paul 247 13. Romans 271 14. 1 Corinthians 289 15. 2 Corinthians 309 16. Galatians 323 17. Ephesians 339 18. Philippians 357 19. Colossians 371 20. 1 Thessalonians 387 21. 2 Thessalonians 403 6 22. The Pastoral Letters: 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus 413 23. Philemon 431 24. Hebrews 443 25. James 461 26. 1 Peter 479 27. 2 Peter 497 28. The Johannine Letters: 1 John, 2 John, 3 John 507 29. Jude 523 30. Revelation 531 Glossary 553 Art Credits 577 Index 581 Back Cover 592 7 Maps 1.1 The Roman Empire 18 1.2 Palestine in the time of Jesus 20 4.1 Galilee in the time of Jesus 89 10.1 Paul’s first missionary journey 206 10.2 Paul’s second missionary journey 207 10.3 Paul’s third missionary journey 208 10.4 Paul’s journey to Rome 210 12.1 Paul’s world in his time 256 12.2 Paul’s world today 257 14.1 Achaia 293 16.1 Northern and southern Galatia 327 17.1 Pauline cities around the Aegean Sea 342 26.1 Asia Minor: Provinces addressed in 1 Peter 483 30.1 Asia Minor: Churches addressed in Revelation 545 8 Preface [Kume Bryant] Welcome to the New Testament! You probably are a student at a college, university, or seminary. Perhaps you are taking this course because you are really interested in learning more about these Christian writings, or perhaps you just need the class to meet a requirement. Either way, my intent in writing this book is to help you have an interesting, enjoyable, and intellectually rewarding experience. The New Testament is a fascinating book. And, whatever your experience with it has been up to now, an academic encounter in an educational setting is sure to open your eyes to ideas and concepts that you have not 9 considered previously. Some will be provocative, some might be inspiring, a few could be exasperating, but not many will be boring. Bottom line: this should be a good class. Let’s take a quick overview of this book. A few chapters deal with general topics (e.g., the world of the New Testament, the life and thought of Paul), but most of the book deals directly with the New Testament writings themselves. A typical chapter takes one of the New Testament books and offers you three things: a brief overview of the book’s contents a discussion of historical background questions: Who wrote the book? Where? When? Why? a presentation of major themes: What is the message of the book? What topics in this book have interested people the most over the years? Now let me note a few things that are distinctive about this particular New Testament introduction, things that might set it apart from other textbooks that you have used (and from other New Testament introductions). The Chapters Can Be Read in Almost Any Order I think that the book works quite nicely if it is simply read in the manner in which it was written, taking up each part of the New Testament in its canonical order (i.e., the order in which the writings appear in modern editions of the New Testament). But many professors will want to introduce the chapters in a different order, and they may have good reasons for doing so. Here are a few ideas: Some may want to read the chapter on Mark before the chapter on Matthew because they think that Mark was the first Gospel to be written. It is also the shortest of the four Gospels and, for that reason, can make a good “starter Gospel” for beginning students. Some may want to read the chapters on Luke and Acts back to back because those two New Testament books were probably written by the same person. Some may want to read the chapters on Ephesians and Colossians or on Jude and 2 Peter back to back. In both of these pairs the two books appear to be related to each other and often are treated as “literary siblings.” Some may want to read the chapters on Paul’s letters before reading the chapters on the Gospels because, chronologically, Paul’s letters were written before any of the Gospels. There are other possible variations. The point is, don’t freak out if your professor scrambles the book and directs you to read chapters out of order. The book was designed to work that way, and your professor (probably) knows what she or he is doing. The Book Urges Engagement of Ideas but Does Not Attempt to Resolve Disputes The book is somewhat unique in its approach. The standard practice for a New Testament textbook is for the author to (1) present questions and controversies that have arisen concerning the New Testament documents, (2) describe various positions that have been taken regarding these issues, and (3) tell the student which ideas 10 and positions ought to be accepted (i.e., which views are correct in the mind of the author). I have omitted this third step, not because I have no opinions about such matters but because as a teacher I don’t usually find it helpful for a textbook to make such determinations for me (or for my students). I assume that your professor will offer you some guidance with regard to evaluating the different ideas and will do so in a manner appropriate to the particular academic environment in which you are using this book. Such assessments are made differently in different contexts (a Protestant Bible college, a Roman Catholic seminary, a state university): different principles, priorities, and presuppositions come into play, and what counts as convincing evidence in one setting might commend less attention in another. In any case, the goal of this book is engagement, not indoctrination. However, if we should ever meet, I will be happy to tell you what I think you should believe about all sorts of things! The Book Draws on the Rich Resources of Christian Art You probably have already noticed this book’s extensive use of artwork—assuming you were not so intrigued by this preface that you took to reading it before looking at anything else. This book contains the usual maps and historical photos that characterize conventional New Testament introductions, but it also offers about 150 reproductions of artwork from many lands and many centuries. Why? I hope that these illustrations have aesthetic appeal and make your use of the textbook more pleasant. Life should be pleasant—or at least as pleasant as it can be—and studying is not always the most pleasurable of pursuits. Perhaps the art will help. There’s not much in the art that you will have to learn for tests at any rate, so be grateful for that. The individual works illustrate key themes or points that are made in the book or in the New Testament writings themselves. They have not been chosen haphazardly; each work corresponds to a motif or concept or illustrates some particular point that is discussed. Sometimes this is obvious; other times you might not get it at first (“What’s this in here for?”). Think about it, ask someone else, let the art inspire reflection and conversation. I hope that the art will convey something of the influence of these writings—the importance of the New Testament to history and to culture. Much of the art looks very old; some looks very new. Some pieces are representational; others are abstract. Some are Western; others Eastern. Some you may like; others not so much. Taken together, they illustrate the range of the New Testament’s spatial, temporal, cultural, and aesthetic impact on our world. They depict its appeal, which helps to explain why we are studying such a book in the first place. The Book Has a Companion Website That Features Numerous Additional Resources The website (www.IntroducingNT.com) accompanying this book is filled with materials that you may find useful in this course and beyond. If you like, you can print and reproduce many of these materials for use in teaching the New Testament to others, should you find yourself in a position to do that. A few of these items are indicated by the lists of EXPLORE references printed at the end of each chapter— those references alert you to some of the things that are available at the website that pertain to the topic of 11 http://www.IntroducingNT.com each chapter. But you really want to go to the website to see everything that is available. The materials there are of different sorts: All the various boxes in the book itself are also on the website. Thus if you want to use one of those items as a handout in some context, you may simply print the item from the website (rather than trying to photocopy from the book). Many additional items that could have been boxes in the book are also on the website. I had too many to put in the book itself, and I thought that readers might like to have some of these materials as extras. Several long pieces presenting short essays or in-depth discussion of matters are included on the website. These provide further content regarding matters that are touched on only briefly in the book. Bibliographies for the various books of the New Testament and related topics discussed in the text are on the website. These will help the student who wants to do advanced study or write a term paper. The website’s multimedia resources, including videos, maps, and interactive learning tools, illustrate and reinforce key material from the book. And, although most of the EXPLORE materials are educational (this is a textbook), I have also included quite a few items that I think are just interesting or fun. The website also features study aids, such as chapter summaries, chapter objectives, study questions, flash cards, and self-quizzes; instructor resources, including PowerPoint chapter outlines, discussion prompts, pedagogical suggestions, and a test/quiz bank. Acknowledgments and an Exciting Announcement Those who appreciate this book and find it of value in their study of the New Testament owe a debt of gratitude to Trinity Lutheran Seminary, the fine institution where I teach. Community leaders at Trinity provided me with time and resources to complete this project, and they did so for no other reason than that they are committed to furthering theological and biblical education. Likewise, those who appreciate this book should be grateful to many good people associated with Baker Academic: James Kinney and James Ernest had the vision for this project that culminated in the highly successful first edition of the work; Brian Bolger served as project manager; Rachel Klompmaker secured rights for most of the artwork; and Jeremy Wells developed the website. Kinney, Bolger, and Wells continued their service for this new edition, and they were joined by textbook specialist Christina Jasko, who had primary responsibility for the greatly expanded website, and acquisitions assistant Brandy Scritchfield, who obtained rights for the artwork and other wonderful images. Join me in offering thanks to all these people. Exciting announcement: Baker Academic is preparing a Spanish version of this book, and when it becomes available, los que pueden leer un poco de español deben obtenerlo y leer todo de nuevo para practicar. I think that’s it for now. Why are you reading a preface? Shouldn’t you be studying? 12 13 1 New Testament Background The Roman World [Photo © Tallandier / Bridgeman Images] 14 phylactery: a small case containing texts of Scripture worn on the forehead or left arm by pious Jews in obedience to Exodus 13:9, 16; Deuteronomy 6:8; 11:18. casting lots: a practice akin to “drawing straws,” used to select a person for a given task; “lots” were marked stones similar to dice (see Acts 1:26). The world of the New Testament can be a strange place for the uninitiated. People beat their breasts (Luke 18:13; 23:48), tear their clothing (Mark 14:63), speak in tongues (Acts 2:4–13; 1 Cor. 14), and wash one another’s feet (John 13:3–15). Some people wear phylacteries, which Jesus thinks should be narrow, not broad (Matt. 23:5). When people eat, they don’t sit at a table; they lie on the floor (John 13:23, 25). When they want to elect an important leader, they don’t take a vote; they cast lots (Acts 1:26). This world is often a harsh one by our standards. When a woman wants to make a request of a man, she kneels in the dirt and waits for him to call on her (Matt. 20:20); when a man defaults on a debt, his wife and children are sold into slavery (Matt. 18:25). It is a brutal world, one in which thieves can be nailed naked to wooden poles and hung up in public where people can watch them slowly die (Mark 15:27). It is a world in which some people think that a woman who commits adultery should be hauled out into the street and pelted with rocks until she is dead (John 8:2–5). It is also a world filled with surprising tenderness and dignity. People speak freely and affectionately of how deeply they love one another (Phil. 1:3–8; 4:1). Families are valued, friendships are treasured, and hospitality to strangers can almost be taken for granted. It is a world where faith, hope, and love are primary values (1 Cor. 13:13) and where the retention or attainment of honor trumps all other goals in life. This is also a world with a finely tuned moral compass, with some widely accepted notions of what constitutes virtue and what constitutes vice (see, e.g., Rom. 1:29–31; 13:13; 1 Cor. 5:10–11; 6:9–10; 2 Cor. 6:6–7; Gal. 5:19–23). All the books of the New Testament were written by people whom we would call Christians, so in order to understand them, we have to know a few things about what these Christians believed: what they valued, what they feared, how they lived. But, to be a bit more specific, all the books of the New Testament were written by Roman Christians—that is, Christians who lived in the Roman Empire. Furthermore, even though all these books were written by Christians, not all were written about Christians. Jesus, John the Baptist, the Virgin Mary, and many other celebrated New Testament personalities were not Christians, but Jews. To be more specific, they were Roman Jews—that is, Jews who lived in the Roman Empire. To understand the New Testament, then, we must know about three different worlds: the Christian world, the Jewish world, and the Roman world. In all of the New Testament writings, these three worlds overlap. 15 BCE: an abbreviation meaning “before the common era”; in academic studies BCE is typically used for dates in place of BC (“before Christ”). CE: an abbreviation meaning “common era”; in academic studies CE is typically used for dates in place of AD (anno Domini, “in the year of our Lord”). Map 1.1. The Roman Empire. Roman Rule during the Christian Era Jesus was born during the reign of the first great Roman emperor, Caesar Augustus (27 BCE–14 CE), and he conducted his ministry during the reign of the next emperor, Tiberius (14–37 CE). Rome is a long way from Jerusalem, but the emperor’s presence was always felt. Later, as Christianity moved out into the world around the Mediterranean Sea, the new faith came to the attention of the emperors in ways that invited direct engagement. For example, the Roman historian Suetonius reports that the emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome around 49 CE due to a disturbance over someone known as “Chrestus” (probably a mangled reference to Christ). Claudius’s successor, Nero, violently persecuted Christians, murdering them in sadistic ways that generally repulsed the Roman public. For Jesus and his followers in Palestine, however, the local Roman rulers had more immediate relevance than the emperors in faraway Rome. When the Romans conquered a country, they typically set up a king, governor, or some other ruler in the land, but they also tried to preserve some institutions of native rule. Thus, according to the New Testament, a council of Jewish leaders, the Sanhedrin, had authority in Jerusalem in some matters (Mark 14:55–64; Acts 5:21–40), but the Roman authorities always had the final say (cf. John 18:31). Some knowledge of these Roman authorities is important for understanding the New Testament, so here we look briefly at some of these rulers. Herod the Great 16 Herod the Great ruled all of Palestine from 37 to 4 BCE. He was first appointed king by Marc Antony but was later confirmed in that position by Antony’s archrival, Caesar Augustus. The fact that he attained support from both of these rival leaders indicates that he was adept at political maneuvering (switching sides at exactly the right time). Herod would also become known as a master builder; his projects included a harbor at Caesarea and a number of fortresses (including Masada, Machaerus, and the Herodium). He rebuilt the ancient city of Samaria into the Greek metropolis Sebaste and, perhaps most important, was responsible for expanding and refurbishing the Jewish temple in Jerusalem. At the time of Jesus, this “Herodian temple” was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world; its pinnacle was the highest architectural point in the world. B ox 1 . 1 H e ro d an d th e Te m pl e The Jewish Roman historian Josephus reports, “In the fifteenth year of his reign, (Herod) restored the temple and, by erecting new foundation-walls, enlarged the surrounding area to double its former extent. The expenditure devoted to this work was incalculable, its magnificence never surpassed” (Jewish War 1.401). Josephus, Jewish War: Books 1–2, trans. H. St. J. Thackeray, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927), §1.401. 17 Map 1.2. Palestine in the time of Jesus. 18 magi: astrologers or sorcerers associated with Persian religion. tetrarch: a ruler of a quarter of a province or region. Fig. 1.1. Herod the baby-killer. Herod the Great will always be remembered for “the massacre of the innocents” described in Matthew 2:1–18 and portrayed in this fifth- century fresco from Verona (northern Italy). The story is not mentioned in any other ancient record, but historians agree that it seems in keeping with the sort of atrocities for which the otherwise capable ruler was renowned. (Bridgeman Images) Ethnically an Idumean, Herod was considered to be “half-Jewish,” but he was viewed by the Jewish people as a foreigner and a Roman collaborator. Though Herod the Great appears to have been a competent ruler in many respects, he was famously paranoid to the point that he actually inspired a Roman proverb attributed to Caesar Augustus: “Better to be a pig than a son in the house of Herod” (the Romans found it humorous that Herod did not eat pork but did kill three of his children when he suspected them of wanting to usurp his throne). Herod also murdered his Jewish wife, Mariamne, when he suspected her of plotting against him, and this incident inspired numerous legends (e.g., tales of how he remained hopelessly in love with her and/or was haunted by her ghost). Herod was ruler of Palestine at the time Jesus was born (Matt. 2:1), and he remains known to Christians for the biblical story in which he confronts the magi and orders a massacre of babies in Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1–18). Herod Antipas Herod Antipas ruled Perea and Galilee from 4 BCE to 39 CE. In Roman literature he is often referred to simply as “Antipas,” but the New Testament Gospels consistently call him “Herod,” and this can lead 19 prefect: in the Roman Empire, a magistrate or high official whose to some confusion, since Herod the Great is also called “Herod” in the New Testament. In any case, Herod Antipas ruled less territory than did Herod the Great (whose lands were divided when he died), and he was only a tetrarch, not a king. Still, his tenure was a long one, and it included the entire time of Jesus’s life and ministry in Galilee. Fig. 1.2. Death of a prophet. Mark 6:14–29 tells the story of a gruesome banquet in which Herod Antipas provides his stepdaughter with “the head of John the Baptist on a platter” after her mother, Herodias, prompts her to request this as a reward for pleasing the drunken ruler with her dancing. (Bridgeman Images) About the time Jesus began his public ministry, John the Baptist criticized Antipas for marrying his niece Herodias, who was already married to a different uncle. Antipas had John arrested and, later, beheaded at Herodias’s request (Mark 6:14–29). Luke’s Gospel reports that Antipas also took an ominous interest in Jesus, who refers to the ruler as a “fox” (13:31–33)—probably a reference to his penchant for violence (the Jews considered foxes to be rapacious animals that would kill not only for food but also for sport). According to Luke, Antipas heard speculation that Jesus might be John the Baptist raised from the dead (9:7–9), and he examined Jesus briefly when he was arrested in Jerusalem, hoping to see Jesus perform a miracle (23:6–12). Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate ruled Judea as a prefect or procurator from 26 to 36 CE. He was, in essence, a governor who served as the representative 20 duties and level of authority varied in different contexts. procurator: a governor appointed by the Roman emperor to administer a province for an indefinite period of time. of Caesar. Pilate is portrayed in some literature (notably the writings of Philo of Alexandria) as a cruel ruler who hated the Jews and did not understand their religion. Some scholars think that this vilification is perhaps exaggerated, but many reports do indicate that Pilate’s term in office was marred by episodes of conflict and violence. During his first week in power he sought to install imperial banners in Jerusalem, which precipitated a crisis among Jews, who saw the banners as idolatrous. Embarrassed, Pilate removed the banners in response to virulent protest and threats of riot. He later used temple funds to finance an aqueduct, and this precipitated more protests, but this time he did not back down; he sent soldiers (disguised as civilians) into the crowd of protesters and, at a prearranged signal, had them beat and kill people at random. The New Testament reports that Pilate was the governor who sentenced Jesus to be crucified while also declaring him to be innocent (Matt. 27:1–26; Mark 15:1–15; Luke 23; John 18:28–19:26). Some years later, Pilate was recalled after using extreme force to suppress a religious revival led by a Samaritan prophet. Two more procurators of Judea figure in later New Testament stories: Felix (53–60 CE) and Festus (60–62 CE), both of whom kept Paul imprisoned in Caesarea and presided over his hearings there (Acts 23–25). 21 Fig. 1.3. Christ before Pontius Pilate. This painting by Hungarian artist Tamas Galambos tries to capture the contrast between the tranquil power of an ascetic Jesus (wasted away from a life of self-denial) and the pomposity of Roman rule, evident in Pontius Pilate. (Bridgeman Images) Herod Agrippa I Herod Agrippa I ruled Galilee (like Herod Antipas) from 37 to 41 CE and then became king over all of Palestine (like his grandfather Herod the Great) from 41 to 44 CE. He is also simply called “Herod” in the New Testament, which can be confusing for readers who do not realize there are three different people who 22 bear that name; also, the person called “Agrippa” in Acts 25:13–26:32 is not Herod Agrippa I but is a later ruler of Galilee whom historians call “Herod Agrippa II.” Herod Agrippa I was a politically popular and successful ruler, but he persecuted the fledgling Christian movement in Jerusalem, putting Jesus’s disciple James to death and imprisoning Peter (Acts 12:1–3). He ultimately met with a somewhat gruesome death, which the New Testament attributes to divine wrath (Acts 12:20–23). Fig. 1.4. The Triumph of Truth. This work, by nineteenth-century Italian artist Luigi Mussini, celebrates the victory of philosophy and science over superstition and ignorance—a viewpoint that would sometimes be used to justify colonialism (anticipated here in the submission of the African). The empires of Greece and Rome justified their conquests in a similar manner, as they brought Hellenistic enlightenment to cultures regarded as primitive and undeveloped. (Mondadori Portfolio / Art Resource, NY) Philosophy and Religion in the Roman World Everyone who lived in the world that produced the New Testament was influenced directly or indirectly by different patterns of thought that the Greeks and Romans brought to the lands that they subdued and occupied. The people of this era were heirs to the three greatest Greek philosophers—Socrates (ca. 470– ca. 399 BCE), Plato (ca. 428–ca. 348 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE)—and to some extent the thinking of most people was shaped by what these masters had taught. Indeed, the case could be made that the thinking of most people today is still shaped by the ideas expounded and explored by these influential thinkers. New Testament scholars focus more attention, however, on certain philosophical movements that were popular during the period in which the New Testament documents were written. These include the following: 23 Essenes: ascetic, separatist Jews who lived in private communities. Dead Sea Scrolls: a collection of Jewish documents copied and preserved between 250 BCE and 70 CE. diatribe: a rhetorical device derived from Greek philosophy in which an author argues with an imaginary opponent by proposing objections and then responding to them. Cynicism—a philosophical orientation that emphasized radical authenticity, repudiation of shame, simplicity of lifestyle, and a desire to possess only what is obtained naturally and freely Epicureanism—a philosophical orientation that emphasized free will, questioned fate, and encouraged the attainment of true pleasure through avoidance of anxiety, concentration on the present, and enjoyment of all things in moderation Platonism—a philosophical orientation that emphasized the reality of a transcendent world of “ideals” standing behind everything physical or earthly Pythagoreanism—a philosophical orientation that emphasized the value of intelligent reasoning, memory, and radical honesty, all in service of a quest to attain harmony of ideas and of body and soul Stoicism—a philosophical orientation that emphasized the attainment of virtue through acceptance of fate, based on the notion that all things are predetermined and that there is logic to all that transpires New Testament scholars detect the influence of these philosophical schools in various ways. Paul is depicted as interacting with Epicurean and Stoic philosophers in Acts 17:16–34, but the impact of Greek and Roman philosophy can be detected even when there is no reason to suspect direct contact. Josephus, a first-century Jewish Roman historian, thought that the Essenes (who produced the Dead Sea Scrolls) were analogous to Pythagoreans and that the Pharisees had much in common with Stoics. Likewise, many modern scholars have noted similarities between the first followers of Jesus and Cynic philosophers (e.g., in their renunciation of materialism and worldly status). Several letters in the New Testament (including 1 Corinthians, Galatians, and James) make use of the “diatribe” and other forms of rhetorical argument that were popular among Cynic and Stoic philosophers. The Letter to the Hebrews is often …