Fluent Essays

Due Date: Friday, October 15th, 2021 Activity Five Week Nine Directions Before starting this assignment, you are expected to have reviewed the lecture slides and your lecture notes. The purpose of this activity is to give you exposure to skills and information that will enhance your understanding of concepts related to theories of status organizing processes and expectation states. After completing the reviewing the slides, your notes, watching the supplementary videos, and reading the below overview, please answer the five questions below. Once you have completed this assignment, please submit it by 11:59 PM. Specifications ● Must be at least 2.5 pages total ● Number your responses ● Include your responses only ● Double-spaced ● 12 pt. Times New Roman ● MS Word document ● Submit to Canvas dropbox for Activity 5 I. Assignment Expectation states theory explains why social hierarchies emerge in small, task-oriented groups. Both known information and implicit, often unconscious, assumptions, based on status characteristics, result in the evaluations of an individual’s ability to contribute to the task at hand. Evaluations are based on (1) specific skills and abilities relevant to the task and (2) characteristics associated with perceived superiority. When the combination is favorable, group members have a positive view of a person’s ability to contribute to the task. When the combination is unfavorable, group members have a negative view of a person’s ability to contribute to the task. This results in a hierarchy where one’s position corresponds to the level of esteem and influence within the group. 1. Describe a situation when you were a member of a goal-oriented small group (e.g., class, sports team, school club, community organization, work group, etc.). How was the group hierarchically organized? Considering the aggregate assumption, which status characteristics were valued higher than others? What combinations of status characteristics were most favorable? Why (hint: how did evaluations of these characteristics shape group members’ views of a person’s ability to contribute to the group’s goals)? According to the salience assumption, for any attribute to affect performance expectations, it must be socially significant. A status characteristic is salient if it either differentiates actors or is relevant to the task. The same characteristic (e.g., having a college degree) can advantage an actor in one setting (with a less educated group), have no impact in another (in a group where all have university degrees), and disadvantage the actor in a third setting (with a more educated group). Thus, no status characteristic advantages or disadvantages an actor in all settings. Whether the status beliefs culturally available to actors shape performance expectations in any actual setting depends on the structure of the local setting itself. 2. Describe a situation (or situations) where, in a collectively oriented group, a diffuse status characteristic is salient because it differentiates group members. a. In a setting where the status characteristic is an advantage. b. In a setting where the status characteristic has no impact. c. In a setting where the status characteristic is a disadvantage. 3. Describe a situation (or situations) where, in a task oriented group, a specific status characteristic is salient because it is relevant to the task at hand. a. In a setting where the status characteristic is an advantage. b. In a setting where the status characteristic has no impact. c. In a setting where the status characteristic is a disadvantage. The shared focus of group members on the group’s goal (i.e., the collective orientation) generates a pressure to anticipate the relative quality of each member’s contribution to completing the task in order to decide how to act. When members of the group, for whatever reason, anticipate that a specific individual will make more valuable contributions, they will likely defer more to this individual and give them more opportunities to participate. These implicit, often unconscious, anticipations of the relative quality of individual members’ future performance. Expectation states theory argues that when a socially valued reward is distributed unequally among members of a group, the actors will infer performance expectations from their reward differences. In other words, the unequal possession of rewards generates status distinctions that are considered legitimate by those in the setting. By creating performance expectations, the unequal rewards appear to be “deserved” and, thus, bring respect, deference, and influence. In this way, just as status characteristics can create status hierarchies, the differential distribution of rewards, can actually create a status hierarchy among actors or modify positions in an existing hierarchy. 4. Describe a situation where someone was given a socially valued reward that resulted in the assumption that these rewards corresponded to esteem and influence within the group. What was the reward? Why was it valued? In what ways did this reward/these rewards generate status distinctions that were considered legitimate by those in the setting? In what ways did receiving this reward/these rewards result in higher performance expectations? Behavior interchange patterns shape performance expectations most powerfully among those actors in a group who are equals in both their external status characteristics and their reward levels. When actors differ in status characteristics, the differentiated performance expectations created by the status characteristics shape the actors’ verbal and nonverbal assertiveness. Consequently, differences in status characteristics shape behavioral interchange patterns. For example, a common assumption is that people who speak more confidently about things with which they have more experience. Salient status characteristics induce actors to assume that the more assertive actor is more competent at the task than the more deferential actor, creating differential performance expectations for them. Behavioral interchange patterns are the means by which expectation states theory accounts for the development structures in homogeneous groups. 5. Describe a situation where, in a homogeneous group, someone displayed behavior resulting in higher performance expectations. Did their subsequent performance confirm or disconfirm these assumptions? Did their level of esteem and influence within the group change as a result? If so, what status characteristics became most salient, giving someone else higher esteem and influence in the group? If not, why? STATUS & Expectation States ORGANIZING 02.STATUS CHARACTERISTICS THEORY Focuses on the way certain evaluations or attitudes shape interactional behavior ACTIVATE GENERAL & SPECIFIC EXPECTATIONS ABOUT PERFORMANCE Differentially valued attributes associated with sex, as well as generalized expectations about which sex will be more or less capable in different situations GENERATE DISTINCT EXPECTATIONS ABOUT SPECIFIC ABILITIES Mathematical ability, creative writing, etc. Has the potential to affect the status organizing process in a task-related setting, if the ability is relevant to the task TYPES OF STATUS CHARACTERISTICS DIFFUSE SPECIFIC ASSUMPTIONS Status characteristics theory seeks to explain how beliefs about status characteristics get translated into performance expectations, which shape the behaviors of individuals in a group. In other words, it explores the process of attributing specific abilities to individuals based on the status characteristics they possess. Five assumptions that link beliefs about status to behavior Salience Assumption For any attribute to affect performance expectations, it must be socially significant. A status characteristic is salient if it either differentiates actors or is relevant to the task ● The same characteristic (e.g., having a college degree) can advantage an actor in one setting (with a less educated group), have no impact in another (in a group where all have university degrees), & disadvantage the actor in a third setting (with a more educated group) ○ No status characteristic advantages or disadvantages an actor in all settings PERFORMANCE EXPECTANCIES Those with higher performance expectancies will be higher in this order Higher positioning entails greater opportunities to perform, initiate problem-solving, higher evaluations, reject influence, & to influence others in the group ADVANTAGES & OPPORTUNITIESA group member’s performance expectancy determines their positioning in the power & prestige order of the group SALIENCE Burden of Proof Assumption Concerns the way status characteristics that differentiate actors, but are not initially relevant to the performance of the group’s task, impact the formation of performance expectations ● All salient information is incorporated, unless something in the setting explicitly dissociates the status characteristic from the task Sequencing Assumption Specifies what happens in the more complicated situation when actors either enter or leave an existing social setting ● The performance expectations that formed in one encounter carry over to the next encounter, even if the specific actors change ○ This assumption has been used to intervene in the status generalization process Aggregate Assumption Explains how the status information associated with multiple characteristics is combined to form aggregated performance expectations ● In groups, people often differ from one another on several status characteristics at the same time, and often these multiple status characteristics generate inconsistent expectations for performance ○ It offers a procedure for making predictions for the order of performance expectations actors will construct from a given set of salient status characteristics Comparison Assumption Describes how aggregated performance assumptions are translated into behavior. Relative aggregated performance expectations for any two actors are compared ● The higher the expectations that an actor holds for herself compared to another actor, the greater the expectation advantage she will have over the second actor 03.REWARDS Differential distribution of rewards, like status characteristics, can actually create a status hierarchy among actors or modify positions in an existing hierarchy The Formation of Performance Expectations & Status Hierarchies Socially significant characteristics Social rewards Behavioral interchange patterns Performance expectations Behavioral inequalities/ status hierarchies REWARDS & PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS When a socially valued reward is distributed unequally among members of a group, the actors will infer performance expectations from their reward differences One study showed that when a third party gave differential rewards to group members who had no other basis for evaluating their performances on a shared task, the members used the reward differences to infer ability differences THEORY EXAMPLE REWARDS & PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS In this way, the differential distribution of rewards, like status characteristics, can actually create a status hierarchy among actors or modify positions in an existing hierarchy Another study showed that allocating differential pay levels to participants in an experiment created corresponding influence hierarchies among them during interaction THEORY EXAMPLE 04. The third factor that affects performance expectations BEHAVIORAL INTERCHANGE PATTERNS BEHAVIORAL INTERCHANGE PATTERNS Such a pattern occurs between two or more actors when one engages in assertive, higher status behaviors (e.g., initiating speech, making a task suggestion, resisting change in the face of disagreement) that are responded to with deferential, lower status behaviors by the other actors (e.g., hesitating to speak, positively evaluating the other’s suggestion, changing to agree with the other) Behavioral interchange patterns shape performance expectations most among actors in a group who are equals in both their external status characteristics & their reward levels, such as between two women in a mixed sex group A Behavioral interchange patterns are the means by which expectation states theory accounts for the development of status structures in homogeneous groups B Following the common assumption that people speak up more confidently about things at which they have more experience, salient status typifications induce actors to assume that the more assertive actor is more competent at the task than the more deferential actor, creating differential performance expectations for them BEHAVIORAL INTERCHANGE RESEARCH EXAMPLE One study showed that when mixed sex dyads shifted from a gender neutral task, where the man had a status advantage, to a feminine typed task, where the woman had a status advantage, the actors’ participation rates & assertive nonverbal behaviors reversed from a pattern favoring the man to one favoring the woman When actors differ in status characteristics, the differentiated performance expectations created by the status characteristics shape the actors’ verbal & nonverbal assertiveness. Consequently, differences in status characteristics shape behavioral interchange patterns BEHAVIORAL INTERCHANGE CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, including icons by Flaticon, and infographics & images by Freepik ALL! THAT’S http://bit.ly/2Tynxth http://bit.ly/2TyoMsr http://bit.ly/2TtBDfr STATUS & Expectation States ORGANIZING 01.EXPECTATION STATES THEORY Aims to explain how our preconceived notions about others, based on their identities, are the basis for status hierarchies in small groups TASK ORIENTED Individuals are task oriented when they are primarily motivated towards solving a problem Individuals are collectively oriented when they consider it legitimate & necessary to take into account each other’s contributions when completing the task COLLECTIVELY ORIENTED Seeks to explain the emergence of status hierarchies in situations where actors are oriented toward the accomplishment of a collective goal or task EXPECTATION STATES THEORY SPECIFIC SKILLS & ABILITIES RELEVANT TO THE TASK Such as prior experience or training related to the task at hand CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH PERCEIVED SUPERIORITY Such as gender, age, race, education, & physical attractiveness EVALUATION CRITERIA 01 02 PERFORMANCE EXPECTATION STATES 01 The shared focus on the group’s goal generates a pressure to anticipate the relative value of each member 02 When members anticipate one will make more valuable contributions, they will likely defer to this individual 03 These implicit anticipations of the relative quality of members’ performance are performance expectation states Value Deference Expectation Expectation States Theory Expectation States Theory explains why social hierarchies emerge in small, task-oriented groups. Both known information & implicit assumptions, based on status characteristics, result in the evaluations of someone’s ability to contribute to the task at hand When the combination is favorable, we will have a positive view of a person’s ability to contribute to the task & vice versa A This results in a hierarchy where one’s position corresponds to the level of esteem & influence within the group B The Formation of Performance Expectations & Status Hierarchies Socially significant characteristics Social rewards Behavioral interchange patterns Performance expectations Behavioral inequalities/ status hierarchies 02.STATUS CHARACTERISTICS THEORY Focuses on the way certain evaluations or attitudes shape interactional behavior ACTIVATE GENERAL & SPECIFIC EXPECTATIONS ABOUT PERFORMANCE Differentially valued attributes associated with sex, as well as generalized expectations about which sex will be more or less capable in different situations GENERATE DISTINCT EXPECTATIONS ABOUT SPECIFIC ABILITIES Mathematical ability, creative writing, etc. Has the potential to affect the status organizing process in a task-related setting, if the ability is relevant to the task TYPES OF STATUS CHARACTERISTICS DIFFUSE SPECIFIC DIFFERENTIATION Even when unrelated to the task, group members will form expectations & act as if the information is relevant When group members collectively believe that a particular characteristic is relevant to the task Differentiation of group members occurs when there are differing states of status characteristics within a group ASSUMPTIONS Status characteristics theory seeks to explain how beliefs about status characteristics get translated into performance expectations, which shape the behaviors of individuals in a group. In other words, it explores the process of attributing specific abilities to individuals based on the status characteristics they possess. Five assumptions that link beliefs about status to behavior ASSUMPTIONS 03 Comparison Assumption 04 Sequencing Assumption Aggregate Assumption 05 Salience Assumption Burden of Proof Assumption 01 02 —BRIAN TRACY “Become the kind of leader that people would follow voluntarily, even if you had no title or position.” ” Author & Motivational Speaker No idea who Brian Tracy is, but I thought this quote was perfect for the section because EST focuses less on those formal hierarchies (e.g., boss/employee) & more on those less formal group hierarchies. So, even though someone doesn’t hold a formal title or position, they are still held in higher esteem & have more influence within a group. Expectation states theory explores this aspect of group processes. Reason for choosing this quote Kind of like Regina George - no one elected her to be the group’s leader but she is the member with the most status & influence over the group CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, including icons by Flaticon, and infographics & images by Freepik ALL! THAT’S http://bit.ly/2Tynxth http://bit.ly/2TyoMsr http://bit.ly/2TtBDfr