Fluent Essays

Research Topic: Affordable Housing The objective of this paper is a critical analysis of one of the topics listed below, or a topic of choice and your application of the course content. Your paper will cover the “history” (1776 to present) of the topic, as well as the impact that your topic has had on public administration and the development of this country. You will consider the actions of government and consider - whether it was appropriate, would you have done the same, alternate options/recommendations. In your paper you will reflect on course content like: • Constitutional Foundation – was this what the Founders’ intended? • Public Purpose – what public purpose was the administration trying to meet? • Federalism/Public Management – how is this being managed? Is it effective? • Historical/Political Context – what where the “conditions” that influenced policies/decisions made? • Private Partners in Public Administration – what was the purpose of the partnerships? • Weber’s Model Bureaucracy • And other topics in the book …. The paper should be 4 pages in length, single-spaced with 11-point font and in APA format. Evaluation Criteria: 1. Clarity of Prose – is the paper grammatically, correct? Are there any typos? 2. Well-Structured Argument – Does the argument lead to logical conclusion? Is the point of view easy to follow? 3. Evidence Supporting Arguments – Arguments are supported by research? Research used effectively. 4. Realistic Conclusion to Solve Problem – Conclusions appear reasonable and attainable? 5. Citation – Are sources cited correctly? Are they accurate, reputable sources? Fifth Edition Public Administration Partnerships in Public Service William C. Johnson Fifth Edition Public Administration Johnson-PA 5E.book Page i Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Johnson-PA 5E.book Page ii Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Fifth Edition Public Administration Partnerships in Public Service William C. Johnson Professor Emeritus at Bethel University WAVELAND PRESS, INC. Long Grove, Illinois Johnson-PA 5E.book Page iii Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM For information about this book, contact: Waveland Press, Inc. 4180 IL Route 83, Suite 101 Long Grove, IL 60047-9580 (847) 634-0081 [email protected] www.waveland.com Photo Credits: page 2, Aaron Tang/Wikimedia; page 26, Spotmatik/Shutterstock; page 52, Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock; page 76, Kenneth Wilsey/FEMA; page 106, Rhoda Baer/National Institutes of Health; page 136, Gerald L. Nino, U.S. Customs and Border Patrol; page 160, National Institutes of Health; page 182, Ryan Courtade/FEMA; page 210, Todd Swain/FEMA; page 240, National Transportation Safety Board; page 268, Filmfoto/Shutterstock; page 294, Konstantin L/Shutterstock; page 318, Victor Gri- gas, Wikimedia; page 344, Pogonici/Shutterstock. Copyright © 2014 by Waveland Press, Inc. 10-digit ISBN 1-4786-1090-5 13-digit ISBN 978-1-4786-1090-8 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval sys- tem, or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Johnson-PA 5E.book Page iv Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM I am pleased to dedicate this edition to my seven grandchildren— Alicia, Alex, Andrew, Erika, Carter, Kalin, and Rowen— with the prayer that their generation will know more peace and justice than mine has, and that they will find fruitful paths of service to others. Johnson-PA 5E.book Page v Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Johnson-PA 5E.book Page vi Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Johnson-PA 5E.book Page vii Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Contents Preface xiii 1 Public Administration: The People’s Business 1 Theme: A City Prepared 2 The Language of Public Administration 3 What Government Is to Do: The Public Purposes 6 Growth and Complexity of Government 9 Public Policies and the Tools for Implementation 13 The Globalization of American Public Administration 15 The Challenges of Public Service 18 Overview of This Book 21 Summary 22 2 The Mosaic of American Governments 25 Theme: Organizing for Affordable Medical Care 26 The Structures of Administration 27 The Constitutional Bases of Government Organization 28 The Federal Executive Branch 29 State Government Organization 38 Local and Regional Government 40 The Judiciary as Administrator 45 The Politics of Government Reorganization 46 Summary 49 vii viii Contents Johnson-PA 5E.book Page viii Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM 3 Administration in the Federal Network 51 Theme: No Child Left Behind 52 The Concept and Practice of Federalism 53 How the American Federal System Evolved 54 Fiscal Federalism 60 Federal Government Mandates 63 State and Local Intergovernmental Networks 65 The Politics of Federalism 70 Summary 74 4 Private Partners in Public Administration 75 Theme: FEMA’s Whole Community Approach to Emergency Management 76 The Collaborative Heritage in Public Service 77 Rationales for Public-Private Collaboration 78 Forms of Public-Private Relationships 81 Citizen Engagement in Administration 91 Faith-Based Organizations in Public Collaboration 96 Evaluation of Public-Private Collaboration 98 Summary 103 5 The Dynamics of Bureaucracy 105 Theme: Antithesis of Bureaucracy: The Nation’s Medical Care System 106 Fitting Structure to Purpose 107 American Concepts of Government Organization 112 Government Organizations in Their Environments 116 Internal Dynamics of Government Organizations 118 Organizational Communication 122 Toward Reinvention of Bureaucracy 125 Summary 132 6 From Public Purposes to Public Policies 135 Theme: Toward a National Immigration Policy 136 Formats of Public Policies 137 The Policy Cycle 138 Power Relationships in Policy Making 150 Summary 157 Contents ix Johnson-PA 5E.book Page ix Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM 7 Public Executives: Leading and Managing 159 Theme: Francis Collins and the Scientific Transformation of Medicine 160 Executives in Government: Who They Are 161 Concepts of Leading and Managing 163 Multiple Expectations of Public Executives 166 The President and Other Federal Executives 171 State and Local Executives 175 Politics of Public Leadership and Management 178 Summary 178 8 Administrative Decision Making 181 Theme: Natural Disasters and Calculated Risks 182 Administrative Decision Making 183 The Search for Intelligence 184 Anticipating and Planning the Future 191 Approaches to Decision Making 197 Analytical Methods of Decision Making 200 The Politics of Administrative Choices 204 Summary 207 9 Public Money 209 Theme: What Would It Cost to Rebuild the National Infrastructure? 210 Government Spending and Revenue 211 Public Money and the Public Purposes 214 Budgets as Policy and Administrative Documents 216 The Politics of Budget Making 219 Creating the Federal Budget 222 State and Local Budgeting 225 Government Revenue 227 Managing and Reviewing Government Spending 231 Government Debt 233 Fiscal Choices in Turbulent Times 235 Summary 237 x Contents Johnson-PA 5E.book Page x Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM 10 Human Resources in Government 239 Theme: Exemplary Public Servants 240 Public Servants for the Public Purposes 241 A Census and Profile of Public Servants 243 Human Resources Management 249 The Employment Process 251 Public Employee Organizations and Bargaining 258 Public Employee Rights 261 The Public Service of the Future 262 Summary 265 11 Government and Business 267 Theme: Whither the Internet Economy? 268 Public Purposes and the Economic System 269 Government Promotion of Business Enterprise 270 Regulation of Business Activity 271 Government Organization for Regulation 275 Rule Making, Enforcement, and Adjudication 278 The Politics of Business Promotion and Regulation 286 Summary 291 12 Government and Its Publics 293 Theme: Immigrants in the Administrative Net 294 The Publics of Government 295 Government’s Roles toward Its Publics 296 Civil Rights and Liberties in Public Administration 302 Government Communication with Its Publics 309 Digital Government as a Public Service 311 American Governments and International Publics 314 Rationing and Bias in Government Services 315 Summary 316 Contents xi Johnson-PA 5E.book Page xi Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM 13 Implementation and Evaluation 317 Theme: Where Housing Reform Falls Short 318 Government’s Bottom Line 319 Requirements for Effective Implementation 321 Evaluating Policy Outcomes and Impacts 327 Criteria for Evaluation 333 Performance Measurement 335 Challenges to Implementation and Evaluation 340 Summary 341 14 Public Accountability and Ethical Choices 343 Theme: Wrongdoing in Government: How to Define It? How to Respond? 344 The Accountability Dilemma 345 Formal Accountability within the Executive Branch 348 Formal Accountability to External Authorities 351 Informal Means of Maintaining External Accountability 357 Informal Accountability within the Executive Branch 360 Conflicts of Interest 362 Freedom of Information and Open Government 364 Ethical Choices in the Network of Accountability 365 Summary 369 Glossary 371 Works Cited 379 Index 393 Johnson-PA 5E.book Page xii Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Johnson-PA 5E.book Page xiii Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Preface to Students To study public administration today, and contemplate practicing it, you must confront the widespread distrust and disdain that the American people appear to hold toward their government. The popular media and blogs abound with revelations of government misdeeds, from the stumbling that accompa- nied the rollout of healthcare.gov to the “survey” of George Washington Bridge traffic to the cozy relationship between the governor of Virginia and a wealthy supporter. The positive accomplishments of administrators draw much less attention even though their day-to-day efforts, in conjunction with their pri- vate-sector partners, enable the government to perform its essential duties for the nation. How should I express that in a textbook that represents only a small part of this vast subject? I view a textbook as a window into a realm that is much larger than we can comprehend by simply looking through it. The purpose of this window is to provide a map of what is “there” and suggest ways to explore it. Thus, although this text does not go into great detail on any one topic, it provides a comprehensive overview of the many fields into which you can delve. An essential understanding as you view this map is that the study of pub- lic administration is not simply a matter of how governments are organized and operate. Rather, what we call the “public sector” permeates much of soci- ety, including facets that are not directly controlled or dominated by govern- ment. A complete understanding of public administration means we recognize that it encompasses a complex network of public and private relationships; thus the subtitle Partnerships in Public Service. No significant government enter- prise takes place solely within the boundaries of any one organization. Impor- tant segments of public service overlap into private institutions, collaborations for which public administrators must take responsibility even though they can- not fully control them. Those who enter such service, whether in the public or private realm, must strive to grasp the responsibilities of each sector, and build and maintain the relationships that will facilitate success. Public service is not a haven for loners or those with a drive to be “the one in charge.” There is certainly a need for leadership, but its leaders must be collaborators rather than dominators. xiii xiv Preface to Students Johnson-PA 5E.book Page xiv Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM I urge you to take three particular personal stances toward your ongoing study of public administration. First, take on an anticipatory mind-set. This is a readiness to envision present trends extending into the future, yet anticipating surprises along the way. This book presents examples of emerging develop- ments in technology, demography, and global linkages, with implications for our way of life that we can only partially foresee. Second, adopt an activist mind-set. Some of you have career experience in the public sector and anticipate returning to or continuing in the field. Others view it as a possible future. Along with career choices, volunteer opportunities are abundant—building homes for Habitat for Humanity, working in a home- less shelter, tutoring school children, or participating in an environmental cleanup. Through service you learn, and through learning you become better equipped to participate in public life more thoughtfully. Your activism could also take the form of elected office and research on public issues. Finally, assume a social justice mind-set. While people bring many personal motives into public careers, at its core public administration imparts a moral obligation. Chapter 1 introduces the theme of stewardship, the willingness and ability to earn the public trust by being an effective and ethical agent. This is not simply acting in accordance with the law, although that is vital. It also encompasses concern for the rights and well-being of all citizens, particularly those who would otherwise be neglected or disadvantaged in modern society. The ancient admonitions to care for widows and orphans extend today to the very young and old, the disabled, the dependent, and other vulnerable persons whose needs must be met by public or voluntary action. As a final note, I wish to express my thanks to Laurie Prossnitz and the other staff members at Waveland Press for their competent editing and assis- tance with this edition. About the Author William C. Johnson is Professor Emeritus at Bethel University, St. Paul, Minnesota, where he taught Political Science. He also taught in the graduate program in Organizational Leadership. He has a BA in Political Science from Wheaton College in Illinois, an MA in Political Science from the University of California at Berkeley, and a PhD in Political Science from Claremont Graduate University. He is also the author of Urban Planning and Politics (1997). Johnson-PA 5E.book Page 1 Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM 1 Public Administration The People’s Business Chapter Highlights • Theme: A City Prepared • The Language of Public Administration • What Government Does: The Public Purposes • Growth and Complexity of Government • Public Policies and the Tools for Implementation • The Globalization of American Public Administration • The Challenges of Public Service • Overview of This Book Learning Objectives 1. Define public administration and management, government, governance, and politics. 2. Identify the seven essential public purposes and give examples of each. 3. Explain the growth in size and complexity of American government. 4. Identify and define public policy and the tools of policy implementation. 5. Explain the international dimensions of American public administration. 6. Describe the key ethical values and the meaning of stewardship for public service. 7. Describe the principal-agent model and its relevance to public administration. 1 2 Chapter One Johnson-PA 5E.book Page 2 Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Theme: A City Prepared “When you talk about disasters, it’s all about partnerships,” according to Ken Kondo of the Los Angeles County Office of Emergency Management (Gra- bar 2013). Across the continent, Boston certainly demonstrated the importance of those partnerships when two bombs killed three people and maimed many others at the finish line of its marathon on April 15, 2013. The news media chronicled the methodical action by local, state, and federal law enforcement officers, aided by sharp-eyed bystanders and their social media, to identify the two suspects, track them, and ultimately capture the surviving bomber, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. That in itself was a drama in intergovernmental and pub- lic-private partnerships, which Boston rightly celebrates. But a more important story for students of public administration was framed in the several years leading up to that date. “Emergency management personnel in the Boston region had not only been imagining such a complex scenario, they had been rehearsing it. . . . Boston is one of four U.S. cities whose all-hazards plan has been accredited by EMAP, the national emergency plan- ning evaluation program” (Grabar 2013). Working with the Urban Shield pro- gram of Cytel Group, a private security consulting firm, Boston conducted two 24-hour worst-case scenario drills in the previous two years involving over 600 The preparedness of Boston’s emergency personnel was evident in the prompt response to the bombings near the finish line of the Boston Marathon in April 2013. Public Administration 3 Johnson-PA 5E.book Page 3 Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM participants. “Everything that you saw happen within seconds of the explosion was all because someone thought they should be prepared for that,” said James Baker of Cytel (Grabar 2013). The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has allocated billions of dollars to large metropolitan areas that are prime targets for terrorism. Boston’s share of this in 2012 was $11 million, following many previous grants for proj- ects including a sophisticated communications system. Collaboration and com- munication between local, state, and federal agencies have been very high pri- orities for DHS since 9/11. This effort has been broadened to include private institutions such as hospitals and providers of technologies—like the thermal sensor used to find Tsarnaev hiding in a boat parked in a driveway. The city of Boston, the state of Massachusetts, and the federal government all run emer- gency operations centers in that city, and success depends on each member understanding and playing its proper role. The study of public administration encompasses much more than disaster preparation, to be sure. Yet this issue presents a reality check about public policy and administration in general. The bottom line of public administration is the efficient and effective performance of the public business and close collabora- tion among layers of governmental authorities and their private partners. Amer- icans hold high expectations for their health, safety, and security even while expressing low trust and confidence in government. In countless areas of public responsibility, both successes and failures stimulate efforts to learn and do bet- ter. That partnering and learning process is the central theme of this textbook. The Language of Public Administration Administration is a set of activities common to all forms of human organi- zation that seek to accomplish chosen goals. To study public administration is to focus on the central role of government, distinct in vital ways from the pri- vate sector. This study concerns not only how government operates but also what it does and the impact on the nation. Several concepts are essential. Defining Public Administration We can begin with a traditional but incomplete definition: the activities of government that carry out public policies and deliver public goods and services. For example, we can view medical care as a public service with policies for pre- vention, treatment, and financial assistance. Presumably, this service benefits not only those who are directly affected but the entire community or nation. That definition needs expansion, however. A theme of this book is that public administration occurs not only in the activity of governmental units, but also through the actions of the private sector, either as agents of government and with its funds or alongside it as independent providers. For example, much of the provision of medical care relies on hospitals, clinics, and suppliers that constitute the nation’s medical-industrial complex and which operate 4 Chapter One Johnson-PA 5E.book Page 4 Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM within a complex pattern of public regulation. As later chapters explain, this collaboration follows a long-standing American tradition. Thus a more realistic definition of public administration is the enterprise by which governments and their associated private partners serve the public purposes through the delivery of goods and services. The public purposes are those functions that are defined by constitutions, laws, and popular expecta- tions as the fundamental objectives for the exercise of government’s authority. Exhibit 1.1 lists seven purposes as critical to the well-being of a civilized and progressive society. The “goods and services” are the benefits and regulations that these relationships provide, whether to small groups of individuals or the entire populace. Public administration may also be seen as an enterprise through which human organizations undertake tasks that are costly, innovative, or difficult to perform. This is not a simple process, obviously. Programs usually fail to meet the public purposes fully. Human knowledge and shared action are always limited and flawed, and the challenge to public administration is to construct systems that minimize those errors. Public management is commonly used as a synonym for public administra- tion. The term “management,” however, has a narrower connotation, focused on the day-to-day operations of organizations and their programs by following standard methods and procedures. This task is normally assigned to the middle and lower ranks of a hierarchy, even though top executives must answer for it. To be sure, proper management is an essential tool in the fulfillment of policies, and thus an equally necessary object for study. The understanding of public administration in this book encompasses the roles of all levels and fulfillment of the wider goals of government as well as its specific program objectives. Government and Governance A government is understood as the legal entity that is charged by a consti- tution to make and enforce laws and exercise the highest authority among human institutions. This can refer to national, state, or local governments indi- vidually (and this text uses the plural to refer to actions that any of them takes separately), or to all of them collectively. International organizations function as governments to the extent that they exert partial authority over a popula- tion, as in regulating trade or setting standards for global aviation traffic. Government (or governing) is also the activity by which the laws are decided and enforced and goods and services are provided. In that sense it encompasses administration. The word “govern” originated in the Greek term for the pilot of a ship, suggesting that to govern is to steer a society’s develop- ment and make choices that shape its future. The term governance has come into use to underscore that governing is a cooperative process, with many partners within and outside formal govern- ments who interact to determine policies and their administration. In one sense, it is the capacity of a political community to decide what policies it shall pur- sue, using the powers and resources of the state. It also encompasses the ability to achieve the results it seeks, by whatever means. Both perspectives envision Public Administration 5 Johnson-PA 5E.book Page 5 Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM the sharing of governing duties beyond the legal boundaries of governments as such. In typical situations, governance then becomes the shared responses of all affected public and private organizations to meet whatever needs arise in a timely and efficient manner. The coordinated disaster response effort in Boston offers recent evidence that this is both necessary and challenging. Politics: The Engine of Government Governance, as just defined, is an intensely political activity. Politics is con- cerned with “who gets what, when, how” in a society (Lasswell 1958), deci- sions that inherently spark conflict over how to allocate goods and services. We can define politics as conflict and cooperation over the distribution of benefits and costs in society, which entail the exercise of power by those with the ability to influence public choices. The term “power” portrays the ability that individ- uals or groups have to prevail in political conflicts and secure decisions that serve their own purposes. The resources for power, such as wealth and control of information, are unevenly distributed in society and thus bias the resulting policies in favor of those who hold and wield them. Some scholars (for exam- ple, Woodrow Wilson 1887) have sought to exclude competitive power-driven politics from public administration, claiming that it prevents what ought to be a professional activity from following the objectively best practices without favor or bias. Experience has made clear, though, that politics appears wherever there is disagreement over goals and means, even in the finest administrative details. When President Obama requested Congress to pass his health-care reforms, a host of questions had to be resolved, such as the role of private insurance com- panies in providing universal coverage and whether the government should take a more active role in defining acceptable treatments for given maladies. The bill that finally passed was 1,990 pages long (in PDF format), embodying count- less compromises on policy particulars. Perhaps the best we can hope for is that executives and administrators can gain enough political backing to pursue what are agreed to be the best practices in designing controversial programs. The Constitutional Foundation The purposes and standards of public administration are rooted in the founding principles of this nation. The Declaration of Independence sets forth the inalienable rights of all persons, including (and not limited to) life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Governments are established to preserve these rights, and should they fail to do so, citizens can rightly choose to replace them. A democratic government rests on the “consent of the governed,” a consent that is expressed in the form of elections and the less formal ways to participate in defining the public purposes. The United States Constitution, supplemented by those of each state, lays out additional goals: a “more perfect union,” provision of a “common defense,” and enhancement of the “general welfare.” National and state bills of rights define what the authorities must and must not do toward individual 6 Chapter One Johnson-PA 5E.book Page 6 Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM members of society, while other sections of the Constitution grant powers to legislators, executives, and judges to carry out their duties. All governments have police power to guard the health, welfare, and safety of their people within the limits defined by law. Disaster prevention and response clearly fall into this category, even while the specific approaches are open to debate. Public administration as such draws scarce attention in the constitutional documents, but forms the essential link between the policy choices of the three branches and the intended outcomes. Administrators and their organizations are thus like bridges that link intentions with results. Because their efforts can- not consistently achieve the results that lawmakers envision, there remains an ongoing need to learn how to do it better. What Government Is to Do: The Public Purposes The duties of national, state, and local governments in American society form a near-infinite list. However, they can be categorized into seven public purposes, fundamental objectives that expand on the “common defense” and “general welfare.” Exhibit 1.1 displays them, with familiar examples. These purposes challenge public administrators at all levels, since to fulfill them effectively, efficiently, and without hindering other worthy efforts is practically impossible given limitations in human knowledge and organizational ability. First and foremost, since ancient times governments have been expected to protect the lives and property of their citizens. Threats to these basic rights may arise from a hostile nation or terrorist organization, other citizens with criminal intent, natural disasters such as hurricanes and forest fires, and disease. Since 9/11 this purpose has gained new prominence, creating what Carroll has labeled the “domestic security state” (2006, 72). Its central mission is to mobi- lize information and resources widely across both domestic and international fronts to reduce the public vulnerability to intentional, accidental, and natural threats. Though the risk of death or property loss cannot be reduced to zero, government uses its authority and resources to minimize some threats. For example, publicly financed medical research has extended lives, while good highway design and traffic controls make travel safer. The U.S. Constitution adds the protection of civil rights and liberties to this first public purpose, as an essential duty in a democratic society. Loss of oppor- tunity or personal dignity can be hard to prevent. While laws aim to prevent discrimination on the basis of race, gender, religion, age, and disability in edu- cation, employment, housing, and access to services, their enforcement in mar- ginal situations is politically difficult. Too, the incursions on civil liberties authorized under the USA Patriot Act (full name: Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001) illustrate the reach of the domestic security state into this realm. A second historic task of government has been to maintain or ensure the supply of essential resources—food, water, shelter, energy, and medicine. Public Administration 7 Johnson-PA 5E.book Page 7 Tuesday, March 4, 2014 12:22 PM Today, public agencies and private enterprises share this responsibility. Water is usually supplied by urban governments, and while electricity and natural gas are most often provided by private utilities, they are subject to federal and state regulation. Food and shelter are ordinarily left to commercial producers and distributors, but when Hurricane Sandy devastated the New Jersey coast, public agencies had to be the providers of last resort. Through their regulatory roles, governments also oversee the quality of many foods and medications. The third public purpose is to support those who cannot care for them- selves and lack others to help them: neglected children, people with severe Exhibit 1.1 The Essential Public Purposes 1. Protect the lives, property, and rights of … Running Head: PUBLIC POLICY 2 PUBLIC POLICY 2 Public Policy: Affordable Housing [Name of Student] [Name of Institution] [Course] [Professor] Thursday, October 7, 2021 Public Policy: Affordable Housing Introduction The United States of America has been persistent to develop policies that helps people and their idea for having a more suitable living standard. The affordable housing project is part of the policies that define the need and growth potential for market of United States. To People of United States of America affordable housing is important, housing consumes most of their monthly income. However, since the 1930s, policies have been drafted to ensure that better affordable housing projects are initiated in a way that can be used to deal with integrity and operating activities as well (Tighe, 2010). This highlights the scope of housing market in the U.S. while having an effective difference globally. History In the 1934, Congress of USA formed up towards an act where the federal department was laid out with the name of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). This is part of federal jurisdiction which involves wide range of financial programs so that elevation of poverty can be guaranteed (Daniel, 2018). The importance of this department was to regulate the housing market and construction sector to ensure that standards are met. Furthermore, “U.S. Housing Act” of 1937 was passed by congress for the low-income public, through their addressing of needs. The need for this was defined by the detracting housing market of the U.S (NLIHC, 2019). The Great Depression and World War II negatively affected the housing market because of how it was not achieved in the original figure and implementation became difficult. Considering this, in late 1950’s problem started piling up as Congress created numerous programs to help the private investment being reflected in real estate and construction sector (NLIHC, 2019). The quality of growth and affordable rates was based on rehabilitation within the housing projects that can be approached and defined through HUD as well as the previous acts that were passed by Congress. Furthermore, the Civil Rights Act were inducted in 1968, which also made housing easier for African American and most importantly, in 1973, President Nixon drafted a moratorium in the ware of construction for new rental and home-ownership housing. This was widely supported by Mortgage back securities. This ended up having a huge impact on the housing market as it got more affordable due to Mortgages. However, in the 2007-08, the mortgage bubble got burst, and 180,000 people got homeless due to limited mortgage and declining income (Appler, 2016). Since then, financial crisis, the housing market is heavily regulated, which also makes the affordability a problem for most of the public. The importance of strategic development by the historical perspective in housing market and development sector was more associated with how countries have been on developing in the competitive global situation. The U. S’s policies defined for the integrity of entire real estate sector has been used as the focal point to generate results, while capitalising the interest of people to make a systematic purpose as well. The quality for housing market and its criteria being built for better affordability has been supported by the HUD and congress’ acts. However, for everyone, the problem remains consistent in not making efforts for better product portfolio and its direction being manageable. The history also supports for how Civil Rights movement made the affordable housing concept a reality for the most of public. This defined and regulated the sector while making most proactive outcomes as well. The necessity of making results being reflected in public policies and affordable livings standards are manageable through structing of options as well. The affordable housing concept has been replicated in making right outcome for the public, through the different acts which are involved for better decision making and structuring of resources as well, to know the limits of a firm and their capabilities. Impact of Affordable Housing The affordable housing policies and projects have been integral in making right results and outcome. The quality of development through the real estate and construction started off with great opportunity for the people and their reservation. The federal, state, and local authorities had the power to make a difference through their development of affordable housing projects and how merit-association positions and their developers started incurring costs. The associated requirements tend to shape the basic requirements and communities which can help build subsidised unit as well, through the affordable housing projects. However, in order to make housing more affordable, the government lost control of their own regulatory bodies. The reason why funding started increasing was because of how mortgages were considered as risk-free investment. However, the problem was basically associated within in-depth risks being transferred from one bank to another. The timeline was more associated for how affordable housing got easier, while it was that easy as supported by Scally & Tighe (2015). This started piling up a bubble and people started facing issues in getting the housing mortgages that are backed by security and having the right developers and real estate costs, which ended up putting a huge impact on economy. The major impact that was created by the affordable housing policies was how insurance companies and banks started piling up their resources backed on mortgages. This helped the economy to build a productive source of revenue, while applying to the preservation of concept for being more development oriented, while enhancing the construction sector as well. Regardless of 2008 housing bubble, the affordable housing policy and ease of having a home helped the economic system be more associated with development sector of real estate and construction, while focusing on long-term, as well as short-term development. Furthermore, the impact that has been created from the policy is reflected in making results that are more oriented with segmented value addition. Through the policy, the problem of increasing gap between rich and poor started making a difference as well. The suitability of entire program structure and helping it through the governmental policies was not able to add value for poor people to improve their living standards, in a way that rich people were doing so. This created problem for the construction sector as well, as they were not able to maintain a systematic approach in building suitable development sector for making housing more affordable. The idea that was preserved through affordable housing is based on the critical investment and portfolio structure which is involved in making disruptions in long-term trends. The nature of business suitability is about making an effective control, according to which affordable housing became a reality. Regardless of how this concept was conceived as the problem for increasing gap between rich and poor, it also helped increase the affordability for majority of low and middle class due to their extensive operations being manageable and structuring the idea for growth as well. The impact observed by the public regarding affordable housing is structured around the increasing development in banking and insurance sector. The financial institutions started making businesses out of their involvement in mortgage loans and bond yields. This also helped in making the construction sector follow a structured boom due to the increasing pressure on the loan for high-rise buildings and structuring the options (Paris, 2007). The quality and living standards improved through the practices of sustainable and affordable housing. However, the problem eventually abrupted the low- and middle-class income, the most, because of how housing bubble crashed the market of housing within 2 years. This proved to be critical for entire scope of affordable housing because of how people were not ready for such crisis. Action of Government The Government’s policy of HUD, the Housing acts, and Regulatory authorities have piled up solutions to the affordable housing for U.S. The action of government is more associated with how public’s funding is integral to provide set of units and value where state, and local reservation is important. The private lending and including the market-oriented value is important for historical representation. However, the funding of sources requires the entry into application of process, which has been supported by government and their real estate development. The quality of developers and their acts have oriented the targeted groups and their specific needs. However, considering the recent situation, there are still only 37 units of affordable housing, while there are available for every 100 low-income public (Crook, 2018). This enhances the idea of problems that can be reflected in a way that would qualify for growth in disabled people as well. The affordable housing becomes a problem for how low-income through their advocacy of making development be more oriented with growth of people and their homelessness as well. The federal and their decade of structing the options involve housing market to be more oriented with development. Government’s policies have defined their congressional movement that is more oriented with public and their quality of housing markets. The nature of institutions is more oriented with making decisions that are required to end poverty. However, the actions of government and their limited attention for bringing best out of the market has created a bubble of 2008 financial crisis as well. The housing market started collapsing because of how mortgage securities were not strong enough now and they got to be more oriented with risks, while increasing the pressure (Lang, Anacker, & Hornburg, 2008). The government’s actions have been limited in making affordable housing a sustainable project for the people. This has proven to put low-income public be oriented with better housing projects and having a direction that can be followed collectively. The nature of government to improve the housing market was based on how social structure and mortgage loans had the authority to make decisions. The low- and middle-income people were able to afford big houses and lands because of low mortgage, which increased the money circulation in economy as well. However, the problem started emerging when the public faced issues in having the right criteria to follow certain circumstances to ensure affordability is met but they were not paying their mortgages (Kleit & Page, 2015). The government’s involvement was required to make decisions that are accurate for entire structuring of housing market, while the problems also emerged for the people to make their own decisions at the tough time. The action that was taken by the government was not adequate enough to generate a capable resource structure for affordable living as a permanent solution. The housing bubble was not forecasted by majority of investors and that is what problems are emerged in the existing scenario as well. For majority of resources, the quality of affordable living and their standards are met under the hood of government’s involvement as well. Alternative Recommendation Considering the actions of government and their policy making, the problems started emerging for public eventually. So, it must be considered that the actions of government were able to facilitate the public for a long time, but it was not a permanent solution. The housing market could have been safter with better regulations (Nguyen et al., 2013). Considering the involvement of private entities and authorities, it has become necessary for entire public policy model to be more oriented with segmented value which can generate contextual learning and scope of administration being improved. Furthermore, the quality of business development through housing market could have improved by standardizing the construction and development sector as well, which would have improved living standards for people. The nature of affordable housing market could have been better through the operational circumstances, if the entire mortgage loans would have been under the scope of government. The quality of making right benefit was achievable through the structuring of options that can be used to deal with integrity and public policies making a huge structure as well. The government’s involvement should have been increased in transferring the mortgage securities which could have led to a structured result as well as creating an historical perspective for growth as well. The government of US could have sustained by increasing process and product diversification for better competition in the housing market. Furthermore, for the government to improve entire system, it is essential to build separate authority for the affordable housing. The quality of practices is involved in making decisions that are accurate enough for structuring the nature of business activities as well. The idea for making housing more affordable is reflected through making results be more oriented with public’s betterment. The policy makers have the right to integrate their resources while capitalising the interest of long-term standards for housing market. The suitability for the people would be defined when separate entity would be there to resolve the problems of public, while keeping a close eye on the housing market as well. The stance to make sure that increasing development is observed in affordable housing, the representation of resources is also integral. The quality of business practices and their alignment is required to be met in a way that can be used to deal with sustainable practices and their living standards as well. The direction which is followed through affordable housing is maintained according to the managerial value which is provided for knowing the factors as well. The direction would be more capable enough to lead the structured resource for applying the long-term concerns as well. The resource management and its integration involve making a systematic review for growing the quality of practices, while establishing interest for people is also integral. The affordable housing and its standards are manageable in accordance with quality of income as well. Lowering the prices of housing is not a sustainable way. However, improving the source of income and providing resource/revenue opportunity for the public is what would help the housing more affordable as well. The extensive regulations, along with increasing living standards for public would be approached in a way that can be used to deal with housing. The policies should be designed in similar way that would look to improve the low-class people being able to find a living according to their needs and resources, while being supportive to have a sustainable livings standard as well. Another policy that can be drafted by the government is to have suitable way for filing for default or bankruptcy. The quality of living standards and their suitability is required to be managed in a way that can be used to deal with a certain criterion for process development (Arman, Zuo et al., 2009). The nature of affordable housing is based on improving the quality of life and having a structured option as well. The management of resources and their structured output is perceived to add value for everyone as well. The filing for default and bankruptcy should be limited and restrained for the low-income public. This would make them have an opportunity to go an extra mile as well as not be worried about losing their home. The policies should be friendly for the low- and middle-class public concerning the development of housing market through which productive differences can be observed for long-term as well. Conclusion The Affordable Housing policy has been able to sustain the life of people around the United States of America. The existing worth of housing market in estimated to be $162 billion in United States only, annually. However, the policy implementation and its scope being met according to public’s permanent impact could have been used as part of national development and restructuring of options are more associated with results that are able to help the affordable rates as well. The idea is presented in knowing the factors that government have in their policy making. The most important aspect has been regarded as policy implementation must be accurate. The government’s involvement in making housing market a sustainable way to facilitate the public is integral. This would groom the situation for having results be defined for public and their approach being met for long-term as well. Affordable housing is constructed on the value that can help public, but for that governments need to make a proactive result for having the market be manageable as well. The quality of life for the public is required to be improved in a way which would help affordable housing a reality in permanent way. 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