Fluent Essays

I have eleven quotations in the Religion of Islam. I uploaded the files for quotations 5 and 6 2 The Religion of Islam MENA 160 A1 Dr. Nassar 100 points MIDTERM Please answer all of the following questions in complete sentences using material from the lecture recordings, slides, readings and in-class discussions. DO NOT consult outside sources. Upload your answers (in Microsoft Word or PDF format) to D2L by Wednesday, October 6th at 11:59PM (NOTE: The D2L dropbox for this assignment is enabled with Turnitin plagiarism detection software. If any part of your midterm is determined to have been plagiarized, you will receive a zero on the entire midterm with no opportunity for a makeup.) Good luck! 1. Choose three pillars of Islam and briefly explain how each of them is intended to strengthen a Muslim’s connection to God and/or to the Muslim umma. (12 points) 2. What are three core teachings that Prophet Muhammad taught his followers? (6 points) 3. Briefly explain three differences in the conditions that the Muslim community faced in the Meccan period vs. in the Medinan period. (6 points) 4. Compare and contrast Meccan and Medinan surahs in the Qur’an. What are three similarities and three differences in terms content, style and/or structure? (12 points) 5. Re-read the “Theological and Ethical Verses” of the Qur’an (found under Week 3 of D2L). Choose three themes/messages that you think are conveyed in these verses. Be sure to quote one verse to support each of your themes/messages. (12 points) 6. Re-read the hadiths found on pp. 7-10 of the reading, “Major Topics in the Hadith” (found under Week 4 of D2L). Choose three of the hadiths to analyze. What is/are the ethical lesson(s) that each hadith seeks to convey? (12 points) 7. What are three attributes of Jesus according to the Qur’an and hadith? (6 points) 8. Recall the documentary on the hajj (found in the Week 5 lecture in D2L). Choose one stage of the hajj ritual and explain how it connects Muslims to both Muhammad and Abraham. (6 points) 9. What is the significance of Jerusalem for Muslims? What did Caliph Umar do upon his arrival in Jerusalem that set a precedent for religious freedom under Muslim rule? (6 points) 10. How did the House of Wisdom help facilitate the exchange of ideas between Jews, Christians, Muslims, and others? What kinds of knowledge was shared? (6 points) 11. Imagine talking a friend who doesn’t know anything about Islam and has never met a Muslim. Based on what we have covered so far in this course, what do you think are the five most important elements of Islam, Muslim belief and/or Muslim practice that you think your friend should know about? Be sure to explain why you chose each of these five unique elements. (16 points) © 2008 The Author Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Major Topics of the Hadith Scott C. Lucas* University of Arizona Abstract Hadiths – reports of what the Prophet Muhammad said, did, or tacitly approved – have exerted an extraordinary influence on Muslims for over a millennium. Despite the significance of this literature, its contents remain largely inaccessible to non-Arabic readers, in part due to many Western scholars’ preoccupation with the question of its authenticity rather than the function of hadith in Islamic thought. This article provides an overview of the contents of the canonical Sunni hadith collections along with a sample of ethical hadiths in idiomatic English. 1 Overview of Sunni Hadith Literature Sunni hadith literature forms one of the most significant domains of the vast Islamic library. A hadith is a report of what the Prophet Muhammad (ca. 570 – 632) said, did, or tacitly approved.1 Each hadith consists of a chain of transmitters, called the isnad, and the actual text that was transmitted, called the matn. As we shall see, hadiths touch upon all aspects of Islamic thought and practice, ranging from law to theology, ethics to hagiography, and eschatology to Qur]anic exegesis. While hadiths are important to both Sunni and Shi[i Muslims, this article will restrict itself to the vast Sunni hadith literature (for a good introduction to Shi[i hadith, see Kohlberg 1983; Gleave 2001). Most of the topics we will be encountering are common to both Sunni and Shi[i hadith books, and the primary differences between these two bodies of literature are found in the rules governing the isnad and theological issues. It should also be noted that Shi[i scholars frequently read Sunni hadith books, whereas it is unusual for a Sunni scholar to read a Shi[i hadith book. The reason for this discrepancy is that Sunni hadith books contain many hadiths that are in agreement with Shi[i positions, whereas Sunnis consider most of the isnads in Shi[i hadith books to be highly defective and thus unworthy of study. Sunni hadith literature consists of three broad genres of texts: hadith compilations, critical biographical dictionaries of transmitters, and technical manuals.2 Hadith compilations generally take one of three formats – musnad, musannaf, and ‘forty hadiths’. A musnad book is arranged according to the 2 Scott C. Lucas © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Companion of the Prophet (sahabi, pl. sahaba) who reported the Prophet’s action, statement, or tacit approval of something. Thus, in the famous Musnad of Ibn Hanbal (d. 855), all of the hadiths that Abu Bakr al-Siddiq transmitted on the authority of the Prophet Muhammad are in one chapter, followed by all of the hadiths that [Umar b. al-Khattab transmitted, and so on for over 800 companions. The musnad format was useful for the analysis of isnads, but highly impractical for locating specific prophetic utterances or practices. Scholars who composed works in this style that are extant include Abu Dawud al-Tayalisi (d. 819–20), Abu Bakr al-Humaydi (d. 834), Abu Ya[la al-Mawsili (d. 919), and Abu al-[Abbas al-Asamm (d. 957– 8). The second, and most popular, format for hadith compilations was the musannaf, or topical arrangement. All six of the canonical collections, about which we will have more to say below, are arranged topically by book and chapter, so that one can easily locate hadiths pertaining to specific legal, ethical, or theological subjects. Most of the classical hadith compi- lations have between 35 and 95 books and several thousand chapters. Examples of early extra-canonical works in the musannaf format include the Sunan of al-Darimi (d. 869), Sahih of Ibn Hibban (d. 965), Sunan of al-Daraqutni (d. 995), and Mustadrak of al-Hakim al-Naysaburi (d. 1014). The final format, which became increasingly popular after the year 1000, was the ‘forty hadiths’ book. According to a hadith that is generally considered inauthentic, the Prophet Muhammad said, ‘God will resurrect in the company of jurists and religious scholars anyone who memorizes forty religious hadiths for the sake of my community’ (Ibrahim & Johnson- Davies 1976). Given the massive and intimidating size of most classical hadith collections, the ‘forty hadiths’ format provides a user-friendly introduction to the rich hadith literature. In fact, to this day, al-Nawawi’s (d. 1277, near Damascus) book, Forty Hadith, remains one of the most successful works of this genre. The famous Sufi master Ibn [Arabi (d. 1240) also composed an expanded ‘forty hadiths’ book of ‘sacred hadiths’ that actually includes over 100 reports. The six canonical hadith collections were compiled during the second half of the ninth century by scholars who, on their own initiative and at their own expense, traveled in search of prophetic reports from central Asia to Egypt (for more on canonization, see Brown 2007a). The two most highly revered collections are the Sahih of Muhammad b. Isma[il al-Bukhari (d. 870) of Bukhara (in modern-day Uzbekistan) and the Sahih of Muslim b. al-Hajjaj (d. 875) of Nishapur (Iran). The four remaining canonical collections, all of which are known by the title Sunan, are by Abu Dawud al-Sijistani (d. 889, in Basra), Ibn Maja (d. 887) of Qazvin (Iran), Abu [Isa al-Tirmidhi (d. 892) of Tirmidh (Uzbeki/Afghani border), and Ahmad b. Shu[ayb al-Nasa]i (d. 915, in Palestine). Hadith compilation continued for over a century after these books were produced and original works with complete isnads were assembled until at least the time of the great Persian hadith scholar, Abu Bakr al-Bayhaqi (d. 1066). Most hadith © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Major Topics of the Hadith 3 books that were composed after the eleventh century were based on reports found within the 20 or so hadith compilations that date to the formative period of 850 –1070. Several important later works that draw heavily on the earlier collections include The Lamps of the Sunna by al-Baghawi (d. 1122); The Niche of the Lamps by al-Tibrizi (d. 14th century; translation by Robson 1963–5); Gardens of the Righteous by al-Nawawi; The Attainment of Desire by Ibn Hajar al-[Asqalani (d. 1449); The Short Comprehensive Compilation by al-Suyuti (d. 1505); Treasure of the Practitioners by al-Muttaqi al-Hindi (d. 1567); and The Achievement of the Goals by al-Shawkani (d. 1839). Biographical dictionaries are essentially large ‘Who’s Who’ guides to hadith transmitters (an excellent introduction to Arabic biographical dictionaries is Wadad al-Qadi 1995; see also Roded 1994). The earliest of these books, the Book of Generations by Ibn Sa[d (d. 845) of Baghdad, discusses several thousand transmitters, generation by generation, according to where they lived (it also includes an extensive biography of the Prophet Muhammad and entries for over 1,000 companions of the prophet; for more on this book, see Lucas 2004; Khalidi 1996). Ibn Sa[d, like many authors of biographical dictionaries, frequently provides a qualitative grade for many transmitters. These grades include ‘trustworthy’, ‘sincere’, ‘weak’, and ‘rejected’. Unlike Ibn Sa’d’s book, most biographical dictionaries in the Sunni tradition are arranged alphabetically, and some of the more important works of this genre are: The Book of Validation and Invalidation by Ibn Abi Hatim (d. 939) of Rayy (Iran); The History of Baghdad by al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071) of Baghdad; The History of Damascus by Ibn [Asakir (d. 1175) of Syria; The History of Islam and The Lives of Notable Noble Figures by Shams al-Din al-Dhahabi (d. 1348) of Syria; and The Refinement of the Refinement by Ibn Hajar al-[Asqalani of Cairo. All of these voluminous books are in Arabic and, unfortunately, none of them has been translated into any European language as of this time; the one general biographical dictionary that has been translated into English is Ibn Khallikan’s (d. 1282) Wafayat al-a[yan (see Baron William de Slane 1970). The final genre of hadith literature consists of technical manuals that explain the multiple disciplines (or sciences) of hadith. Muslim scholars invented a vast array of technical terms to describe and analyze hadith texts, transmitters, and modes of transmission. The pre-eminent work of this field, popularly known as The Introduction (al-Muqaddima), by the Syrian of Kurdish origin, Ibn al-Salah (d. 1245), has just received a magnificent translation into English (Dickinson 2005). Ibn al-Salah identifies 65 hadith disciplines, ranging from definitions of the qualitative grades ‘sound’, ‘fair’, and ‘weak’ that are applied to hadiths, to the methods of writing hadiths, to the clarification of nicknames and homographic names of transmitters found in isnads. Many great Mamluk-era scholars (ca. 1260 –1516) wrote commentaries on or abridgements of Ibn al-Salah’s Introduction, including al-Nawawi, Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), [Abd al-Rahim al-[Iraqi (d. 1404), Ibn Hajar al-[Asqalani, al-Sakhawi (d. 1497), and al-Suyuti. 4 Scott C. Lucas © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd The vast majority of works belonging to Sunni hadith literature remain entirely inaccessible to non-Arabic readers. Western scholarship on hadiths has been concerned primarily with debating the historical value of hadiths for unraveling Islamic origins rather than the religious, moral, or spiritual influence of these texts on Muslims over the past millennium (for an excellent overview of the major debates over the authenticity of hadiths by Western scholars, see Motzki 2004, Introduction).3 There are practically no academic monographs on any of the major hadith compilers or compilations in Western languages, and most translations of these books into English are marred by stylistic infelicities and a habit of leaving numerous Arabic words untranslated (two hadith compilations that have been translated into highly readable English are Ibrahim & Johnson-Davies 1976 and Hamid 2003; see also Robson 1963–5). In light of the challenges facing most students interested in learning more about Sunni hadiths, two of the primary goals of this article are to provide an overview of the contents of the canonical Sunni hadith collections along with a sample of 22 ethical hadiths in idiomatic English. 2 Two Canonical Compilations: Muslim’s Sahih and Abu Dawud’s Sunan Muslim’s Sahih (2000) and the Abu Dawud’s Sunan (1997) have long been held in high esteem by the Sunni Muslim community. Muslim’s compilation is arranged into 54 books (kutub) and Abu Dawud’s Sunan contains 35. The following 26 books are common to both compilations: (1) Ritual purity (tahara) (14) Blood money (diyat) (2) Prayer (salat) (15) Special crimes (hudud )4 (3) Funerary Rites ( jana]iz) (16) Adjudication (aqdiya) (4) Alms tax (zakat) (17) Lost and found (luqta) (5) Fasting (siyam/sawm) (18) Warfare (jihad )5 (6) Pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj/manasik) (19) Governance (imara) (7) Marriage (nikah) (20) Hunting (sayd ) (8) Divorce (talaq) (21) Animal sacrifice (adahi ) (9) Manumission ( [itq) (22) Beverages (ashriba) (10) Sales (buyu[) (23) Clothing (libas) (11) Inheritance ( fara]id) (24) Morals and Etiquette (adab) (12) Wills/Testaments (wasaya) (25) Religious knowledge ([ilm) (13) Oaths and Pledges (ayman, nudhur) (26) Apocalypse ( fitan) This list provides an introductory overview of the major topics of the hadith. Most of these topics relate to Islamic law and address the three broad legal categories of acts of worship ([ibadat), transactions (mu[amalat), and punishments ([uqubat). Ethical topics are more visible in Muslim’s Sahih than in Abu Dawud’s Sunan, since Abu Dawud groups most of his ethical material in the Book on Morals and Etiquette, while Muslim has separate books on ‘Greetings’, ‘Kindness and Good Relations’, ‘Remem- brance of God’, and ‘Repentance’. Theological topics, such as the apocalypse, © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Major Topics of the Hadith 5 are common to both books, and Abu Dawud has a unique book called ‘Sunna’ that highlights several sectarian positions of Sunni Muslims. Only Muslim includes independent books on ‘excellences’ ( fada]il ) and ‘excellences of the companions of the Prophet’ that fall into the realm of hagiography, although Abu Dawud does include chapters extolling the virtues of the ‘rightly guided caliphs’, Abu Bakr, [Umar, [Uthman, and [Ali, in his Book on the Sunna. Given that these books vary tremendously in length, we shall compare the largest books in Muslim’s Sahih with the largest ones in Abu Dawud’s Sunan, in order to obtain a clearer sense of the major topics of the hadith:6 This list indicates several additional structural similarities between the contents of Muslim’s Sahih and Abu Dawud’s Sunan. Prayer is the pre- eminent topic, having twice as many hadiths as the second largest books in both compilations. Pilgrimage, ritual purity, and fasting are also found on both lists, indicating a greater utility of prophetic hadiths for regulating the acts of worship than transactions or punishments. Were we to combine all of Muslim’s books on ethical topics, we would arrive at a similar number of hadiths to those found in the large Book on Morals and Etiquette in Abu Dawud’s Sunan. Finally, this comparison shows Muslim’s greater attention to extra-legal topics, like hagiography, than that of his con- temporary Abu Dawud. Given the significance of prayer in these two collections, let us examine more closely what types of regulations the hadith provide. Our case study will be the ‘holiday prayer’, which is performed on the two major Muslim holidays, [Id al-Fitr and [Id al-Adha.10 The holiday prayer is not explicitly mentioned in the Qur’an and appears to be a prophetic practice (sunna) that was adopted by the entire Muslim community. Muslim devotes a short book in his Sahih to this topic, while Abu Dawud covers the holiday prayer in Chapters 245 – 2 57 of his Book on Prayer. Muslim’s Book on the Two Holiday Prayers consists of a preface with four chapters. The preface presents hadiths reporting that the schedule of the ‘Id al-Fitr holiday began with a congregational prayer, followed by a Muslim Abu Dawud (1) Prayer (1,054 hadiths)7 (1) Prayer (1,165 hadiths) (2) Pilgrimage (522 hadiths) (2) Morals (502 hadiths) (3) Belief8 (380 hadiths) (3) Purity (390 hadiths) (4) Purity (237 hadiths)9 (4) Pilgrimage (325 hadiths) (5) Excellences of the companions(232 hadiths) (5) Warfare (311 hadiths) (6) Fasting (222 hadiths) (6) Sales (245 hadiths) (7) Beverages (185 hadiths) (7) Sunna (177 hadiths) (8) Governance (185 hadiths) (8) Fasting (164 hadiths) (9) Alms tax (177 hadiths) (9) Governance (161 hadiths) (10) Excellences (174 hadiths) (10) Funerary rites (154 hadiths) 6 Scott C. Lucas © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd sermon,11 and concluded with the Prophet’s exhortations to the women’s section in which he urged them to donate some of their jewelry as alms. Several hadiths mention that the call to prayer (adhan) that accompanies the five daily prayers was not recited for the holiday prayers. Muslim next proceeds to relate hadiths addressing the following four issues: 1 it is permissible for women of all ages to attend the holiday prayer and listen to the sermon; 2 there are no supererogatory prayers either prior to or after the holiday prayer;12 3 the Prophet recited from Sura Qaf (50) and the Sura of the Moon (54) in the holiday prayer; and 4 public festivities are permissible and singing may be done in private during the holiday. The first three topics related to the holiday prayer that Muslim discusses are found in Abu Dawud’s Sunan. Abu Dawud also addresses the following additional issues and points of interest on the basis of hadiths: 1 the two Muslim holidays were the same days as pre-Islamic holidays in Medina; 2 the prayer leader (imam) should not tarry on his way to the holiday prayer; 3 menstruating women can sit at the back of the holiday prayer and join in praising God;13 4 the Prophet delivered the sermon from on top of a bow (qaws); 5 one says ‘Allahu akbar’ (God is greatest) seven times in succession in the first cycle of prayer and five times in succession in the second cycle;14 6 it is not obligatory to stay and listen to the sermon after the units of prayer have been performed; 7 the Prophet took one route to the place where the holiday prayer was performed and a different route back home; 8 if the prayer leader does not perform the Holiday prayer on the first day of the holiday, he should perform it on the second day;15 and 9 the holiday prayer can be prayed in the mosque in the case of inclement weather.16 It is apparent from this brief case study that Abu Dawud derives a greater number of rulings from hadiths than Muslim does. A likely reason for this discrepancy is that Abu Dawud’s standards for including hadiths are lower than those of Muslim, the latter of whom insisted that all of the transmitters in the isnads should be graded at the level of ‘trustworthy’ and that the lives of the people who form the links in the chains of transmitters overlap. Thus, the vast majority of Sunni Muslim scholars have considered Muslim’s book secondary only to the Sahih of al-Bukhari with respect to the authority of the hadiths it contains, but they have also found Abu Dawud’s Sunan to be more useful than Muslim’s Sahih for their task of © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Major Topics of the Hadith 7 determining Islamic law. It is also apparent from this example that many (and perhaps most) of the legal hadiths in Muslim’s Sahih are found in Abu Dawud’s Sunan, so it would be more efficient for a religious scholar to go straight to Abu Dawud’s book, especially since the bulk of its contents have been graded by other Muslim scholars as either ‘sound’ or ‘fair’. 3 A Sample of Ethical Hadiths: How to Be a Good Muslim Although hadiths do play a role in Islamic jurisprudence, it is very likely that the hadiths most Muslims hear in sermons or study in school are of an ethical nature. The very concept of Islam’s ‘five pillars’ derives from a hadith, as does the tripartite hierarchy, favored by many Sufis, of ‘submission – faith – beautiful conduct’ (islam – iman – ihsan) (for a thorough discussion of these concepts, see Murata & Chittick 1994; the hadiths that give rise to both of these concepts are found in Ibrahim & Johnson-Davies 1976, nos. 2, 3). Basic social interactions, such as greetings and the proper response to a sneeze, are made ‘Islamic’ through hadiths. An-Nawawi’s Forty Hadith, mentioned above, consists mostly of ethical teachings that encourage righteousness and piety rather than specific legal injunctions. In light of the aforementioned language barrier to most of the hadith literature, we will offer a selection of 22 ethical hadiths found in the Book on Morals and Etiquette in Abu Dawud’s Sunan.17 • The virtues of mercy, kindness, and affection 1 [Abd Allah b. Mughaffal said that the Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: God is gentle and loves tenderness. His gifts to the gentle person surpass all that He gives to the harsh one.18 2 Abu Hurayra reported that [the Bedouin] al-Aqra[ b. Habis saw the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) kissing [his grandson] al-Husayn and said, ‘I have ten children, none of whom I have ever kissed!’ The Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) replied: He who shows no mercy shall receive no mercy.19 3 [A’isha (Peace be upon her)20 said: The Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) never, ever struck a servant or a woman.21 4 Hudhayfa said: Your Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: Every good deed (ma[ruf ) is an act of charity.22 5 [A’isha (May God be pleased with her) reported that the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: The Angel Gabriel kept advising me [to be kind to] neighbors, so much so that I thought he was going to grant them a share of inheritance!23 6 Abu Hurayra reported that the Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: By He in whose hand my soul rests! None of you will enter Paradise until you truly believe, and none of you will truly believe until you love one another. Shall I indicate to 8 Scott C. Lucas © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd you how you might love one another? Extend your greetings amongst each other far and wide.24 • Some vices 7 Abu Hurayra reported: Someone said, ‘O Messenger of God, what is character assassination (ghiba)?’ He replied, ‘It is your act of mentioning your brother in a manner he despises.’ [The interlocutor] said, ‘But what if your brother matches the description that you have mentioned?’ [The Prophet] replied, ‘If he is as you describe him, then you have committed character assassination; if he is not as you describe him, you have committed slander.’25 8 Abu Hurayra reported that the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: Beware of jealousy! Jealousy consumes good deeds like fire consumes wood.26 9 Anas b. Malik reported that the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: Do not engage in mutual hatred or jealousy, and do not sever relations between one another. O servants of God, be brothers! It is not lawful for a Muslim to be estranged from his brother for more than three nights.27 • Assisting others 10 Abu Hurayra reported that the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: Whoever removes a worldly affliction from a believer, God will remove one from him on the Day of Resurrection. Whoever alleviates [the lot of ] a needy person, God will alleviate [his lot] in this world and the Hereafter. Whoever covers the fault of a Muslim, God will cover his fault in this world and the Hereafter. God will aid His servant so long as His servant aids his brother.28 • Filial piety 11 The grandfather of Bahz b. Hakim said: ‘O Messenger of God, whom should I treat with kindness?’ He replied, ‘Your mother, then your mother, then your mother, then your father, and then your relatives, according to their proximity to you. . . .’29 12 Abu Usayd Malik b. Rabi[a al-Sa[adi said: Once when we were with the Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) a man from Banu Salama came by and said, ‘O Messenger of God, are there any acts of filial piety which I should perform after my parents have passed away?’ He replied, ‘Yes. You should offer blessings and prayers upon them, ask God to forgive them, fulfill their outstanding pledges, maintain good relations with their relatives, and honor their friends.’30 • Etiquette for greetings 13 Abu Hurayra said: The Messenger of God said: The rider on horseback should initiate greetings with a man on foot; the youth should initiate greetings with the adult; the person walking should initiate greetings with the seated person; and the smaller group of people should initiate it with the larger group.31 © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Major Topics of the Hadith 9 14 Asma], the daughter of Yazid, said: The Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) passed by us, a group of women, and greeted us with, ‘Peace be upon you.’32 15 al-Bara] b. [Azib said: The Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: Whenever two Muslims meet, clasp hands, praise God (Mighty and Majestic is He), and request His forgiveness, thay are both forgiven.33 • Etiquette when one sneezes 16 Abu Hurayra reported that the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: When one of you sneezes, say, ‘All praise belongs to God, unconditionally!’ Let his brother or companion then say, ‘May God have mercy on you.’ The one who sneezed may say, ‘May God guide you and improve your condition.’34 17 Abu Hurayra reported that the Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said: A Muslim is obliged to do five things for his fellow Muslim brother: return his greeting; say ‘May God have mercy on you’ when he sneezes; reply to his invitation; visit him during his illness; follow his funeral procession.35 • Etiquette for seeking permission to enter a house 18 Abu Sa[id al-Khudri said: We were sitting in a gathering of Helpers (Ansar)36 when Abu Musa al-Ash’ari arrived in a vexed state. We said to him, ‘What vexes you?’ Abu Musa replied: [Umar ordered me to visit him, so I went and sought permission to enter his house three times. He did not grant me permission, so I returned home. [Later, [Umar] said, ‘What kept you from coming by my place?’ I replied, ‘I came by your house, requested permission to enter three times, and nobody granted me permission to do so. The Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said, “Whenever anyone seeks permission to enter three times and does not receive it, he should return home.”’ [Umar demanded that I provide corroborating evidence [that the Prophet said this]. Ubayy b. Ka[b said, ‘Only the youngest one of us should go with you [to see [Umar].’ Abu Sa[id left [with Abu Musa] to testify [to [Umar that the Prophet said this].37 • Prohibition against killing certain creatures 19 Ibn [Abbas said that the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) prohibited the killing of four creatures: ants, bees, hoopoe birds, and sparrow hawks (surad ).38 20 [Abd al-Rahman b. [Uthman reported that a physician asked the Prophet (May God bless him with mercy and peace) about a frog that he wished to use as an ingredient in some medicine he was making. The Prophet forbade him from killing the frog.39 • Nighttime invocations 21 al-Bara] b. [Azib said: The Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) said to me: Before you get into bed, do the 10 Scott C. Lucas © 2008 The Author Religion Compass 2 (2008): 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00058.x Journal Compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd ritual ablutions for prayer, then lie in bed on your right side and say, ‘O God, to You I submit; to You I entrust my whole being; with You I seek refuge, out of hope in You and fear of You. There is neither refuge nor escape from You except through You. In Your book that You revealed and Your prophet whom You sent, I believe.’ [The Prophet said:] If you die [after having recited this invocation], you will die in a state of natural perfection ( fitra). Make these lines your final words. al-Bara] asked the Prophet: Is it permissible for me to substitute ‘Your messenger whom You sent’ [for ‘Your prophet whom You sent]?’ He replied: No, say, ‘in Your prophet whom You sent.’40 22 Shariq al-Hawzani said: I visited [A’isha (May God be pleased with her) and asked her, ‘What words did the Messenger of God (May God bless him with mercy and peace) say prior to his nighttime prayer?’ She replied, ‘You have asked me about something which no one else has previously asked. When nightfall descended, he would say, ‘God is greatest’ ten times, followed by, ‘All praise belongs to God’ ten times; then ‘Glory be to God and by His praise [I glorify Him]’ ten times; then ‘Glory to [God] the King, the Holy,’ ten times; then ‘I seek forgiveness from God’ ten times; then ‘There is no god but God’ ten times; then ‘I seek refuge with You from the anguish of this world and the anguish of Resurrection Day’ ten times; and then he would commence his [nighttime] prayer.41 4 Conclusion Western scholars have barely begun to scratch the surface of the vast Sunni hadith literature. This short essay proposes that comparative thematic analyses between major hadith collections have the potential to shed light on the role of hadiths in Islamic law, ethics, and theology (see Burton 1994). Additional studies on the Muslim … 1. T H E O P E N I N G This sura is seen to be a precise table of contents of the Quranic message. It is very important in Islamic worship, being an obligatory part of the daily prayer, repeated several times during the day. I n the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giverb of Mercy![ Praise belongs to God, Lordd of the world^,^ the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy, 4Master of the Day of Judgement. It is You we worship; it is You we ask for help. 6Guide us to the straight path: the path of those You have blessed, those who incur no angerf and who have not gone astray. Most occurrences of this term rahman in the Quran are in the context of Him being mighty and majestic as well as merciful. T h e addition of the word Lord here is intended to convey this aspect of the term. This term rahim is an intensive form suggesting that the quality of giving mercy is inherent in Gods nature. I This is the only instance where this formula, present at the start of every sura but one. is counted as the first numbered verse. T h e Arabic root r-b-b has connotations of caring and nurturing in addition to lordship, and this should be borne in mind wherever the term occurs and is rendered lord. A/-alamin in Arabic means all the worlds, of mankind, angels, animals, plants, this world, the next, and so forth. 1 Note that the verb here is not attributed to God. 28 The Quran 2: 241 almighty and wise. 2 4 1 D i ~ ~ r c e d women shall also have such mainten- ance as is considered fair: this is a duty for those who are mindful of God. 2421n this way God makes His revelations clear to you, so that you may grow in understanding. 243 [Prophet], consider those people who abandoned their home- .. land in fear of death, even though there were thousands of them. God said to them, Die! and then brought them back to life again; God shows real favour to people, but most of them are ungrateful. 244Fightb in Gods cause and remember that He is all hearing and all knowing. 245 Who will give God a good loan, which He will increase for him many times over? It is God who withholds and God who gives abundantly, and it is t o Him that you will return. 246[Prophet], consider the leaders of the Children of Israel who came after Moses, when they said to one of their prophets, Set up a king for us and we shall fight in Gods cause. H e said, But could it be that you would not fight, if it were ordained for you? They said, How could we not fight in Gods cause when we and our children have been driven out of our homeland? Yet when they were com- manded to fight, all but a few of them turned away: God has full knowledge of those who do wrong. 247Their prophet said to them, God has now appointed Talutc to be your king, but they said, How can he be king over us when we have a greater right to rule than he? He does not even have great wealth. H e said, God has chosen him over you, and has given him great knowledge and stature. God grants His authority to whoever He pleases: God is magnanimous, all knowing. Their prophet said to them, The sign of his author- ity will be that the Ark [of the Covenant] will come to you. I n it there will be [the gift of] tranquillity from your Lord and relics of the followers of Moses and Aaron, carried by the angels. There is a sign in this for you if you believe. 249 When Talut set out with his forces, he said to them, God will test you with a river. Anyone who drinks from it will not belong with me, but anyone who refrains from tasting it will belong with me; if he scoops up just one handful [he will be excused]. But they all drank [deep] from it, except for a few. When he crossed it with those See verse 246 below. b After dealing with marital issues, the Quran returns to the question of warfare. The Arabic name for Saul. 2: 257 The COD 29 who had kept faith, theyu said, We have no strength today against Goliath and his warriors. But those who knew that they were going to meet their Lord said, How often a small force has defeated a large army with Gods permission! God is with those who are steadfast. 250And when they met Goliath and his warriors, they said, Our Lord, pour patience on us, make us stand firm, and help us against the disbelievers, and so with Gods permission they defeated them. David killed Goliath, and God gave him sovereignty and wis- dom and taught him what He pleased. If God did not drive some back by means of others the earth would be completely corrupt, but God is bountiful to all. 252These are the revelations of God which We recite to you [Muhammad] with the truth, and you truly are one of the messen- gers. 253 We favoured some of these messengers above others. God spoke to some; others He raised in rank; We gave Jesus, son of Mary, Our clear signs and strengthened him with the holy spirit. If God had so willed, their successors would not have fought each other after they had been brought clear signs. But they disagreed: some believed and some disbelieved. If God had so willed, they would not have fought each other, but God does what H e will. 2 5 4 Y o ~ who believe, give from what We have provided for you, before the Day comes when there is no bargaining, no friendship, and no intercession. It is the disbelievers who do [email protected]: f- there is no god but Him, the Ever Living, the Ever WatchfuLb Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him. All that is in the heavens and in the earth belongs to Him. Who is there that can intercede with Him except by His leave? H e knows what is before them and what is behind them, but they do not comprehend any of His knowledge except what He wills. His throne extends over the heavens and the earth; it does not weary Him to preserve them both. He is the Most High, the Tremendous. // 256There is no compulsion in religion: true guidance has become distinct from error, so whoever rejects false gods and believes in God has grasped the firmest hand-hold, one that will never break. God is all hearing and all knowing. 257God is the ally of those who believe: H e brings them out of the depths of darkness and into the light. As if Those who had drunk the water or some of the few who went with Talut. Cf. 13: 33. 310 The Quran 41: 45 Quran, they would have said, If only its verses were clear! What? Foreign speech to an Arab? Say, It is guidance and healing for those who have faith, but the ears of the disbelievers are heavy, they are blind to it, it is as if they are being called from a distant place. 45 We gave the Scripture to Moses but disputes arose about it-if it were not for a decree that had already been issued, they would already have been judged-and still they are doubtful and suspicious of it. *Whoever does good does it for his own soul and whoever does evil does it against his own soul: your Lord is never unjust to His creatures. 47Knowledge of the Hour belongs solely to Him and no fruit comes out of its sheath, nor does any female conceive or give birth, without His knowledge. On the Day H e asks them, Where are My partners? they will answer, We admit to You that none of us can see [them]: 4sthe gods they invoked before will have vanished away; they will know that there is no escape. 49Man never tires of asking for good, but if evil touches him he loses all hope and becomes despondent. O Whenever We let him taste some of Our mercy after he has been afflicted, he is sure to say, This is all my own doing: I do not think the Hour will ever come, but even if I were to be taken back to my Lord, the best reward would await me with Him. We shall most certainly inform the disbelievers of what they have done and give them a taste of severe punishment. I Whenever We are gracious to man, he goes away haughtily, but, as soon as evil touches him, he turns to prolonged prayer. 52Say [Prophet], Have you ever thought, what if this revelation really is from God and you still reject it? Who could be more astray than someone who cuts himself off so far [from God]? 53 We shall show them Our signs in every region of the earth and in themselves, until it becomes clear to them that this is the Truth. Is it not enough that your Lord witnesses everything? S 4 T r ~ l y , they doubt that they will meet their Lord; truly H e encompassesu everything. This is muhit, a metaphor in Arabic for having full knowledge and full power over everything. A Meccan sura that takes its name from verse 38, where the practice of consultation (shura) is listed as one characteristic of the Muslim community. The sura discusses man i habit of creating division and disharmony in matters of religion, and Gods all-prevailing power, wisdom, and final decision. The unity of religion is stressed (verse 13) as is the continuity of the prophets (verse 3 ) . The Prophet is reminded that he cannot compel people to believe, that they mill be judged according to their deeds, and that he is only there to deliver the message. The nature of revelation is described in verses 51-3. In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy Ha Mim 2 y n Sin Qaf 3This is how God, the Mighty, the Wise, sends revelation to you [Prophet] as H e did to those before you. 4All that is in the heavens and earth belongs to Him: H e is the Exalted, the Almighty. T h e heavens are almost broken apart from above as the angels proclaim the praises of their Lord and ask forgiveness for those on earth. God is indeed the Most Forgiving, the Most Merciful. 6As for those who take protectors other than Him, God is watching them; you are not responsible for them. 7So We have revealed an Arabic Quran to you, in order that you may warn the capital citya and all who live nearby. And warn [espe- cially] about the Day of Gathering, of which there is no doubt, when some shall be in the Garden and some in the blazing Flame. If God had so pleased, H e could havemade them a single community, but H e admits to His mercy whoever H e will; the evildoers will have no one to protect or help them. How can they take protectors other than Him? God alone is the Protector; H e gives life to the dead; H e has power over all things. Whatever you may differ about is for God to judge. [Say], Such is God, my Lord. In Him I trust and to Him I turn, I the Creator of the heavens and earth. H e made mates for you from among yourselves-and for the animals too-so that Literally the mother of cities, Mecca. 312 The Quran 42: 12 you may multiply. There is nothing like Him: He is the All Hearing, the All Seeing. 12The keys of the heavens and the earth are His; He provides abundantly or sparingly for whoever H e will; He has full knowledge of all things. 131n matters of faith, He has laid down for you [people] the same commandment that He gave Noah, which We have revealed to you [Muhammad] and which We enjoined on Abraham and Moses and Jesus: Uphold the faith and do not divide into factions within it- what you [Prophet] call upon the idolaters to do is hard for them; God chooses whoever He pleases for Himself and guides towards Himself those who turn to Him. 14They divided, out of rivalry, only after knowledge had come to them, and, if it had not been for a decree already passed by your Lord to reprieve them until an appointed time, they would already have been judged. Those after them, who inherited the Scripture, are in disquieting doubt about it. lSSo [Prophet] call people to that faith and follow the straight path as you have been commanded. D o not go by what they desire, but say, I believe in whatever Scripture God has sent down. I am com- manded to bring justice between you. God is our Lord and your a Lord-to us our deeds and to you yours, so let there be no argument between us and you-God will gather us together, and to Him we shall return. 16As for those who argue about God after H e has been a ~ k n o w l k d ~ e d , their argument has no weight with their Lord: anger. will fall upon them and agonizing torment awaits them. 171t is God who has sent down the Scripture with Truth and the Balance. How can you [Prophet] tell? T h e Last Hour may well be near: those who do not believe in it seek to hasten it, but the believers stand in awe of it. They know it to be the Truth; those who argue about the Hour are far, far astray. 19God is most subtle towards His creatures; H e provides [bounti- fully] for whoever H e will; He is the Powerful, the Almighty. 201f anyone desires a harvest in the life to come, We shall increase it for him; if anyone desires a harvest in this world, We shall give him a share of it, but in the Hereafter he will have no share. How can they believe in others who ordain for them things which God has not sanctioned in the practice of their faith? If it were not for Gods The balance of justice and of nature; cf. verse 27. 42: 36 Consultation 313 decree concerning the final Decision, judgement would already have been made between them. T h e evildoers will have a grievous punishment-22you will see them fearful because of what they have done: punishment is bound to fall on them-but those who believe and do good deeds will be in the flowering meadows of the Gardens. They will have whatever they wish from their Lord: this is the great bounty; 23 it is of this that God gives good news to His servants who believe and do good deeds. Say [Prophet], I ask no reward from you for this, only the affec- tion due to kin. If anyone does good, We shall increase it for him; God is most forgiving and most appreciative. 24How can they say, He has invented a lie about God? If God so willed, H e could seal your heart and blot out lies: God confirms the Truth with His words. He has full knowledge of what is in the h e a ~ - t - ~ ~ i t is He who accepts repentance from His servants and pardons bad deeds-He knows everything you do. 26He responds to those who believe and do good deeds, and gives them more of His bounty; agonizing torment awaits the disbelievers. 271f God were to grant His plentiful provision to [all] His creatures, they would act insolently on earth, but He sends down in due measure whatever He will, for He is well aware of His servants and watchful over them: 28it is He who sends rain after they have lost hope, and spreads His mercy far and wide. He is the Protector, Worthy of All Praise. 29Among His signs is the creation of the heavens and earth and all the living creatures He has scattered throughout them: He has the power to gather them all together whenever He will. 30Whatever misfortune befalls you [people], it is because of what your own hands have done-God forgives much-31 you cannot escape Him anywhere on earth: you have no protector or helper other than God. 3 2 A m ~ n g His signs are the ships, sailing like floating mountains: 33 if He willed, He could bring the wind to a standstill and they would lie motion- less on the surface of the sea-there truly are signs in this for anyone who is steadfast and t h a n k f ~ l - ~ ~ o r H e could cause them to be wrecked on account of what their passengers have done-God pardons to let those who argue about Our messages know that there is no escape for them. 36 What you have been given is only the fleeting enjoyment of this Or I only do this out of affection for you as kin! 314 The Quran 42: 37 world. Far better and more lasting is what God will give to those who believe and trust in their Lord; 37who shun great sins and gross indecencies; who forgive when they are angry; 3srespond to their Lord and keep up the prayer; conduct their affairs by mutual consult- ation; give to others out of what We have provided for them; 39and defend themselves when they are oppressed. OLet harm be requited by an equal harm, though anyone who forgives and puts things right will have his reward from God Himself-He does not like those who do wrong. 41There is no cause to act against anyone who defends himself after being wronged, 42 but there is cause to act against those who oppress people and transgress in the land against all justice- they will have an agonizing punishment-43though if a person is patient and forgives, this is one of the greatest things. Anyone God allows to stray will have no one else to protect him: you [Prophet] will see the wrongdoers, when they face the punish- ment, exclaiming, Is there any way of going back? 4 S Y o ~ will see them exposed to the Fire, abject in humiliation, glancing furtively while those who believed exclaim, The losers are the ones who have lost themselves and their people on the Day of Resurrection. Truly the evildoers will remain in lasting torment; 46 they will have no allies to help them against God; there is no way [forward] for those God allows to stray. 47 SO [people] respond to your Lord before there comes a Day that cannot, against Gods will, be averted-you will have no refuge on that Day, and no possibility of denying [your sins]. If they still turn away [remember that] 48We have not sent you [Prophet] to be their keeper: your only duty is to deliver the message. When We give man a taste of Our mercy, he rejoices in it, but if some harm befalls him on account of what he has done with his own hands, then he is ungrateful. 49God has control of the heavens and the earth; He cre- ates whatever He will-He grants female offspring to whoever H e will, male to whoever He will, or both male and female, and He makes whoever He will barren; He is all knowing and all powerful. 511t is not granted to any mortal that God should speak to him except through revelation or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by His command what H e will: H e is exalted and wise. 52So We have revealed a spirita to you [Prophet] by O u r A life-giving message. 42: 53 Consultation 31.5 command: you knew neither the Scripture nor the faith, but We made it a light, guiding with it whoever We will of Our servants. You give guidance to the straight path, S3the path of God, to whom belongs all that is in the heavens and earth: truly everything will return to God. 98. C L E A R E V I D E N C E A Medinan sura that takes its title from the clear evidence demanded b y the disbelievers before they will believe. I t spells out the basic tenets of faith, and contrasts the Fire of Hell with the lasting bliss that will be enjoyed by the faithful. In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy T h e disbelievers-those of the People of the Book who disbelieve and the idolaters-were not about to change their ways until they were sent clear evidence, Z a messenger from God, reading out pages [blessed with] purity, containing true scriptures. 4Those who were given the Scripture became divided only after they were sent this clear evidence, though all they were ordered to do was worship God alone, sincerely devoting their religion to Him as people of true faith, keep u p the prayer, and pay the prescribed alms, for that is the . true religion. jThe disbelievers-those of the People of the Book who disbelieve and the idolaters-will have the Fire of Hell, there to remain for ever. They are the worst of creation. 7Those who believe and do good deeds are the best of creation. 8Their reward is with their Lord: Gardens of everlasting bliss graced with flowing streams. God is well pleased with them and they with Him. All this is for those who stand in awe of their Lord. CG T H E E A R T H Q U A K E A Medinan sura, one o f a series of suras that deal with scenes from the D a y o f Judgement. Compare Suras 81, 82, r or, and others. In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy When the earth is shaken violently in its [last] quaking, 2when the earth throws out its b ~ r d e n s , ~ when man cries, What is happening to it?; 40n that Day, it will tell all Sbecause your Lord will inspire it [to do so]. j 0 n that Day, people will come forward in separate groups to be shown their deeds: whoever has done an atoms-weight of good will see it, whoever has done an atoms-weight of evil will see that. This refers to the dead being thrown out of their graves. 100. T H E CHARGING STEEDS A n early Meccan sura in which God swears by the warhorses He has subjected to mans use4 that man as ungrateful and masguided. In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy By the charging steeds that pant 2and strike sparks with their hooves, who make dawn raids, raising a cloud of dust, and plunging into the midst of the enemy, 6man is ungrateful to his Lord-7and He is wimess to thisb- he is truly excessive in his love of wealth. 9Does he not know that when the contents of graves burst forth, when the secrets of mens hearts are uncovered, on that Day, l their Lord will be fully aware of them all? cf. 36: 71-2; 43: 12-13. Or man will by his own actions be a wimess against himself on the Day of . Judgement. @ T H E CRASHING BLOW A Meccan sura which gives some scenes from the Resurrection and3udgement. In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy The Crashing Blow! ZWhat is the Crashing Blow? 3What will explain to you what the Crashing Blow is? 4 0 n a Day when people will be like scattered moths and the mountains like tufts of wool, 6the one whose good deeds are heavy on the scales 7will have a pleasant life, but the one whose good deeds are light 9will have the Bottomless Pit for his h ~ m e ~ - ~ w h a t will explain to you what that is?-- a blazing fire. a Literally his mother is the bottomless pit. PURITY [ O F FAITH] This sura is unusual in having as its title a term not mentioned in the body of the sura. Ikhlas conveys the meaning of sincerity in ones religion and total dedication to the One true God. Because of the importance of this theme in Islam, the Prophet said that this sura, despite its brevity, was equal to one-third of the Quran. In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy Say, He is God the One, 2God the eternal. 3 H e fathered no one nor was He fathered. *NO one is comparable to Him. Samad: other commonly held interpretations include self-sufficient and sought by all (Razi). 1 1 3 . D A Y B R E A K A Meccan sura used as an invocation against evil. In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy Say [Prophet], I seek refuge with the Lord of daybreak against the evil in what H e has created, the evil in the night when darkness gathers, the evil in witches when they blow on knots, evil in the envier when he envies. a Said to be a means of practising witchcraft and casting spells.