PEER - Education
See PEERS
Guided Response: Respond to at least two peers. In your replies, take on the role of a teacher listening to the presentation. Ask questions about your peer’s action research study and offer an additional resource for consideration that supports an alternative viewpoint. Though two replies is the basic expectation, for deeper engagement and learning, you are encouraged to provide responses to any comments or questions others have given to you, including the instructor. Responding to the replies given to you will further the conversation and provide additional opportunities for you to demonstrate your content expertise, critical thinking, and real-world experiences with this topic.
Part I
TERRY
1. Describe the purpose of the study by writing a statement that completes the following sentence, The purpose of this study was to.... (two to three sentences).
The purpose of this study was to learn about students with ADHD and how these individuals perform in various activities in the classroom and how educators and other stakeholders can reduce their struggle to enable them to attain academic and behavior success, (De Chesnay, M. 2014). This study examine behavioral and academic interventions with students with ADHD to help them maximize their learning potential.
2. Post the research questions- Include definitions of key technical terms, if necessary (one or two sentences).
The primary research question : can students with ADHD find success in and out of the classroom academically and behaviorally? The answer to this question entails learning and how ADHD is and how it affects the student while in the classroom. The main question is, can the child successfully function or thrive with his or her disorder.
3. Outcome/ Results or the so what? of the study -Answers to the research questions. (three to four sentences).
The study took place with about 20-25 students whom were in the 2nd -3rd grade. Several students had IEPs and one pending which will require special education classification, while the rest of the students were general education. Had 1 special needs student with a 1:1 IA, 2 students have aids whom helps out the rest of the class when needed. The outcome/ results out of the 21 students , 18 completed the survey given. Some students said they had trouble staying focus for the afternoon class block, where Math was being taught everyday. Some students reported having difficulty with classroom noise, while others mention lack of concentration was another problem. Some students said lack of focus was hard or they werent interested in what was being taught to them.
4. Assuming you could conduct another cycle of this study , what specific modifications or adjustments would you make, and why? ( three to four sentences)
If there was another cycle I would definitely focus on their behaviors while doing assessing to come up with new goals and provide the proper modifications and assistance to some students with IEPs. Giving assistance to those who need for classroom assignments could use some motivation to stay focus and do their best. The last thing I would focus on is giving periodically breaks for those with good behaviors.
5. Explain why this study is important for teachers and other educational practitioners to read about. (two to three sentences).
This study is important for all educators to read about in that the information you read is very useful that will allow you to grow as an educator, no matter if your a veteran teacher or just starting in the field of education between 1-4 years. Educators need to be aware of the needs that childrens have and some of the good interventions that are out there to help those students succeed academically and behaviorally.
Part II
Portfolio Link :
https://portfolium.com/tking3
In one paragraph, reflect your experience with the redesign of the Week Three Assignment in terms of challenges you encountered and how you overcame those challenges. Also include how your assessment promotes learning and innovation skills and how it could be used as a tool for ongoing evaluation of student progress.
My redesign for the week 3 assignment was as challenging from the previous week to make sure my redesign fit for the students to succeed. Looking back previous classwork assignments and just determining how to apply it this this week assignment. My assessment promotes learning skills in which I can apply it to all my students, especially now that Im teaching autistic students. Its essential for teacher to collaborate and lean on one another and share knowledge that may help all students now and in the future.
Reference(s)
Burnaford, G., & Brown, T. (2014).
Teaching and learning in 21st century learning environments: A reader
.
Bridgepoint Education.
· Chapter 4: Leading Change Through ResearchBrown, H. (2004).
Action research in the classroom: A process that feeds the spirit of the adolescent
. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(1), 1-30. Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
De Chesnay, M. (2014). Outline for a Research Proposal. Nursing Research Using Participatory Action research. doi:10.1891/9780826126146.ap04
PEER 2
DANNY;
The purpose of my study is to research and provide support in helping lowincome families of children with a developmental disorder be more knowledgeable of the services available to them. A child diagnosed with a special need has the same ability to learn as a child who does not have a particular condition; every child should be given equal opportunity to reach their educational goals. Providing all students with the best education can be hard when children with special needs are assigned to mainstream classrooms rather than given to special education classrooms, as whats best for one child is not always best for another. Educators need to look at inclusion as an option in supporting the childs developmental disabilities.
The problem that I will be researching is how the schools can help support students with disabilities in a mainstream classroom?
Students with disabilities or special needs cant be supported if the teachers are not equipped with knowledge and understanding of working with children with special needs inside a mainstream classroom and ensuring the acceptance of all children is demonstrated through the appropriate instructional teaching. Interpreting the results will be based on the teachers responses who revealed similar attitudes towards including children with disabilities. Based on the subscales, teachers have more positive than negative attitudes towards inclusion, which showed some teachers were neutral towards having children with special needs included in their mainstream classroom. However, challenges were present in addressing the lack of training programs in providing teachers with the skills and knowledge needed to teach all students in a mainstream classroom successfully.
If I conducted another cycle of this study, I would make just a few modifications. First, I would gather the perspective of various teachers regarding their best practice regarding all instruction. Furthermore, I would focus my research on using technology in an inclusion mainstream classroom in support of children with disabilities in the 21st century. This would identify and show the best practices used within the outcomes. Additionally, this would allow teachers to apply the results to any student regardless of their learning level.
This study was a challenge for many teachers who havent worked with children with disabilities or in an inclusion classroom. The adventure and challenge force the teachers to utilize the best strategies to evolve the lesson plans and the learning for the 21st Century students while including children with disabilities. They can also improve their teaching strategies to have what most children learn best from; technology. When thinking about teaching and learning within any classroom, teachers should think of the best practices that utilize how they can innovate and transform their best practices to a new level.
The redesign was slightly challenging, the process of figuring out what information to insert and delete. The revision was confusing because of the information that needed to be defined. However, once I was able to identify where assessment required to be changed or added, I understood the target domain and outcomes that the lesson was targeting and which review worked best for the task.
PEER 3
MARK BENTON
Part 1: share the process and result of the action research study you peer-reviewed in EDU 694 or ECE 600. At a minimum:
. Describe the purpose of the study by writing a statement that completes the following sentences, “The purpose of this study was to…” (two to three sentences).
The purpose of this study was to discover those practice considerations that will support children and young adults with Autism. “Participatory research methods are geared towards planning and conducting the research process with those people whose life-world and meaningful actions are under study” ( Bertoldi and Thomas, 2012).
. Post the research question (so- Include definitions of key technical terms, if necessary (one to four sentences).
Research questions that pertained to the peer research were 10Why are priorities for Autism Spectrum Disorder research so valuable? 2) What interventions are most useful for the communication and language skills of those with Autism? 3) What environmental supports are appropriate to achieve the best education and life skills for those with Autism? 4) How would the delivery be adapted to fit the students each one of these questions is important when it comes to students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.
. Outcomes/Results or the “so what” of study Answers to the research questions. (three to four sentences)
The outcomes were providing the Best Compassionate Autism Therapy to the families and children we serve. Provide learning webinars for parents and caregivers to provide tips and helpful advice. Increase communication skills and social skills. Customized ABA therapy.
. Assuming you would conduct another cycle of this study, what specific modifications or adjustments would you make, and why? (three to four sentences)
If I were able to conduct another cycle of this study, my specific modification would be having the children suspected of autism spectrum disorder have Early Intervention. The early a parent knows that a child has autism the better it is for both child and parent. There are things as parents you can do to motivate your child with autism such as: Follow a direct communication approach, avoid long phrases conversation be clear and succinct, look for nonverbal cues figure out the motivation behind the tantrum, and create a consistent schedule and stick to it, etc. All and more can help the child when we know his/her diagnosis.
. Explain why this study is important for teachers and other educational practitioners to read about. (two to three sentences)
Children on the autism spectrum disorder tend to thrive on repetition. It is important for teachers and other educational practitioners to read about because the goal of the research is to learn more about autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to be able to better treatments and school programs down the road. Children on the autism spectrum disorder tend to thrive on repetition and routine. So, teachers can help make a student’s educational life as stress-free as possible by understanding the child’s routine and sticking to it as much as possible. Doing so could very well prevent a tantrum, meltdown, and unnecessary behavior. If teachers and other educational practitioners can read about Autism Spectrum Disorder, we will have collaboration positively impacts students’ achievements, and allow us as educators to explore new territory.
Part 2:
. Attach a link to your Folio.
https://portfolium.com/lucievalere55
. In one paragraph, reflect on your experience with the redesign of the Week Three Assignment in terms of challenges you encountered and how you overcame those challenges. Also, include how your assessment promotes learning and innovation skills and how it could be used as a tool for ongoing evaluation of student progress.
My redesign on the week three assignment was challenging but easier than the previous week. After selected the redesigned assignment, now I must find the best PLOs with the modification then I can continue redesigning the assignment. Comparing the time, I took to redesign the first assignment the third week was less challenging. My assessment promotes learning and innovation skills by allowing the students to demonstrate their abilities and knowledge as well as reflects close they are to meeting educational goals and standards. Assessments tell us what students learned, how well they learned it, and where they struggled. Assessment should provide feedback to students on their progress towards the achievement of learning outcomes. Feedback will enable students to realize where they have done well and indicate what they could improve on, as well as justifying the grade or mark of summative assessments.
References:
Burnaford, G., & Brown, T. (2014). Teaching and learning in 21st-century learning environments: A reader. Bridgepoint Education.
Required Resources
Text
Burnaford, G., & Brown, T. (2014).
Teaching and learning in 21st century learning environments: A reader
.
Bridgepoint Education.
· Chapter 4: Leading Change Through Research
Website
Folio
. (https://portfolium.com/welcome)
· This website provides a Folio resource. This resource will support student completion of the final project, as well as discussions and assignments throughout the course. Learn more about Folio, University of Arizona Global Campus ePortfolio tool, by viewing the
Folio Quick Start Guide (Links to an external site.)
.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Recommended Resources
Articles
Barrell, J., & Weitman, C. J. (2007).
Action research fosters empowerment and learning communities
. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 73(3), 36-45. Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
· In this bulletin, Barrel and Witman discuss how action research done in learning communities can produce results that affect the whole school. This resource will support student completion of the discussions and assignment for this week. The full-text version of this article is available through the EBSCOhost database in the University of Arizona Global Campus Library.
Brown, H. (2004).
Action research in the classroom: A process that feeds the spirit of the adolescent
. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(1), 1-30. Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
· This action research study was conducted to see if student-driven questions inserted into a holistic intrapersonal curriculum would encourage student self -efficacy. The results of the study noted that the concepts of competence, encouragement, confidence, and self-esteem allow holistic teaching to flourish when creativity, choice, imagination, and constructivism nourish the adolescent spirit in the classroom. This resource will support student completion of the discussions and assignment for this week. The full-text version of this article is available through the EBSCOhost database in the University of Arizona Global Campus Library.
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EDU696
Week 4 Instructor Guidance
Week 3 required a look back, reflecting on the link between assessments and report cards that reflect CCSS. Additionally, the idea of creating high quality assessments was debated, as well as the concept of the Flipped Classroom. This time, the flipped classroom concept was related to the Common Core State Standards and teacher decision-making based on student assessments. Last, the assignment in Week 3 required you to connect high quality assessment with 21st Century Learning and Innovation Skills. This week you will share your peer reviewed research study with your fellow learners.
Now is the time to look ahead to Week 5 to prepare for the group activity if you have not already done so, as well as ask questions in the Ask Your Instructor discussion if you are unclear about any of the requirements for the group activity.
Action Research
Action Research (AR) is both process and product. The AR process has well known steps: Developing the research question, conducting the literature review, designing and implementing the study design (to include the data collection and analysis), and writing up and presenting your findings. The AR product, of course, is the results, as well as the final report for presentation.
Action Research (AR) is a key type of research aimed specifically at what is sometimes called “street level practitioners.” O’Brien (1998, para 23 and 24) notes that
Kurt Lewin is generally considered the ‘father’ of action research. A German social and experimental psychologist, and one of the founders of the Gestalt school, he was concerned with social problems, and focused on participative group processes for addressing conflict, crises, and change, generally within organizations. Initially, he was associated with the Center for Group Dynamics at MIT in Boston, but soon went on to establish his own National Training Laboratories. Lewin first coined the term ‘action research’ in his 1946 paper “Action Research and Minority Problems”, characterizing Action Research as “a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action”, using a process of “a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action.”
AR, when considered from an education viewpoint, is tied with the work of John Dewey, whose experiential view of education was directed to both students and teachers. As such it is very versatile. While conducting AR, teachers seek to find solutions to practical classroom problems. Some examples of AR can be found in all curriculum subjects, student management issues, improvements of teaching technique(s), etc. AR can be conducted by individuals, teams of teachers, or entire schools. In sum, AR works well for educators.
Understanding the conduct, potential value, and professional necessity of research in general, and action research in particular, arms you with the necessary tools to not only conduct your own research, but to enhance our profession. By offering a substantial alternative to post-modern modes of thinking as applied to education, you can proceed with your professional practice with renewed confidence.
Week 4 Assessments Overview
Review the full instructions for each assessment below on the Week 4 homepage in addition to using this guidance.
Discussion –Share your Action Research Study
In this discussion, you participate in reciprocal sharing of your peer reviewed action research study with other classmates in the course who will appreciate the knowledge you gained through the action research peer review process. A link to your Folio will be included as well as a reflection on the redesigned activity from your Week 3 assignment. Sharing your peer reviewed action research study provides you a time for reflection on the study. In this discussion, really reflect on the study and offer other viewpoints to classmates on their action research peer reviewed study. Having a time for collaboration and review will enhance our understanding of the AR process and the study you did for peer review.
Assignment – Research and Educational Change
In this assignment, you take your discussion and convert it into a poster that you could use at an academic conference.
Regardless of the length of time any action research encompasses, whether a month or an entire academic year, it is important to share the process and the results with the rest of the academic community. You will put together your report following APA formatting and writing, highlighting what you read about in your peer reviewed study. This is the product component of Action Research and should be attended to with utmost attention and quality.
There is often a presentation aspect to any Action Research product as well. Whether you are presenting your findings to your colleagues, the local school board, or preparing it for publication in an online action research journal, the goal is the same—to present your project and findings as professionally as possible.
One key to this is to be fully prepared ahead of time. If the presentation is to be public, rehearse. Practice what you intend to say, do not read the presentation verbatim to the audience, prepare your handouts, slides, or other information, and use them while you practice. Anticipate the questions you could be asked and practice responding to them. And do this more than once—we have all endured presentations in which the speaker was clearly not prepared, and you do not want to fall into that.
A second key is to keep it brief. Oftentimes, you will have a finite time to present your project and respond to questions, so it is important to adhere to this. Finding out how much time you are permitted ahead of time allows you to frame your rehearsal work.
Remember, too, that you are the expert here. You did the work of the peer review and are now telling people about it. This should inspire confidence—you are providing knowledge others do not have. Finally, if you are making a professional presentation, look the part. This not only is appropriate to the task, but adds a measure of personal confidence—If you look professional, you will present a more confident and professional demeanor. This will, in turn, enhance your presentation.
References
OBrien, R. (2001). Um exame da abordagem metodológica da pesquisa ação (Links to an external site.)
[An Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action Research]. In Roberto Richardson (Ed.), Teoria e Prática da Pesquisa Ação [Theory and Practice of Action Research]. João Pessoa, Brazil: Universidade Federal da Paraíba. (English version). Retrieved from http://www.web.ca/robrien/papers/arfinal.html#_Toc26184672 (Links to an external site.)
Additional Resources
Borgman, C. (2007). Scholarship in the digital age: Information, infrastructure, and the internet. Boston: MIT Press.
Ma, L. (1999, 2010). Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics. Teachers understanding of fundamental mathematics in China and the United States. New York: Routledge
Trochim, G. (2006).
Social research methods database (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php
Copyright
Gail Burnaford and Tara Brown
Teaching and Learning in 21st Century Learning Environments: A Reader
Editor in Chief, AVP: Steve Wainwright
Sponsoring Editor: Cheryl Cechvala
Development Editor: Cheryl Cechvala
Assistant Editor: Amanda Nixon
Senior Editorial Assistant: Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan
Production Editor: Lauren LePera
Senior Product Manager: Peter Galuardi
Cover Design: Jelena Mirkovic Jankovic
Printing Services: Bordeaux
Production Services: Lachina Publishing Services
ePub Development: Lachina Publishing Services
Permission Editor: Karen Ehrmann
Video Production: Ed Tech Productions
Cover Image: Stockbyte/Jupiterimages/Thinkstock
ISBN-10: 1621781496
ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-149-3
Copyright © 2014 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: The copyright owner of this material hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.
Preface
Teaching and Learning in 21st Century Learning Environments: A Reader prepares readers to enter the field of education ready to address the needs of 21st-century learners. The book is intended to serve as a bridge between coursework that participants have taken, and the ongoing professional development that graduates are encouraged to pursue upon course and program completion.
The text presents excerpts from leading voices in education, providing insight on crucial topics such as differentiation for diverse learners, curriculum and instruction, professional growth and leadership, and skills for digital age learning. The authors integrate theory, research studies, and practical application to provide readers with a set of tools and strategies for continuing to learn and grow in the field of education. Finally, embedded video interviews with practicing educators offer a real-world perspective of important topics.
Textbook Features
Teaching and Learning in 21st Century Learning Environments: A Reader includes a number of features to help students understand key concepts:
Voices From the Field feature boxes: Provide personal stories from educators based on real experiences in the field, giving readers a sense of what it really means to be an educator in the 21st century.
Tying It All Together feature boxes: Provide guidance to assist students in synthesizing the information presented within each chapter.
Videos: Provide real-world perspectives from practicing educators on key topics in 21st-century education.
Critical Thinking and Discussion Questions: Are found at the end of each article. These questions prompt students to critically examine the information presented in each excerpt and draw connections to their own experiences.
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About the Authors
Gail Burnaford
Gail Burnaford holds a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction from Georgia State University, and is currently Professor in the Department of Curriculum, Culture and Educational Inquiry at Florida Atlantic University. Prior to moving to Florida, she directed the Undergraduate Teacher Education and School Partnerships Program at Northwestern University’s School of Education and Social Policy.
Dr. Burnaford is the author of four books and numerous articles on topics related to teacher learning, professional development, arts integration and curriculum design. She has served as Principal Investigator on multiple program evaluations focused on arts integration partnerships, including those funded through the U.S. Department of Education’s Professional Development Grants. Dr. Burnaford has acquired eLearning Certification and teaches courses including research in curriculum and instruction, educational policy, documentation and assessment, and curriculum leadership in hybrid, online and face-to-face learning environments. Her current research focuses on faculty’s use of iPads in teaching and the nature/impact of faculty feedback on student work.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the many people who were involved in the development of this text. Special thanks are due to Cheryl Cechvala, sponsoring editor and development editor; Amanda Nixon, assistant editor; Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan, senior editorial assistant; and Lauren LePera, production editor. Thanks also to the following Ashford faculty and advisors for their helpful advice and suggestions: Amy Gray, Stephen Halfaker, Kathleen Lunsford, Andrew Shean, Melissa Phillips, Tony Valley, Gina Warren, and Laurie Wellner.
Finally, the authors would like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable feedback and insight:
Paula Conroy, University of Northern Colorado
Graham Crookes, University of Hawaii
Tara Brown
Tara M. Brown is an Assistant Professor of Education at the University of Maryland, College Park. She holds a doctorate degree from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and is a former secondary classroom teacher in alternative education.
Tara’s research focuses on the experiences of low-income adolescents and young adults served by urban schools, particularly as related to disciplinary exclusion and dropout. She specializes in qualitative, community-based, participatory, and action research methodologies. Her most recent research is entitled Uncredentialed: Young Adults Living without a Secondary Degree. This community-based participatory study focuses on the social, educational, and economic causes and implications of school dropout among primarily Latina/o young adults living in mid-sized, post-industrial city.
Chapter 4
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Outline the nature, purposes, benefits, and limitations of action research and how it differs from other types of research.
2. Understand how educational practitioners can use action research to solve real-life problems of practice.
3. Identify the steps of the action research project and understand how to implement them in a systematic way.
4. Understand how collaboration with colleagues, students, and other stakeholders can strengthen the action research process.
5. Explain how the results of action research projects can contribute to knowledge on teaching and learning.
Chapter Introduction
A new, fourth-grade teacher was anxious to use action research in the school where she had been hired. She had conducted a successful project in her field placement, which had given her great insight into student learning and her own practice. However, in her new school, she found herself overwhelmed by state mandates in preparing students for the state assessment. She knew the value of action research but wondered how she could possibly carry it out given the new pressures she was under.
Action research
is the systematic study of a real-life problem, in context, with the goal of intervening into that problem. As action researchers, teachers typically identify and study a problem of practice in their classroom and use the knowledge generated from the study to improve student outcomes. Action research is a cyclical process of gathering information, analyzing and drawing conclusions from the data collected, devising an action plan, and then repeating the cycle to continually enhance practice (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006; Stringer, 2004, 2007). Unlike other forms of research, action—and not simply knowledge production—is the primary goal of the research.
The term action research is often attributed to German psychologist Kurt Lewin. Although Lewin was not the first to use research to intervene into a specific problem, he was the first to organize a widely accepted theory on the action research (Herr & Anderson, 2005). Initially, action research was used to improve worker productivity, and Lewin used it to address two specific workplace issues: (a) discrimination against minority workers and (b) worker productivity. Guided by organizational theory, Lewin believed that workers’ and managers’ behaviors could be changed through action research, leading to improved working conditions and increased productivity.
In the United States, action research among educational practitioners is grounded in the work of John Dewey, who stressed the importance of human experience in generating knowledge. Dewey argued that classroom research would benefit from merging educators’ everyday experiential sources of knowledge with formalized research practices as a way to more deeply understand and improve student academic performance. Teacher research, like other forms of action research, declined in popularity in the United States in the mid- to late 1950s due, in large part, to criticisms among academic scholars that it was not rigorous. However, with the recent focus on the role of teachers in school reform, action research has seen a marked resurgence in teacher preparation programs and K–12 schools.
Positivistic and “hard” scientists have considered action research to be a less valid and scientific form of research, and they have negatively critiqued its overall value. Because action researchers seek a particular outcome—for example, improved student motivation—it is thought that they cannot be objective. In reality, no research is bias-free and the value of any research project depends on the goals of the researcher(s). From its inception, the objective of action research in education has been to improve student outcomes and to professionalize teaching. Rather than depending on university-based researchers, teachers can use their own research to “generate new ideas, knowledge and theory” (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006, p. 63) and contribute to “official” knowledge about educational practice. The rigor with which the researchers carry out the work is what determines how useful the research will be in meeting those goals.
This chapter focuses on the uses of action research for teachers and other school-based practitioners. It begins with a general discussion of action research and an overview of the action research process. The overview is followed by four sections that provide more in-depth examinations of the steps in the action research process, including choosing a topic and designing a study, collecting and analyzing data, developing an action plan, and sharing research findings. This is followed by examples of action research projects, which further explicates the roles of teachers and students. The final section describes how practitioner-researchers can disseminate their findings to broader audiences.
This chapter gives those who are new to research a sense of the purposes, processes, and possibilities of action research projects through descriptions of research activities, examples of projects that have been implemented in schools, and critical thinking questions. However, to become a truly competent researcher, one must learn by doing and continually practice and improve one’s skills. As readers implement their own research projects, this chapter can be used as resource to guide them through the process.
Voices From the Field: Getting Started on an Action Research Project
Kathy was a high school language arts teacher. She taught “Introduction to 20th Century Literature” for 11th and 12th graders. In a discussion with her students about what would help them better understand literary concepts, the group identified “not understanding the content of the texts” as a major concern. Kathy knew that students often did not fully understand; however, because they rarely asked questions in class or came after school for help, she had the impression that some were uninterested in the texts. She realized that she had been mistaken and was thrilled that her students shared her concern about their lack of understanding and wanted to do something about it.
Kathy decided to conduct an action research project on “question asking” and “help seeking” and the role of the teacher and the students in supporting and encouraging help-seeking behaviors. She reflected on the question: What do I need to know in order to better understand student behavior, and how can I and other students better support and encourage help seeking? Kathy determined that she needed to know why students were not seeking help and what would make them more comfortable in doing so. Her next step was to figure out how to get this information.
4.1 Research in Professional and Public Life, by Ernest T. Stringer
Introduction
Stringer began his educational career as a K–12 classroom teacher and a school principal in Australia. He also worked with Aboriginal staff at Curtin’s Centre for Aboriginal Studies to create community development programs to improve the experiences of the native people of Australia. More recently, Stringer has been a visiting professor at universities in New Mexico and Texas, teaching graduate classes in action research and community engagement. Stringer’s approach to action research is aligned with pedagogical approaches adopted by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire. That is, his work is aimed at empowering individuals and groups to identify and accomplish useful goals, and assess their progress through the development of new skills and knowledge.
The following excerpt is from Stringer’s book, Action Research, one of many books and articles he has written on the action research process, particularly in the field of education. Although many practitioners may perceive formal research as outside their purview, Stringer points out that research is a natural extension of their everyday activities. That is, practitioners are always inquiring into problems of practice, usually in informal ways. In the excerpt, Stringer defines research and its purpose and introduces the basic steps of action research—the “‘look, think, act’ routine” (p. 8). This is an iterative cycle through which practitioner-researchers observe what is happening, devise and implement an intervention plan, and then repeat the cycle. In this way they are continually learning about and improving their practice.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Stringer, E. T. (2007). Research in public and professional life. In Action research (3rd ed., pp. 1–18). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Research: Methodical Processes of Inquiry
Research is systematic and rigorous inquiry or investigation that enables people to understand the nature of problematic events or phenomena. Research can be characterized by the following:
· A problem or issue to be investigated
· A process of inquiry
· Explanations that enable individuals to understand the nature of the problem
Research can be visualized as nothing more than a natural extension of the activities in which we engage every day of our lives. Even for simple problems—Where are my blue socks? Why did the cake burn?—we ask questions that enable us to analyze the situation more carefully. (I wore my blue socks yesterday; I probably put them with the laundry. Perhaps I overheated the oven, or maybe I left the cake in the oven longer than I should). Tentative analysis enables us to understand the nature of the problem and to work toward a potential solution. (I looked in the laundry, and the socks were there. Next time I baked a cake, I lowered the temperature of the oven and did not burn the cake.)
Formal research is an extension of these day-to-day inquiries. The success of scientific research can be ascribed to its insistence on precise and rigorous formulation of description, observation, and explanation. The meticulous association of what is observed and what is explained provides explanations whose power and efficacy enable us to predict and control many facets of the physical world. The outcomes of scientific research are embodied in the technical achievements that continue to transform our modern world. The miracles of construction, manufacture, communication, and transport that have now entered the daily lives of those living in wealthy nations are testament to the huge advances in knowledge that have resulted from science.
Less successful, however, have been the attempts of the social and behavioral sciences to emulate the accomplishments of the physical sciences. Despite a profusion of theory, the application of scientific method to human events has failed to provide a means for predicting and controlling individual or social behavior. Teachers, health workers, and human service practitioners often find that the theoretical knowledge of the academic world has limited relevance to the exacting demands of their everyday professional lives. The objective and generalizable knowledge embodied in social and behavioral research often is only marginally relevant to the situations they encounter in their daily lives and has little application to the difficulties they face.
Action research, however, is based on the proposition that generalized solutions may not fit particular contexts or groups of people and that the purpose of inquiry is to find an appropriate solution for the particular dynamics at work in a local situation. A lesson plan, a care plan, or a self-management plan that fits the lifeworld of a middle-class suburban client group may be only tangentially relevant in poor rural or urban environments or to people whose cultural lives differ significantly from the people who serve them. Generalized solutions must be modified and adapted in order to fit the context in which they are used.
The wheel provides a good metaphor to understand the nature of this process. Wheels provide a general solution to the problem of transporting objects from one place to another though there are many different purposes to which they are put. Consider the different purposes, parameters, and processes required to use wheels for the following objects:
· A jumbo jet
· A small, single-engine aircraft
· A truck
· A child’s tricycle
· A skateboard
* * *
A Basic Routine
Action research is a collaborative approach to inquiry or investigation that provides people with the means to take systematic action to resolve specific problems. Action research is not a panacea for all ills and does not resolve all problems, but provides a means for people to “get a handle” on their situations and formulate effective solutions to problems they face in their public and professional lives. The basic action research routine provides a simple yet powerful framework—look, think, act (Table 4.1)—that enables people to commence their inquiries in a straightforward manner and build greater detail into procedures as the complexity of issues increases. The terms in parentheses in Table 4.1 show how the phases of the routine relate to traditional research practices.
Table 4.1: A basic action research routine
Phase
Description
Look
· Gather relevant information (Gather data)
· Build a picture: Describe the situation (Define and describe)
Think
· Explore and analyze: What is happening here? (Analyze)
· Interpret and explain: How/why are things as they are? (Theorize)
Act
· Plan (report)
· Implement
· Evaluate
The “look, think, act” routine is but one of a number of ways in which action research is envisaged. Kemmis and McTaggart (1999), for instance, present action research as a spiral of activity: plan, act, observe, reflect. Different formulations of action research reflect the diverse ways in which the same set of activities may be described, although the processes they delineate are similar. There are, after all, many ways of cutting a cake.
Although the “look, think, act” routine is presented in a linear format throughout this book, is should be read as a continually recycling set of activities (see Figure 4.1). As participants work through each of the major stages, they will explore the details of their activities through a constant process of observation, reflection, and action. At the completion of each set of activities, they will review (look again), reflect (reanalyze), and re-act (modify their actions). As experience will show, action research is not a neat, orderly activity that allows participants to proceed step-by-step to the end of the process. People will find themselves working backward through the routines, repeating processes, revising procedures, rethinking interpretations, leapfrogging steps or stages, and sometimes making radical changes in direction.
Figure 4.1: Action research interacting spiral
In practice, therefore, action research can be a complex process. The routines presented in this book, however, can be visualized as a road map that provides guidance to those who follow this less traveled way. Although there may be many routes to a destination, and although destinations may change, travelers on the journey will be able to maintain a clear idea of their location and the direction in which they are heading.
The procedures that follow are likely to be ineffective, however, unless enacted in ways that take into account the social, cultural, interactional, and emotional factors that affect all human activity. “The medium is the message!” . . . [T]he implicit values and underlying assumptions embedded in action research provide a set of guiding principles that can facilitate a democratic, participatory, liberating, and life-enhancing approach to research.
Source: Stringer, E. T. (2007). Action research, 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Summary
Stringer defines formal (scientific) research as systematic and rigorous investigation for the purpose of better understanding the nature of a particular topic or problem, and he describes this as a natural extension of everyday inquiries and problem solving. What distinguishes formal research is the systematic processes that investigators use to observe, explain, and provide evidence of the problem or issue under investigation. Stringer also highlights the collaborative nature of action research and urges researchers to include in a meaningful way all of those affected by the issue under study as part of the investigation. For example, rather than merely serving as research “subjects,” students might also participate in conceptualizing the problem to be investigated.
According to Stringer, formal research has produced much theoretical knowledge in the field of education. However, teachers and other practitioners often find that this knowledge is of little use or has limited applicability to their immediate contexts and everyday experiences. On the contrary, in action research, practitioners select the specific problems they wish to address, and they investigate and create interventions into these problems in their natural setting. This significantly increases the applicability of the research to the everyday experiences of teacher-researchers and their students. As Stringer points out, interventions into problems of practice must take into consideration contextual factors and the particular populations being served.
In the latter part of the excerpt, Stringer provides a model for understanding the iterative, three-step process of conducting action research. He calls this the “‘look, think, act’ routine” (p. 8). In the first “look” step, the researcher observes what is happening in the context and gathers information for the purpose of defining and describing the issue under study. Next, in the “think” step, the researcher analyzes the situation and comes up with explanations for how and why things are occurring as they are. In the third “act” step, the researcher devises, implements, and evaluates the outcomes of an intervention plan. The researcher will then repeat the process: observe the effects of intervention, explain the reasons for those effects, and devise a subsequent action plan to enhance the intervention. Researchers can cycle through these steps indefinitely, continually improving their practice.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. In order to solve problems of practice, Stringer suggests that practitioners, at least in some cases, conduct formal research rather than investigating and intervening into these problems informally. What are the fundamental differences between everyday informal inquiries and formal research? What are the advantages of the latter compared with the former in addressing problems of practice? Can you think of a problem you might encounter in a school or classroom for which formal research might not be an effective means to understand the problem and find a solution? If yes, what is it? In what ways would formal research be ineffective, and what would be an effective approach?
2. Stringer points out that educational practitioners often do not find conventional forms of educational research helpful in finding solutions to the specific challenges they face in their schools and classrooms, because theories developed from this research tend to be generalized and not specific to particular contexts and populations. Action research, in which those directly affected by the topic under study choose the focus, conduct the study, and assess the outcomes, can be more applicable to a practitioner’s specific needs. If this is the case, what is the value of more generalized research on educational topics? In what ways can teachers use this research to inform their own practice?
3. Stringer is a strong advocate of collaborative research and of including in the research process those affected by the topic under study. He suggests that practitioner-researchers consider action research as a community effort, which can include teachers, administrators, students, and parents. Think of a possible problem for investigation in your academic discipline or grade level of interest. It can be an issue that is of particular interest or concern to you or one that has gained attention at the national level. List all the constituencies that are affected by the problem and how they are affected. Next, think of ways that members of each constituency could contribute a deeper understanding of and solutions to the problem.
4.2 Embarking on Action Research, by Catherine M. Brighton
Introduction
Catherine Brighton is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership Foundations and Policy and the director of the Institutes on Academic Diversity at the University of Virginia. Prior to becoming a university professor, Brighton worked in K–12 education in North Carolina as an assistant principal, a curriculum coordinator, a teacher of gifted students, and a classroom teacher. Brighton’s areas of focus include teacher change and school reform, and differentiated curriculum, instruction, and assessment. She is particularly interested in the impact of practitioner action research on teacher practice.
In the following excerpt, Brighton describes how a middle-school mathematics teacher investigates and intervenes into student disengagement. In doing so, Brighton outlines the action research process, which begins with identifying an issue of concern and developing a systematic plan for learning more about that issue. Next, the teacher-researcher collects and analyzes various forms of data that will help her to better understand the issue or problem. She looks for patterns or similarities in the data and uses the information gathered from the study to draw conclusions that will guide her in changing her practice in ways that increase student engagement. Finally, the results of the research are shared with others at the school and district levels. This is an example of what Brighton calls “first-person” research, when the researcher’s own practice is the focus of her research. Ultimately, in this article, Brighton shows how classroom teachers can use action research, focused on their own practice, to improve student outcomes.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Brighton, C. M. (2009). Embarking on action research. Educational Leadership, 66(5), 40–44.
Janice Templeton, a 6th grade math teacher at Marshall Middle School is worried about her students. Marshall’s students come from a wide range of ethnic and economic backgrounds and present highly varied academic needs. Some of Janice’s learners readily engage with math content, but others are singularly uninterested in studying math and aren’t mastering basic concepts. These disengaged students are predominantly female, black, or English language learners.
Janice worries that this pattern of disengagement fits in with the underrepresentation of females and minority groups in high-level math at the high school and college levels. She’s been reflecting on reasons for this problem and the steps she, as a middle-grade teacher, could take to stem the attrition of underrepresented students from math classes. But she feels unclear on what steps or changes will be most productive.
It might seem that this teacher is in an unenviable position because she’s unsure what to do next. In fact, as a teacher who has identified a specific area of classroom practice that warrants additional inquiry, Janice is in an excellent position to embark on an action research study. Action research is a reflective, systematic inquiry that focuses on a relevant problem in teaching or teaming for the purpose of enacting meaningful change to address that problem.
Action research is distinct from other research designs in that it emerges from stakeholders themselves. Like other types of empirical research, action research has clear procedures that practitioners must follow, albeit more fluidly, to arrive at sound conclusions. Let’s look at how Janice’s action research project exploring how to better serve her underachieving students used tools common to action research and progressed through the seven basic steps of the action research process.
Step 1: Identify a Focus
Action research can be done by one practitioner or in collaboration with others. . . .
· First-person action research usually involves one teacher studying his or her own classroom to better understand his or her own behaviors, attitudes, practices, or context. The goal is often personal change.
· Second-person action research is collaborative and aims to better understand the issues or phenomena of a group. The goal of second-person action research is often to improve the dynamics of a group of interrelated individuals, such as a teacher team.
· Third-person action research studies a phenomenon or issue more globally to develop a generalization about the issue’s causes or the effect of solutions across varied settings.
With any of these models, the first step is simple: Identify an area of teaching or learning that you are concerned about. You should then become more familiar with this topic, focus on a specific issue that is causing problems with your practice, and specify the research question that will guide the study.
Janice’s focus emerged over several months as she watched specific groups of students disengage. She noticed many girls hesitating to answer questions aloud during discussions and avoiding exploration and risk taking in independent assignments. She noticed that many students who had attended Eastside Elementary—many of whom were black, Hispanic, or from low-income families—seemed to completely tune out each day’s lesson. She watched the pattern of decreasing homework completion, increasing apathy toward class activities, and escalating off-task behaviors spread in segments of her classes.
To gain more insight into the concept of math disengagement, Janice read articles from education journals, spoke with other middle school math teachers, and joined online discussion groups. She attended an institute on differentiating instruction in mixed-ability classrooms, which gave her practical ideas for how to set up a classroom more focused on authentic tasks.
Through this information gathering, Janice gained a wider view of the issue and formulated two questions: Why do students from underrepresented groups frequently disengage from studying math? and What specific strategies increase students’ willingness to study math?
She enlisted the help of other math teachers within her district. Because she noticed that students who had come from Eastside Elementary were particularly disengaged, Janice contacted 5th grade teachers there for their insights. She invited teachers from the high school to join the discussion. Most colleagues she contacted were eager to participate, and a core group agreed to meet every two weeks to investigate the issue of math disengagement and demographics, which gave Janice’s inquiry elements of second-person action research.
Step 2: Develop a Plan of Action
The teacher formulates a plan, laying out what actions and measurements to take and what data to gather at various points—and who will do which tasks. Because the lineup of specific tasks may change as any project gains traction, this plan should include both tasks tied to specific classroom practices and goals connected to examining the issue in general.
Janice created a time line detailing when—over the course of a five-week unit on probability and statistics—she planned to collect information about students’ perceptions of math and mastery of math concepts and when she anticipated that students with differing readiness levels would need to have guidance and support embedded in lessons. She knew that some students easily transferred data from numerical to graphical representations, for example, whereas others struggled mightily. So she planned lessons for both groups.
To create differentiated lessons tied to the same overarching learning goals, Janice looked over the 13 skills and objectives for this unit listed in the state standards and extracted four generalizations to guide the unit:
· Data can be represented in multiple forms.
· The functions of fractions, decimals, and percents are interrelated.
· Specific sampling strategies increase how well any findings can be generalized to a population from a smaller sample.
· Researchers can make effective predictions by following systematic procedures of probability and sampling.
Janice used these foundational principles to develop lessons that she hoped would increase student engagement and understanding of math.
The research team discussed how to begin the unit in an authentic manner, pointing out situations in which students might need to understand probability and statistics, such as in reporting sports players’ achievements. Participants identified skills within the unit for which students’ readiness levels varied widely, so that some would need more support and others would need opportunities to extend their learning. Together they designed a preassessment that enabled Janice to gather data on her students’ attitudes, experiences, and familiarity with the skills she was about to teach.
To make this assessment nonthreatening, they designed it as a puzzle and gave it to students to complete well in advance of beginning the unit. Students matched puzzle pieces containing key vocabulary with pieces containing appropriate definitions and matched word problems with their corresponding solutions. Students also identified their favorite hobbies and interests.
The first differentiated lesson Janice developed focused on understanding, creating, and using tree diagrams to determine probability in a given situation. The lesson involved group work and offered students a choice of participating in one of three groups connected to their reported interests. One activity situated the question within the context of race cars. This group designed a tree diagram for all the possibilities (and therefore the probability) of race cars with various body styles, colors, and accessories. Another posed a scenario from the fashion industry (“Calculate the probability of two models wearing the same combination of fashion accessories when each is provided the same limited options for headwear, shirts, and shoes”). A third tapped into students’ interests in pets.
Members of the research team were committed to observing Janice teach this lesson and other newly designed lessons within the unit, and they helped her determine how to assess what students had learned through these lessons.
Step 3: Collect Data
At key points in the project, the teacher gathers the data identified in the action plan. As with other types of research, the findings will be stronger if the researcher examines multiple types of data.
Janice collected student artifacts from all her learners, including preassessments of students’ math skills, interest inventories, and work samples. Other artifacts included exit cards (containing each student’s answer to an ungraded question used to check for understanding) and student products created as part of an end-of-unit performance assessment. As the unit progressed, she discussed these artifacts with her research team. Her colleagues helped her use insights she gained from examining student work to shape how she embedded students’ interests within subsequent lessons.
Janice also used her personal reflections as data. While she planned and taught the new lessons, she kept a reflective journal noting which students showed increasing engagement and skill (and which strategies fed such improvement) and which learners still languished. After the tree diagram lesson, she wrote,
It was invigorating to have students work actively in teams of their choosing. The noise in the room was productive but lively, and students seemed much more invested in the study of math than they have been in recent days! The topics seemed to align well with their interests, and they all got involved. However, I have the nagging sense that some students aren’t as challenged as they could be, so I need to go back to the team and get new ideas to extend the learning for those who are ready to go.
Janice noticed patterns in content and activities that students preferred. She found herself brainstorming additional ways she could tap into these preferences throughout the year.
Peer observations and student interviews rounded out the data gathering. Janice’s team members visited her classroom, observed her guiding the newly developed lessons, noted students’ responses, and shared their observations, which Janice recorded. These alternative perspectives to her recollections of how lessons transpired strengthened the validity of her findings.
Through informal focus group sessions, she also collected and acted on student feedback about the new instructional approaches. Feedback revealed that although many students liked working in groups (and she noted which ones those were), others yearned for the opportunity to work on tasks by themselves.
Step 4: Organize the Data
Only a highly systemized method of organizing the volume of data gathered during an action research project will reap the project’s full benefits, This organizational system must be efficient, practical, and protective of sensitive or confidential information about specific students. Janice used only the students’ initials and school identification number when she shared test scores during her team’s sessions. She created a spreadsheet with cells such as pre-test score, interest areas, proficiency level, exit card score, and post-test score to reveal patterns across students and class sections. She calculated average scores for classroom tasks and plotted them on a chart, noting where clusters of students formed to inform her flexible grouping configurations.
Step 5: Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions
This step of the process is ongoing as the teacher researcher continues to collect data. Use whatever analytic methods are appropriate to the research question(s)—both qualitative and quantitative—to interpret data. This step may require additional collaboration with guidance counselors, assessment specialists, or others within the school district who have expertise.
Janice and her team put their heads together to analyze the individual data components and discern a pattern across data sources. They laid out student work samples and discussed what these artifacts brought to light in combination with Janice’s self-reflections and peer observers’ notes. This closer look at the data indicated that tapping into students’ interests increased their willingness to engage in math activities and consequently their achievement on the probability and statistics unit’s post-test.
Engaging students was the first step: Once a tie-in to their interests got learners actually attending to what Janice was teaching, they followed a series of steps that led to the end result of more solid learning. Students who were more actively involved in lessons during the unit were more willing to ask questions of one another and the teacher when they encountered difficulty, and those who asked such questions and posed alternative answers or ways to solve whole-group questions subsequently showed greater understanding of content as measured by exit cards, performance assessments, and pencil-and-paper tests. Also, students who had the chance to work in small groups on a shared task were more willing to discuss their mathematical thinking.
The team concluded that designing new lessons and strategies to tap into students’ interests increased all students’ understanding of the math topics under investigation, including formerly resistant or struggling learners. They believed the project supported the hypothesis that students must first be engaged before they are willing to persist and achieve.
Step 6: Disseminate Findings
Janice and her team first shared their preliminary findings with the administrators at Marshall Middle School. They discussed the overarching principles of tapping into students’ interests to boost their zeal for math and punctuated these insights with anecdotes from Janice’s journal and her peers’ observations of these principles in action.
To put a human face on how the project threaded math skills into students’ life pursuits in a way that ignited learning passion, they described José, a quiet young man, largely uninterested in math in September. When Janice created probability lessons formulated around his passion for race cars, José opened up and shared with his classmates in math. For one marketing project, students collected survey data on classmates’ perceptions and displayed their findings in an appropriate format. José selected the topic of students’ interest in competitive racing. When faced with the challenge of skewed results, he successfully tackled the sophisticated technique of purposeful sampling.
School leaders were intrigued and suggested that the team share its findings at a professional learning community meeting that was investigating curriculum reform within the district.
Step 7: Develop a New Plan of Action
Ideally, the action research process results in the discovery of new information about improving learning conditions. Once this new information is acquired, the action researcher makes decisions about how to change practices to include this new learning—or whether to launch additional investigation. Janice and her team elected to revise additional math units to incorporate more avenues for students’ interests.
Action Research and Teacher Growth
The action research process facilitates meaningful teacher change. The first two steps Janice Templeton took—identifying a problem and developing a plan of action to investigate it—were necessary precursors to deep changes in her approach and effectiveness with learners like José.
Janice moved beyond harboring an intuition that something needed to shift to capture tuned-out learners to reaching data-supported conclusions that ultimately changed her conceptual frameworks about teaching. She not only helped students in one school district cultivate a taste for math but also grew in her understanding of how to confront achievement gaps.
All names in this article are pseudonyms.
Source: Brighton, C. M. (2009). Embarking on action research. Educational Leadership, 66(5): 40–44. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
According to Brighton, action research, which has clear steps, is prompted and conducted by stakeholders who are directly affected by the issue under study. Its purpose is to improve the practices of educators or other practitioners. In this article, Brighton provided a concrete example of the classroom-based action research process, which often begins with a teacher’s concern about her or his students as related to academics or social interactions. The next step in the process is to learn more about the issue of concern, which includes paying closer attention to and documenting the phenomenon (e.g., disengagement) in the school or classroom context and understanding it more deeply through literature, Internet resources, discussions with colleagues, and professional conferences.
As Brighton describes, after gaining a broader and more complex understanding of the problem, the teacher then develops an intervention. During implementation, the teacher collects data, which will provide insight into how changes in instructional practice can effectively address the problem. In the case described, the teacher specifically incorporates students’ interests and choices into her mathematics instruction. The teacher enlists her colleagues to observe and document her teaching and student responses and to help analyze the data. Multiple forms of data, including classroom observations, student work and feedback, and a reflective journal, helped the teacher-researcher gain a complex understanding of engagement among her students. She found that incorporating students’ interests into her math lessons increased their classroom engagement and, in turn, their understanding of mathematical concepts. As a result, she and her colleagues incorporated this strategy into their teaching. Ultimately, action research provided a means for improving instructional practice and student outcomes and enhancing the teacher’s professional growth.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Much research on teaching and learning has been conducted by outside researchers—often university researchers—who use K–12 classrooms as “research sites.” As Brighton points out, what distinguishes action research is that it is prompted and conducted by stakeholders who are directly affected by the problem or issue under study. In what ways might educational practitioners be better positioned than university researchers to study problems in their own setting? What challenges related to conducting research in your own school or classroom might arise, and how can they be addressed?
2. Teachers often make changes to their practice and try out new ideas, informally, in order to address academic or social challenges they see among their students. According to the article, how and why would it be advantageous for teachers to engage in a more formal and systematic process of addressing instructional and learning problems in the classroom?
3. Identify a specific problem related to student learning that you have experienced in your own classroom or that is common in your discipline or grade level. For example, many students experience challenges in the transition from concrete to abstract thinking in mathematics in elementary school. Drawing from the example in the article, develop a plan for learning more about the nature of the problem in classroom context. What would you want to examine more closely in a classroom? How might you document your observations? What other types of data could you collect to give you additional insight into the problem?
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4.3 The Process Begins, by Dorothy Valcarcel Craig
Introduction
Dorothy Craig is a full professor in the Department of Educational Leadership at Middle Tennessee State University. Before becoming a university instructor, Craig was a K–12 classroom teacher, teaching kindergarten through sixth grade. She worked with migrant students in rural and urban schools, teaching English as a second language. Craig also served as a curriculum writer for a K–12 school district. Her current research interests include literacy learning, the use of educational technology and online learning, and action research.
In the following excerpt, Craig provides two helpful rubrics to identify a suitable problem or topic for an action research project. The first helps practitioner-researchers to determine whether a potential topic is worthy of immediate action, should be pursued at a later date, or should be abandoned altogether. The second outlines potential sources, both inside and outside of schools and classrooms, from which to identify research problems and topics. Finally, Craig addresses how to narrow and refine a research topic. Overall, this excerpt helps practitioner-researchers to determine the value and enhance the feasibility of an action research topic.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Craig, D. V. (2009). The Process Begins. In Action research essentials (pp. 29–54 ). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Identifying Problems Suitable for Action Research
People who are already working in the classroom or other environment are aware of abundant problems and critical issues that might be considered as a focus for action research. Graduate students—who are not already in the classroom—find it a bit more difficult to determine which problem or critical issue is worth pursuing. In both cases, the interests of the research typically drive problem selection. Because the classroom is also an environment where naturally occurring events take place, numerous problems arise that might be suitable for action research. Also present in the classroom environment are outside influences—such as school improvement goals, the need to improve test scores, new program implementation, and systemwide goals—that may require research. Researchers must remember, however, that not all problems will demand that an action plan be put in place to achieve improved conditions.
When deliberating on problems for research, be sure to consider the following points.
· Is the topic of interest to the researcher, and if so, will pursuing the problem via action research enhance knowledge, build research skills, and contribute to improvement? It is very important that graduate students consider this question first and foremost. The degree of interest must be considered first. If the problem exists but is of little or no interest to the researcher, it should not be pursued. Lack of interest will have a negative impact on critically evaluating the data, keeping the research on track, and completing the study. The same holds true to some degree for teachers and practitioners. However, the nature of teaching and the structure of schooling may in some cases demand that a teacher or practitioner pursue a study that is not of great interest but is critical to improving practice and effecting change.
· Can the researcher provide a convincing explanation for the choice of problem? If not, a different problem should be selected.
· What impact will the findings have on the teaching and learning process, and will the findings lead to change and improvement? There is no point in pursuing action research if the findings will have little effect on improving the environment.
· Are there adequate resources in place to support the action research, and are there others who deem the problem important enough to pursue? For example, if the research requires resources that are beyond the scope of the researcher, it will become burdensome and may not be effective. The action research process promotes collaboration, so if resources are scarce, consider teaming up with another researcher, administrator, or colleague.
· Is the problem integrated and related to existing goals or objectives? Although pursuing a problem related to schoolwide or departmental goals is always a good idea, there may be times when a problem specific to one particular learning environment is so consistent that it demands a solution. In cases such as this, action research is a natural process, as a solution is within the realm of possibility for the practitioner.
For teachers, more often than not, it is difficult to determine which of many problems is worth pursuing through the research process. Full-time graduate students have an equally difficult quandary because they may not be operating in the practicing environment on a regular basis. Table 4.2 provides a simple rubric that may help with problem identification and determining if the problem should be pursued immediately, be placed on hold for the time being, or discarded as a potential action research project.
Table 4.2: Problem identification rubric
Criterion
Take immediate action
Place on hold
Discard
Interest
High degree of interest Excellent potential to enhance knowledge
Interest sparks the development of skills
Inquiry will contribute to improvement
Some interest
Good potential to enhance knowledge
May help with developing research skills
May assist in promoting improvement
Little interest
Explanation
Problem choice can easily be explained and supported
Researcher feels comfortable explaining problem selection to colleagues and administrators
Researcher is passionate about the problem
Problem choice can be explained
Researcher is somewhat comfortable providing an explanation
Researcher has trouble explaining why this problem should be selected
Impact
Findings have great potential for contributing to the existing body of knowledge
Findings have potential to effect change and improve practice
Findings have potential to inform those in decision-making positions
Findings have some potential for adding to the existing body of knowledge and effecting change.
Finding may have some potential for adding to the existing body of knowledge
Resources
The research does not require resources that are beyond the researcher’s environment
The research may require resources outside the researcher’s environment
Pursing this problem will require more resources than are available
Existing goals
The problem is related to existing goals and objectives
Findings may be beneficial to specific environments and may be applied to other situations to improve practice
The problem is somewhat related to existing goals and objectives
Findings may be beneficial to others in the same environment
The problem has little relationship to specific classroom goals or schoolwide or systematic goals
Sources for Problems or Research Topics
* * *
Even if the problem is easily identifiable, there are several excellent sources of help in refining research topics. Consider the teacher or practitioner who is in the process of identifying a problem. Several problems have the potential to develop into an action research project. To help narrow the problem, consider a brief literature review. Conducting a preliminary review of literature via an Internet search can help by prioritizing a list of topics. New ideas may be gathered in addition to a variety of sources that may be consulted later when developing the action research plan. Discussions with colleagues—and in the case of graduate students, with peers, professors, and administrators—may reveal information and opinions that aid problem identification and determining the potential for the research to improve practice. Observations in the classroom or work environment lead to additional insights and may prompt pursuing a specific problem whose findings may affect universal change among similar environments. Considering other researcher projects is also a way to view a problem from multiple perspectives. The process in itself provides the researcher with another practitioner’s viewpoint on a similar problem or situation.
One of the greatest resources for help with problem identification and selection is professional conference sessions that focus on practitioner research. Formal research presentations conducted by other researchers may spark interest in a particular problem or topic. For graduate students, professional conference sessions provide a wealth of ideas and research possibilities that may be adapted to a more specific situation. National trends and critical issues noted by professional organizations may also be present in local classrooms. The need to address the trends and issues at the individual or systemic level may prompt the need for an action research study in order to improve the situation at hand. Examining existing problems or revisiting old problems is always worthwhile, for a more specific focus for action research may emerge. Finally, examining test scores, classroom grades, student products, writing samples, and other classroom artifacts may help in prioritizing and determining which problem or issue to pursue for action research.
Whether you are just beginning the research process or a seasoned researcher, look to the environment first; however, keep in mind that there are other sources to assist with problem identification, topic selection, and refining focus. Table 4.3 provides an overview of the sources discussed.
Table 4.3: Sources for selecting problems and research topics
In the classroom or work environment
Outside the classroom or work environment
School or system goals
Brief review of literature
School improvement plans
Professional literature
Specific problems related to teaching and learning
Conference presentations
Curriculum development or content
Professor or peer research
Professional development initiatives
Professional organizations
Specific methods or materials
Websites and blogs related to practice
Programs implementation
Professional workshops
Testing and student achievement
National trends and critical issues
Student products and artifacts
National initiatives
Observations
National data related to practice
Discussions and dialogue with colleagues
Discussions with professors and peers
Existing or revisited problems
Informal interviews with colleagues
Researcher interests
Researcher interests
Team or school interests
Previous studies completed that relate to a specific problem or issue
Observations
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Narrowing the Focus
In typical research studies, once a problem, issue, or concern has been identified, the researcher faces the task of narrowing the focus of the inquiry. The process of refining a broad problem into a specific focus flows naturally in action research because the researcher draws on expertise and observations while working in the classroom environment. The events of the classroom occur on a continuum such that the practitioner researcher is generally aware of the events that led to the current situation, the events or activities that contributed to the problem, and behaviors that preceded the problem. Even if the problem or concern is identified at the beginning of the school year, the researcher has resources in the form of conversations with colleagues, cumulative records, previous school improvement plans, and results from standardized tests that may be reviewed and examined. The data-rich environment provides the means to construct a timeline or continuum of events that led to or contributed to the identified problem, which in turn guides the researcher in refining and narrowing the focus of any action research study.
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The disconnection between home and school and lack of parental communication is too broad a topic in that it does not lead the researcher to a specific research question. However, after examining the available sources of data, the researcher may see a pattern emerge that will help narrow the focus. For example, the student contact information may reveal that every parent or guardian who has a student enrolled in the fifth grade also has e-mail either at home or at work. In addition, discussions and informal conversations with fourth- and sixth-grade teachers may reveal that parents respond a little better to e-mail than to other contacts. Finally, the researcher may discover, after attending one or two PTA meetings, that attendance records indicate that most parents provide an e-mail address instead of a phone number. Based on available data sources, the researcher may draw the conclusion that communicating with parents electronically, via e-mail and an electronic newsletter, may help build a stronger connection between home and school. The problem now has a good, strong focus from which specific research questions could be designed.
Source: Craig, D. V. (2009). Action research essentials. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Summary
Craig points out that as an environment in which “naturally occurring events take place” (p. 31), the classroom is a context in which multiple problems that are suitable for action research can arise. However, action research, as an intervention, is not appropriate for all classroom-based problems. Thus, Craig outlines a series of criteria for determining the value and feasibility of research topics. As she describes, suitable topics must be of interest to the researcher, be relevant to existing instructional or learning goals, and have potential to lead to the improvement of the teaching and learning environment. Practitioner-researchers must also be sure that there are adequate resources to support the investigation of the topic. For example, although it may affect student learning, family poverty is likely outside the purview of classroom teachers.
Once identified, the next step is to refine the issue or problem to arrive at a researchable topic. For example, Craig points out that “The disconnection between home and school and lack of parental communication is too broad a topic” (p. 37), because this problem has multiple dimensions. She offers multiple suggestions for narrowing the focus of a broad research focus, including: (a) conducting a literature review and Internet search that includes prior research on the topic, (b) discussing the issue with colleagues, (c) conducting classroom observations, (d) examining student products and records, (e) attending conferences on practitioner action research, and (f) considering topics identified as significant at the national level. For example, increasing the representation of racial or ethnic minorities and females in science, engineering, mathematics, and technology is a national priority, which teachers in these disciplines may want to address. As Craig describes, assessing the value and refining focus of problems of practice is essential to identifying an appropriate and feasible topic for an action research project.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Craig asserts that any topic pursued for an action research project should be of high interest to the teacher researcher. She contends that interest promotes the development of skills. Drawing on what you know about K–12 student learning, in what ways do you believe that interest and skill development are related? According to the article, what types of skills do teachers learn through the action research process, and how are they valuable to the work of teachers?
2. Craig points out that educational trends and issues that are of concern at the national level can be valuable topics for action research projects. Identify such a trend or issue within your academic discipline or grade level. What do you currently know about this topic (e.g., the nature of related problems and their implications for learners and for society), and from what sources can you learn more?
3. It is important to refine and narrow a broad or general topic so that it is feasible for an action research project. Consider the topic you identified for Question #2. Using Craig’s example of narrowing the topic of disconnection between home and school, think of ways to refine your topic so that it is feasible for an action research project at the school or classroom level. Once you have a more focused topic, identify sources of data that a teacher could collect in her or his classroom or school to learn more about the topic.
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4.4 Phase 2: Collecting Data, by Emily F. Calhoun
Introduction
Emily F. Calhoun is the director of the Phoenix Alliance in Saint Simons Island, Georgia, which supports school districts and state and regional agencies in improving student achievement through staff development. Prior to joining the Phoenix Alliance, Calhoun was a elementary- and secondary-level classroom teacher, a curriculum consultant, a district language arts coordinator, and coordinator of the Georgia League of Professional Schools. Calhoun focuses on helping educational practitioners to study the effects of curriculum and instruction on student learning. As a longtime advocate of action research, she has conducted extensive studies on the school-based action research process, particularly in the area of literacy learning.
The following excerpt is taken from Calhoun’s book, which is intended for educational practitioners who want to learn more about students’ academic and social experiences in order to improve their schooling outcomes. It explains how to conduct action research at both the classroom and schoolwide levels. The excerpt focuses on identifying data that will help the researcher learn more about his or her chosen topic. She discusses the use of three specific types of data—existing archival data, conventional sources, and inventive data—to understand student performance and its relationship to the school environment. This approach enables researchers to gain a multifaceted understanding of the problem under study.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Calhoun, E. F. (Ed.). (2002). Phase 2: Collecting Data. In How to use action research in the self-renewing school (pp. 50–70). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Your selection of a focus area and a clear, shared statement of it are important first steps in action research. Next, if it has not begun already, is the data-gathering phase. Somebody (task force, facilitation team, or entire school staff) decides what data will be collected in the area under investigation and how the data will be collected, from whom, and how often. Collection of baseline data is only the beginning—action research is a formative study of progress, requiring regular and frequent data collection so that changes and trends can be seen. For vital areas of interest, such as the effect of the new mathematics curriculum on students’ achievement and attitude in mathematics or grades being made by at-risk students, data collection may occur as often as biweekly for a year or more.
What Data Do We Collect?
The first task in the data-collection phase is to decide what data will be collected. This decision has two substantive aspects: (1) What data do we collect about the learner? and (2) What data do we collect about the learning environment provided by the school? First, let’s consider data about the student as learner.
The big question is, What sources will provide the faculty with information about student learning? How are students doing in the academic, social, and personal domains of our focus area?
In the academic domain, we need to find out how well students are learning how to learn. For example, are they learning how to explore the world of mathematics and use the concepts of the discipline to solve new problems, and are they learning how to teach themselves mathematics? In terms of productivity in mathematics, what do grades indicate about student performance, and what do standardized test scores indicate?
In the social domain, we need to know whether students know how to use the social system for support as learners. In the personal domain, we need information on how students feel about mathematics, and how they feel about themselves as students of mathematics. What is their academic self-esteem in relation to mathematics?
As the faculty inquires into student learning in their area of interest and gathers information in response to these questions, they will use student data from a variety of sources.
Once the faculty has identified data sources that provide a picture of how students are performing, then faculty members need to develop a picture of how their school influences student learning in their focus area. The big data-collection question here is, What sources will provide information about the learning environment of the school? Here are a few questions a faculty can ask as they generate possible sources of information.
· How do schools affect learning?
· What experiences are sanctioned and provided by our school as an organization to enhance student learning?
· What is happening in curriculum and instruction—or, more specifically, what are we teaching and how are we teaching it?
· What do our actions look like?
· What are we doing as a learning community?
Again, keeping the collective attention firmly on what the faculty can control and on what has been shown to pay off in terms of student learning, the faculty and facilitation team will need to select multiple data sources as they inquire into the experiences they are providing for students.
During the first action research cycle, the question of what data we collect to inform us about student learning is primary. In fact, a complete cycle can be conducted to answer this question, followed immediately by a second cycle, during which the faculty looks at the experiences the school provides for students in the focus area. When student learning and the experience of schooling are investigated separately, the first two cycles function as needs assessment: the first cycle assesses student learning in the focus area, and the second cycle assesses the learning environment in the focus area. However, if the faculty spends too much time studying on-site data without taking any action to improve student learning, the energy of the faculty can dissipate. My recommendation is to gather information on some aspects of both these questions during the first action research cycle: What is the status of student learning? and What is the status of schooling in our focus area? During recurring cycles of Phases 2–4, the faculty can collect additional information in response to each question.
Identifying Sources of Data for Action Research
What sources of information will help us develop a schoolwide response to the two major data-collection questions—how are students performing in our area of interest and what experiences of schooling might affect that performance?
The facilitation team and faculty seek data sources that will provide an accurate picture of the student behavior they wish to influence. Where do they start? To get action research and collective study going, it’s a good idea to use existing archival data sources immediately, conventional data sources next, and then more inventive and elaborate data sources (see Table 4.4). These three categories of data sources provide a useful framework to school faculties as they develop their data-collection schedule. The categories serve as a bank of ideas; they can stimulate reflections about why we collect information from a particular source; and they can serve as a filter to prevent a data-collection overload that overwhelms the faculty, thus preventing collective action.
Table 4.4: Sources of data for action research
Existing archival sources
Conventional sources
Inventive sources
Student grades
Surveys
Exhibits
Attendance
Simple interviews
Portfolios
Referrals
Number of books read
Expositions
Retentions
Writing samples
Videotapes
Number/percentage of students in special programs
Variety of materials used
Standardized test results
Observations
Journals
Think about these three sources on a continuum, with existing sources at one end and inventive sources at the other. The depth of information increases as one moves across the continuum from existing sources to inventive sources. Generally, in data collection, organization, and analysis, the time investment increases as one moves from existing to conventional and from conventional to inventive.
1. Existing Archival Sources. Existing sources of data are those items currently available in the files or archives of the school or of individual staff members. Data about the school population can be gathered and organized directly from these records. Some examples are student grades, discipline referrals, standardized test results, and demographics. The collection of data from these sources requires little effort and time from the faculty, but information from them provides the faculty with an immediate picture of the educational climate of the school.
Within the category of existing, archival sources are several indicators of student behavior that we call fate-control variables. These indicators of student behavior are so critical to student learning that each member of the school faculty needs to have a clear, schoolwide picture of them, because they provide a rough map of the academic and social climate of the school. Variables such as attendance, referrals, grades, and courses taken indicate how many students are present or absent for instruction, how many students are moving successfully or unsuccessfully through school, and how many students are making use of the educational opportunities being offered. We call them fate-control variables because they have so much influence on the fate of each student who enters our school.
* * *
2. Conventional Sources. Conventional sources of data are items that require communication, observation, or follow-up with members of the population and that often require instrumentation to standardize the information collected. Therefore, the collection of data from these sources requires the selection or development of data-collection instruments. Examples of conventional data sources are surveys, interviews, observations, samples of student work, journals, and logs of performance. Information from these sources can be easily acquired and organized in a brief span of time.
With existing data sources, we gather information from school archives and staff records; with conventional data sources, we gather information directly from individuals, from samples of their work, and from documents that require study. We seek information from these sources when we want to know more about the behaviors and attitudes of students in our area of interest.
* * *
Avoid overreliance on perceptual data sources. I am addressing the overuse of surveys and attitudinal measures specifically because it is so common. I have seen faculties select excellent student learning goals, then (1) identify as their primary data source a survey of themselves with student achievement and attitude about school as the content or (2) develop and administer three long surveys to parents, students, and staff. The goals focused on student learning, yet no behavioral data on student learning were collected. Part of the faculty’s picture of student learning was missing in both cases because the data did not include any direct indicators of student performance, such as grades, quality of writing, skill in problem-solving, or standardized test results. Using surveys or questionnaires to collect perceptions about what is and beliefs about how oneself or others operate provides useful information to pour into our decision-making funnel; however, what individuals and groups are actually doing (the behavioral part of the picture) provides even more useful information.
* * *
3. Inventive Data Sources. Inventive data sources are usually examples of products or performance. We use these sources when we want even more in-depth information about performance than we can gain from existing and conventional sources. For student products and performances, these items are directly linked to the learning goals of the school; their purpose is to provide the student and the larger school community with an accurate and more direct measure of what students know and how they think, as individuals. These items require the development of criteria for analyzing the products and performances and a greater investment of faculty time in the collection, organization, and analysis phases. Examples of inventive data sources related to student products and performances include portfolios, exhibits, and videotapes. Many of us associate these data sources with “authentic assessment.”
For collecting data about faculty products and performances, the sources used are directly linked to the goals of the schoolwide initiative; their purpose is to provide the individual and the faculty with an accurate and more direct (than surveys and perceptual data) measure of staff performance in terms of the actions or innovations being implemented. Examples of inventive data sources related to staff products and performances include units and materials developed to support an instructional strategy and videotapes of instruction.
Source: Calhoun, E. F. (2002). How to use action research in the self-renewing school. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
In this excerpt, Calhoun discusses the process of identifying appropriate data sources for investigating and enhancing student learning through action research. At the outset of an action research project on student learning, Calhoun suggests two small studies (e.g., each cycling once through the “look, think, act” routine, as described by Stringer): one on the status of student learning and one on how the school contributes (or does not contribute) to learning. These initial investigations serve as needs assessments, providing baseline data on these two phenomena and the relationship between them.
To understand student learning as it pertains to the research topic and the factors that have an impact on learning, Calhoun suggests that practitioners collect data in the academic, social, and personal domains. The academic domain pertains to how well students are learning how to learn, which includes their ability to apply disciplinary concepts to solve new problems. The social domain pertains to students’ use of social support systems, including help seeking. Finally, the personal domain refers to how students feel about and identify with academics. Within the three domains, researchers can collect three types of data. The first is existing archival data, which includes test scores, grades, discipline and attendance records, and demographic information. Within this data, Calhoun asserts that school staff members should “have a clear, schoolwide picture” (p. 53) of what she calls “fate-control variables” (p. 53). These variables, such as data on attendance, grades, and disciplinary infractions, provide a broad picture of the school’s academic and social climate.
Practitioner-researchers should also collect data from conventional sources, such as observations, interviews, student work, journals, and performance logs. Unlike archival data, researchers must develop data collection instruments (lists of questions to be asked and topics to be investigated) to collect these data. Calhoun also suggests using inventive data sources, which include student products and performances related to curricular innovations linked to specific learning goals. It is vital that practitioner-researchers develop specific criteria to guide the analysis of these data. For example, what counts as evidence of student understanding and the effectiveness of the curriculum or instruction? Finally, data should capture both behaviors and perceptions. In collecting various forms of data on different aspects of learning, the practitioner-researcher will get a more complex understanding of the problem under study and how it can it can be addressed.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. In the field of K–12 education, significant emphasis is currently placed on archival academic data, particularly standardized test scores, in efforts to reform schools and improve student outcomes. Calhoun suggests that practitioner-researchers also use data from the personal domain in order to understand students’ learning challenges and how to intervene into them. In what ways are emotions and identity related to academic outcomes? In conducting research on a topic pertinent to your academic discipline or grade level, what types of data within the personal domain could you collect to better understand student performance? What insights might you gain from this data?
2. Calhoun believes that all staff should be familiar with their school’s archival data on what she calls “fate-control variables,” which pertain to student attendance, course taking, test scores, grades, and behavior. She asserts that these factors have a great deal of influence on students’ success and failure. How could these factors, both individually and in combination, affect the fate of a student both in and beyond school? Can you think of any other factors—inside or outside of school—that have a similarly important influence?
3. Calhoun points out the importance of collecting data from both behavioral and perceptional sources. Identify a specific problem of practice or student learning within an academic discipline or grade level that is of interest to you. What types of data could you collect from both sources that would give further insight into the problem? From whom would you collect the data, and how?
4.6 Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data Analysis, by Ernest Stringer
Introduction
The following excerpt is taken from Ernest Stringer’s book, Action Research in Education. Unlike Action Research, previously excerpted, this book is designed specifically for educational practitioners. Stringer explains that although many educators may initially believe that it is outside the scope of their work, research is a useful tool for improving schools as learning and working environments. Unlike other forms of research, action research is particularly well suited to the work of educators who are concerned with practical outcomes. As Stringer explains, in addition to solving problems, educational practitioners also improve their knowledge and skills and enhance their professionalism.
In the following excerpt, Stringer discusses the data analysis process, which he describes as reflecting on and making judgments about the information gathered and distilling it into a set of ideas that can be applied to the problem(s) under study. Researchers must evaluate their data and determine which are most pertinent to the study. That is, which data will help them to better understand the issue they are examining, and how. To do this, Stringer explains the use of “epiphanic moments (Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or significant experiences” (p. 97) to guide analysis. Unlike analysis intended to develop generalized theories of human behavior, the form of interpretive data analysis described by Stringer focuses on individuals’ and groups’ subjectivities and meaning-making processes in context, otherwise known as an emic perspective. This approach is effective in understanding how to intervene into problems of practice in particular settings and with particular individuals and groups. Because it is focused on meaning making, interpretive analysis is suited to qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and work products, rather than grades, attendance records, test scores, and other forms of quantitative data.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Stringer, E. T. (2004). Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data Analysis. In Action research in education (pp. 96–122). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
The diagram shown in Figure 4.3 signals the move from data gathering to data analysis. In terms of the simple Look-Think-Act of action research, the Think component indicates the need for participants to reflect on the information they have gathered, and transform the sometimes large and unwieldy body of information into a relatively compact system of ideas and concepts that can be applied to solutions to the problem at hand.
The process or data analysis requires participants to sift through the accumulated data to identify that information most pertinent to the problem they are investigating. This process of distillation provides the material for an organized set of concepts and ideas that enable them to achieve greater insight, understanding, or clarity about events of interest. The intent is to accomplish common-sense solutions to problems by finding concepts and ideas that make sense to the stakeholders involved. One of the essential features of action research is the move to directly engage the experience and perspective of all participants to ensure that the sense made of the data is common to all.
This differs from common research practice in which researchers analyze data in isolation from the research context and subjects and formulate categories and schema that appear to make sense when applied to a particular theory. In much research, therefore, theoretical formulations often dominate proceedings by inscribing academic perspectives into the process and silencing the voices and perspectives of other participants. Though there is still a need for objective research that engages these types of practice, action research tends to focus on a more phenomenological approach to analysis.
Figure 4.3: Reflection in action research
This chapter, therefore, first presents an approach to data analysis that seeks to preserve participant perspectives by using epiphanic moments (Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or significant experiences—as primary units of analysis. The ultimate intent is to give voice to those participants and provide a body of ideas and concepts that clearly mesh with important elements of their experience and provide the basis for action. The second process presented is a more traditional form of qualitative analysis categorizing and coding data that distills large amounts of data into a more manageable body of ideas. The purpose of this process is to reveal patterns and themes within the data that expose the key features of events and settings.
Teachers rarely have time during the busy and demanding routines of everyday life in their classrooms to stand back and reflect on their work. Having the luxury to sit back, talk about, and reflect on their classroom practices often provides them with opportunities to gain significant insights into their professional life. I’ve frequently seen teachers’ eyes light up in the course of interviews or focus group dialogues as they see themselves or aspects of their work in new ways. Merely having time to focus their attention in a systematic way is illuminative.
This does not always happen immediately, however. The students in the sexual harassment study, . . . for instance, required an extended period of reflection and analysis to identify the nature and key features of their experience of harassment. The Barrios Juntos group . . . also needed to work through a systematic process of data analysis to reveal the key features of parent experiences in parent-teacher conferences. In each case, however, the process of data analysis enabled participants to extend their understanding of the issue investigated—providing concepts and ideas that enabled them to devise effective actions related to the problems they investigated. Data analysis, for them, was not just a technical research routine, but the means to inform their actions.
Data Analysis (1): Analyzing Epiphanies
The processes of inquiry described in this book largely emerge from the history of research in the academic disciplines. While action research has much in common with the general methodologies of naturalistic inquiry/qualitative research, its purposes are distinctly different. Traditionally, research has sought to provide scientific, objective theories of human conduct and conceptual schemes to explain how and why people act as they do. Action research, however, uses these types of theory as background information—choosing to focus instead on the ways people purposefully construct their own social worlds. The intent is to understand the ongoing, experienced reality of people’s lives rather than seeking an objective truth that explains observed events. We, therefore, employ modes of inquiry that make the world of lived experience directly accessible to an audience, capturing the voices, emotions, and actions of those studied and focusing on those life experiences that shape the meanings persons give to themselves and their own experiences.
The intent of action research is to provide an approach to data analysis more clearly focused on processes and outcomes resonating with people’s own meaningfulness and supplying the basis for effecting positive change in their lives. Action research, therefore, employs processes that engage the concepts and ideas people naturally use to observe, describe, and interpret their own experiences (Spradley, 1979a; Spradley and McCurdy, 1972). This represents an approach to research having the clear intention to learn from and with people, rather than studying them. Denzin (1989b) has suggested that the focus of interpretive research on meanings persons give to themselves and their life experiences requires researchers to capture the voices, emotions, and actions of those studied. The following analytic procedures enable participants to enter each other’s worlds and to understand the events, actions, activities, behavior, and deeply fell emotions that represent the ongoing reality of human experience (Denzin, 1996).
The intent of these procedures is to enable researchers lo accurately and authentically represent people’s lives in non-authoritative, non-colonizing, and non-exploitive ways. They employ processes that not only maintain people’s voices, but also capture the concepts, meanings, emotions, and agendas that can be applied to problems affecting their personal, institutional, and professional lives. Recent research experience (Genat, 2002) suggests the need for voices of the participants, their structures of meaning, their interpretive processes, and their conceptual frameworks to dominate the process of data analysis. The procedures are based on a process of interpretive analysis suggested by Denzin (1989b) and focus on epiphanies—illuminative moments that mark people’s lives. By exploring and unpacking these epiphanies, we seek to reveal features and elements of experience, often not apprehended in the normal course of events that provide significant insight into people’s lives.
Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
As noted previously, epiphanies are illuminative moments of crisis, or transformational, turning point experiences, which result in significant changes to people’s perceptions of their lives (Denzin, 1989b). Epiphanies take a variety of forms—from the devastating experience that enters a person’s life but once, through cumulative epiphanies that emerge over time, to minor epiphanies that are significant but not highly momentous. Epiphanies can be either positive or negative. They may include the experience of exhilaration at passing (or failing) a particularly significant examination, the sense of wonderment (or frustration) emerging from a difficult learning process, or a sense of injustice emerging from an unfair or distressing comment from a teacher, colleague, or administrator.
Epiphanies may vary in intensity, from the life-changing experience of complete failure or triumphant success, to less calamitous events that have significant, but not dire, effects on people’s lives. They emerge as moments of human warmth or hurt, or they can be moments of clarity that add new dimensions to a person’s life experience and invest them with new ways of interpreting or understanding their lives. An epiphany may emerge instantaneously—the “ah-ha” experience, or the “light bulb” that enables a person to say, “so that’s what is going on”—or it may emerge gradually through a cumulative sense of awareness after an ongoing process of experience and reflection.
Rhonda Petty reveals how she came to understand the concept “epiphany.” She writes (Petty, 1997) “When I first read Denzin’s (1989b) definition and description of epiphanies, I associated them with psychotic behavior or life-threatening diseases. My interpretation was too narrow. As Denzin wrote, epiphanies are turning-point experiences, interactional moments that mark people’s lives and can be transformational. My own experience demonstrates, however, that epiphanies can stem from the unlikeliest of sources—a book, a conversation, or the click of a telephone.” Epiphanies can emerge from seemingly minor events and may be best thought of as significant experiences that are set aside from the hum-drum, routine events that have little impact. They are experiences that are in some way distinct and are cause for particular comment or response from those involved.
Interpreting Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
Interpretive data analysis first identifies epiphanic or illuminative experiences in the lives or research participants, then deconstructs or unpacks those events to reveal the elements of experience of which they are built. We deconstruct those events using terminology, concepts, and structures of meaning derived from participant accounts. By starting with events significant from the participants’ perspectives, and building understanding of events in their terms, we seek not only to give voice to the participants, but to create understandings that emerge from, resonate with, and are consistent with the world as they know and understand it. We seek emic (insider) constructions that are true to their worlds and their purposes.
We seek not only accounts of individual experience, but to understand the experience of different groups since individuals will interpret events according to their membership in a particular group. Teachers, parents, and students, for instance, are likely to see an issue from quite different viewpoints. We seek to formulate joint accounts providing insight into the perspective and experience of each stakeholding group.
Figure 4.4 shows how data related to the perspectives of teachers, students, and parents is analyzed and used as the basis of a report on a school issue. Researchers:
· Review information acquired from stakeholders in the data-gathering phase.
· Identify epiphanies, or illuminative moments, within individual participants’ experience.
· Deconstruct or “unpack” those events to reveal the detailed features and elements of which epiphanies are constructed.
· Use those features and elements to construct individual accounts describing how selected individuals experience and interpret the issue investigated.
· Use the features and elements within individual accounts to construct joint accounts revealing the perspectives and experiences of each stakeholding group.
Finally, joint accounts provide the material for a collective account—an overall version chronicling events by comparing and contrasting the perspectives of the different stakeholding groups within the setting. Analysis identifies points of commonality of perspective and experience and points of discrepancy, diversity, or conflict. Points of commonality provide the basis for concerted action, while discrepant perspectives, viewpoints, or experiences signal the need to negotiate agendas and actions around unresolved issues.
Figure 4.4: Analyzing epiphanies
Source: Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. N. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd Edition), © 1994 SAGE Publications, Inc, p. 305.
References
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive biography: Qualitative research methods series 17. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism (Vol. 16). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Denzin, N. K. (1996). Interpretive ethnography: Ethnographic practices for the 21st century. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Genta,W. (2002). Indigenous content in master of public health programs. Aboriginal and Islander Health Worker Journal, v. 28, p. 19–19.
Petty, R. (1997). Everything is different now: Surviving ethnographic research. In, Stringer, E., Agnello, M., Baldwin, S., McFayden, L., Christensen and D. Henry (Eds.), Community-based ethnography: Breaking traditional boundaries of research, teaching, and learning, (p. 68–84). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview (pp. vii–247). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Spradley, J. P., & McCurdy, D. W. (1972). The cultural experience: Ethnography in complex society (p. 18). Chicago: Science Research Associates.
Source: Stringer, E., Action Research in Education, 1st. ed. ©2004. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Summary
As previously discussed, action researchers often collect many different forms of data, both qualitative and quantitative. The next step is to review and make judgments about the data and to distill it into relatively succinct ideas that can be used to explain and effectively intervene into the problem under study. This is data analysis. In this excerpt, Stringer discusses how to analyze qualitative data using an interpretive approach in which epiphanic moments are the unit of analysis. That is, in analyzing the data, the researcher considers the perceptions, experiences, and events that are significant to participants as primary phenomena to identify and examine. Stringer offers several reasons researchers should pay attention to epiphanies. First, acknowledging the feelings, understandings, and actions that are significant to participants gives them a voice in the research. Second, researchers can build understanding and make decisions that are authentic to the participants’ experiences and understandings.
Once epiphanies in the data are identified, the researcher then “deconstructs or unpacks those events to reveal the elements of experience on which they are built.” That is, the next step is to identify how and why previous events have shaped an epiphanic moment. For example, a contentious interaction might mark a turning point in how a teacher thinks about and approaches her relationships with parents. The researcher would want to understand the factors that led to and shaped the interaction. These factors might include the teacher’s and parents’ expectations of each other or the parents’ wariness of the teacher. Those explanatory factors are then used to create individual accounts of participants’ experiences and how they understand them. Next, the researcher looks across individual accounts to identify similar perceptions and experiences from which he or she will create joint accounts or explanations that apply to multiple individuals. Finally, joint accounts are used to guide decisions about how to intervene into the problem under study. For example, if in a study on vocabulary learning, researchers discover that most students do little reading outside of school, they may want to design a strategy to increase out-of-school reading. Overall, the interpretive data analysis that Stringer describes is aimed at understanding and intervening in problems in ways that are authentic to individuals within the context under study.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Stringer highlights the importance of examining the experiences of groups—not only individuals—and how they understand those experiences, because meaning making is a social activity. That is, how individuals interpret and make sense of the world around them is influenced by others with whom they interact. For example, Stringer points out that as distinct groups, teachers, parents, and students may have different perspectives on a single issue. A group’s perspective, of course, is influenced by its members’ particular vantage points, their past and present experiences, and their interests and desires. Suppose a group of practitioners is conducting an action research project on the lack of parent involvement in a school. How might parents and teachers differ in how they understand the issue? What factors might contribute to those understandings?
2. The aim of interpretive data analysis is to understand how research participants make meaning of their own experiences rather than imposing an outside explanation. For example, many researchers have concluded that K–12 students drop out of school because they do not care about or understand the value of education. However, interpretive research shows that many youth themselves attribute their dropping out to lack of support from school staff. For what reasons and in what ways is it important for practitioner-researchers to account for the ways that their participants understand their own experiences?
3. Interpretive data analysis focuses on participants’ epiphanies, described as events, experiences, interactions, and realizations that are significant to individuals and groups. According to Stringer, in order to capture their epiphanies, researchers must collect data on participants’ perceptions, emotions, and actions. What is the value for action researchers, in identifying epiphanies? Suppose you are conducting interviews with new teachers to understand how well prepared they are to work with students from different racial or ethnic, class, and linguistic backgrounds. What kinds of questions might you ask to uncover the kinds of epiphan
4.6 Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data Analysis, by Ernest Stringer
Introduction
The following excerpt is taken from Ernest Stringer’s book, Action Research in Education. Unlike Action Research, previously excerpted, this book is designed specifically for educational practitioners. Stringer explains that although many educators may initially believe that it is outside the scope of their work, research is a useful tool for improving schools as learning and working environments. Unlike other forms of research, action research is particularly well suited to the work of educators who are concerned with practical outcomes. As Stringer explains, in addition to solving problems, educational practitioners also improve their knowledge and skills and enhance their professionalism.
In the following excerpt, Stringer discusses the data analysis process, which he describes as reflecting on and making judgments about the information gathered and distilling it into a set of ideas that can be applied to the problem(s) under study. Researchers must evaluate their data and determine which are most pertinent to the study. That is, which data will help them to better understand the issue they are examining, and how. To do this, Stringer explains the use of “epiphanic moments (Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or significant experiences” (p. 97) to guide analysis. Unlike analysis intended to develop generalized theories of human behavior, the form of interpretive data analysis described by Stringer focuses on individuals’ and groups’ subjectivities and meaning-making processes in context, otherwise known as an emic perspective. This approach is effective in understanding how to intervene into problems of practice in particular settings and with particular individuals and groups. Because it is focused on meaning making, interpretive analysis is suited to qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and work products, rather than grades, attendance records, test scores, and other forms of quantitative data.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Stringer, E. T. (2004). Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data Analysis. In Action research in education (pp. 96–122). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
The diagram shown in Figure 4.3 signals the move from data gathering to data analysis. In terms of the simple Look-Think-Act of action research, the Think component indicates the need for participants to reflect on the information they have gathered, and transform the sometimes large and unwieldy body of information into a relatively compact system of ideas and concepts that can be applied to solutions to the problem at hand.
The process or data analysis requires participants to sift through the accumulated data to identify that information most pertinent to the problem they are investigating. This process of distillation provides the material for an organized set of concepts and ideas that enable them to achieve greater insight, understanding, or clarity about events of interest. The intent is to accomplish common-sense solutions to problems by finding concepts and ideas that make sense to the stakeholders involved. One of the essential features of action research is the move to directly engage the experience and perspective of all participants to ensure that the sense made of the data is common to all.
This differs from common research practice in which researchers analyze data in isolation from the research context and subjects and formulate categories and schema that appear to make sense when applied to a particular theory. In much research, therefore, theoretical formulations often dominate proceedings by inscribing academic perspectives into the process and silencing the voices and perspectives of other participants. Though there is still a need for objective research that engages these types of practice, action research tends to focus on a more phenomenological approach to analysis.
Figure 4.3: Reflection in action research
This chapter, therefore, first presents an approach to data analysis that seeks to preserve participant perspectives by using epiphanic moments (Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or significant experiences—as primary units of analysis. The ultimate intent is to give voice to those participants and provide a body of ideas and concepts that clearly mesh with important elements of their experience and provide the basis for action. The second process presented is a more traditional form of qualitative analysis categorizing and coding data that distills large amounts of data into a more manageable body of ideas. The purpose of this process is to reveal patterns and themes within the data that expose the key features of events and settings.
Teachers rarely have time during the busy and demanding routines of everyday life in their classrooms to stand back and reflect on their work. Having the luxury to sit back, talk about, and reflect on their classroom practices often provides them with opportunities to gain significant insights into their professional life. I’ve frequently seen teachers’ eyes light up in the course of interviews or focus group dialogues as they see themselves or aspects of their work in new ways. Merely having time to focus their attention in a systematic way is illuminative.
This does not always happen immediately, however. The students in the sexual harassment study, . . . for instance, required an extended period of reflection and analysis to identify the nature and key features of their experience of harassment. The Barrios Juntos group . . . also needed to work through a systematic process of data analysis to reveal the key features of parent experiences in parent-teacher conferences. In each case, however, the process of data analysis enabled participants to extend their understanding of the issue investigated—providing concepts and ideas that enabled them to devise effective actions related to the problems they investigated. Data analysis, for them, was not just a technical research routine, but the means to inform their actions.
Data Analysis (1): Analyzing Epiphanies
The processes of inquiry described in this book largely emerge from the history of research in the academic disciplines. While action research has much in common with the general methodologies of naturalistic inquiry/qualitative research, its purposes are distinctly different. Traditionally, research has sought to provide scientific, objective theories of human conduct and conceptual schemes to explain how and why people act as they do. Action research, however, uses these types of theory as background information—choosing to focus instead on the ways people purposefully construct their own social worlds. The intent is to understand the ongoing, experienced reality of people’s lives rather than seeking an objective truth that explains observed events. We, therefore, employ modes of inquiry that make the world of lived experience directly accessible to an audience, capturing the voices, emotions, and actions of those studied and focusing on those life experiences that shape the meanings persons give to themselves and their own experiences.
The intent of action research is to provide an approach to data analysis more clearly focused on processes and outcomes resonating with people’s own meaningfulness and supplying the basis for effecting positive change in their lives. Action research, therefore, employs processes that engage the concepts and ideas people naturally use to observe, describe, and interpret their own experiences (Spradley, 1979a; Spradley and McCurdy, 1972). This represents an approach to research having the clear intention to learn from and with people, rather than studying them. Denzin (1989b) has suggested that the focus of interpretive research on meanings persons give to themselves and their life experiences requires researchers to capture the voices, emotions, and actions of those studied. The following analytic procedures enable participants to enter each other’s worlds and to understand the events, actions, activities, behavior, and deeply fell emotions that represent the ongoing reality of human experience (Denzin, 1996).
The intent of these procedures is to enable researchers lo accurately and authentically represent people’s lives in non-authoritative, non-colonizing, and non-exploitive ways. They employ processes that not only maintain people’s voices, but also capture the concepts, meanings, emotions, and agendas that can be applied to problems affecting their personal, institutional, and professional lives. Recent research experience (Genat, 2002) suggests the need for voices of the participants, their structures of meaning, their interpretive processes, and their conceptual frameworks to dominate the process of data analysis. The procedures are based on a process of interpretive analysis suggested by Denzin (1989b) and focus on epiphanies—illuminative moments that mark people’s lives. By exploring and unpacking these epiphanies, we seek to reveal features and elements of experience, often not apprehended in the normal course of events that provide significant insight into people’s lives.
Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
As noted previously, epiphanies are illuminative moments of crisis, or transformational, turning point experiences, which result in significant changes to people’s perceptions of their lives (Denzin, 1989b). Epiphanies take a variety of forms—from the devastating experience that enters a person’s life but once, through cumulative epiphanies that emerge over time, to minor epiphanies that are significant but not highly momentous. Epiphanies can be either positive or negative. They may include the experience of exhilaration at passing (or failing) a particularly significant examination, the sense of wonderment (or frustration) emerging from a difficult learning process, or a sense of injustice emerging from an unfair or distressing comment from a teacher, colleague, or administrator.
Epiphanies may vary in intensity, from the life-changing experience of complete failure or triumphant success, to less calamitous events that have significant, but not dire, effects on people’s lives. They emerge as moments of human warmth or hurt, or they can be moments of clarity that add new dimensions to a person’s life experience and invest them with new ways of interpreting or understanding their lives. An epiphany may emerge instantaneously—the “ah-ha” experience, or the “light bulb” that enables a person to say, “so that’s what is going on”—or it may emerge gradually through a cumulative sense of awareness after an ongoing process of experience and reflection.
Rhonda Petty reveals how she came to understand the concept “epiphany.” She writes (Petty, 1997) “When I first read Denzin’s (1989b) definition and description of epiphanies, I associated them with psychotic behavior or life-threatening diseases. My interpretation was too narrow. As Denzin wrote, epiphanies are turning-point experiences, interactional moments that mark people’s lives and can be transformational. My own experience demonstrates, however, that epiphanies can stem from the unlikeliest of sources—a book, a conversation, or the click of a telephone.” Epiphanies can emerge from seemingly minor events and may be best thought of as significant experiences that are set aside from the hum-drum, routine events that have little impact. They are experiences that are in some way distinct and are cause for particular comment or response from those involved.
Interpreting Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
Interpretive data analysis first identifies epiphanic or illuminative experiences in the lives or research participants, then deconstructs or unpacks those events to reveal the elements of experience of which they are built. We deconstruct those events using terminology, concepts, and structures of meaning derived from participant accounts. By starting with events significant from the participants’ perspectives, and building understanding of events in their terms, we seek not only to give voice to the participants, but to create understandings that emerge from, resonate with, and are consistent with the world as they know and understand it. We seek emic (insider) constructions that are true to their worlds and their purposes.
We seek not only accounts of individual experience, but to understand the experience of different groups since individuals will interpret events according to their membership in a particular group. Teachers, parents, and students, for instance, are likely to see an issue from quite different viewpoints. We seek to formulate joint accounts providing insight into the perspective and experience of each stakeholding group.
Figure 4.4 shows how data related to the perspectives of teachers, students, and parents is analyzed and used as the basis of a report on a school issue. Researchers:
· Review information acquired from stakeholders in the data-gathering phase.
· Identify epiphanies, or illuminative moments, within individual participants’ experience.
· Deconstruct or “unpack” those events to reveal the detailed features and elements of which epiphanies are constructed.
· Use those features and elements to construct individual accounts describing how selected individuals experience and interpret the issue investigated.
· Use the features and elements within individual accounts to construct joint accounts revealing the perspectives and experiences of each stakeholding group.
Finally, joint accounts provide the material for a collective account—an overall version chronicling events by comparing and contrasting the perspectives of the different stakeholding groups within the setting. Analysis identifies points of commonality of perspective and experience and points of discrepancy, diversity, or conflict. Points of commonality provide the basis for concerted action, while discrepant perspectives, viewpoints, or experiences signal the need to negotiate agendas and actions around unresolved issues.
Figure 4.4: Analyzing epiphanies
Source: Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. N. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd Edition), © 1994 SAGE Publications, Inc, p. 305.
References
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive biography: Qualitative research methods series 17. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism (Vol. 16). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Denzin, N. K. (1996). Interpretive ethnography: Ethnographic practices for the 21st century. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Genta,W. (2002). Indigenous content in master of public health programs. Aboriginal and Islander Health Worker Journal, v. 28, p. 19–19.
Petty, R. (1997). Everything is different now: Surviving ethnographic research. In, Stringer, E., Agnello, M., Baldwin, S., McFayden, L., Christensen and D. Henry (Eds.), Community-based ethnography: Breaking traditional boundaries of research, teaching, and learning, (p. 68–84). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview (pp. vii–247). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Spradley, J. P., & McCurdy, D. W. (1972). The cultural experience: Ethnography in complex society (p. 18). Chicago: Science Research Associates.
Source: Stringer, E., Action Research in Education, 1st. ed. ©2004. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Summary
As previously discussed, action researchers often collect many different forms of data, both qualitative and quantitative. The next step is to review and make judgments about the data and to distill it into relatively succinct ideas that can be used to explain and effectively intervene into the problem under study. This is data analysis. In this excerpt, Stringer discusses how to analyze qualitative data using an interpretive approach in which epiphanic moments are the unit of analysis. That is, in analyzing the data, the researcher considers the perceptions, experiences, and events that are significant to participants as primary phenomena to identify and examine. Stringer offers several reasons researchers should pay attention to epiphanies. First, acknowledging the feelings, understandings, and actions that are significant to participants gives them a voice in the research. Second, researchers can build understanding and make decisions that are authentic to the participants’ experiences and understandings.
Once epiphanies in the data are identified, the researcher then “deconstructs or unpacks those events to reveal the elements of experience on which they are built.” That is, the next step is to identify how and why previous events have shaped an epiphanic moment. For example, a contentious interaction might mark a turning point in how a teacher thinks about and approaches her relationships with parents. The researcher would want to understand the factors that led to and shaped the interaction. These factors might include the teacher’s and parents’ expectations of each other or the parents’ wariness of the teacher. Those explanatory factors are then used to create individual accounts of participants’ experiences and how they understand them. Next, the researcher looks across individual accounts to identify similar perceptions and experiences from which he or she will create joint accounts or explanations that apply to multiple individuals. Finally, joint accounts are used to guide decisions about how to intervene into the problem under study. For example, if in a study on vocabulary learning, researchers discover that most students do little reading outside of school, they may want to design a strategy to increase out-of-school reading. Overall, the interpretive data analysis that Stringer describes is aimed at understanding and intervening in problems in ways that are authentic to individuals within the context under study.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Stringer highlights the importance of examining the experiences of groups—not only individuals—and how they understand those experiences, because meaning making is a social activity. That is, how individuals interpret and make sense of the world around them is influenced by others with whom they interact. For example, Stringer points out that as distinct groups, teachers, parents, and students may have different perspectives on a single issue. A group’s perspective, of course, is influenced by its members’ particular vantage points, their past and present experiences, and their interests and desires. Suppose a group of practitioners is conducting an action research project on the lack of parent involvement in a school. How might parents and teachers differ in how they understand the issue? What factors might contribute to those understandings?
2. The aim of interpretive data analysis is to understand how research participants make meaning of their own experiences rather than imposing an outside explanation. For example, many researchers have concluded that K–12 students drop out of school because they do not care about or understand the value of education. However, interpretive research shows that many youth themselves attribute their dropping out to lack of support from school staff. For what reasons and in what ways is it important for practitioner-researchers to account for the ways that their participants understand their own experiences?
3. Interpretive data analysis focuses on participants’ epiphanies, described as events, experiences, interactions, and realizations that are significant to individuals and groups. According to Stringer, in order to capture their epiphanies, researchers must collect data on participants’ perceptions, emotions, and actions. What is the value for action researchers, in identifying epiphanies? Suppose you are conducting interviews with new teachers to understand how well prepared they are to work with students from different racial or ethnic, class, and linguistic backgrounds. What kinds of questions might you ask to uncover the kinds of epiphan
4.6 Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data Analysis, by Ernest Stringer
Introduction
The following excerpt is taken from Ernest Stringer’s book, Action Research in Education. Unlike Action Research, previously excerpted, this book is designed specifically for educational practitioners. Stringer explains that although many educators may initially believe that it is outside the scope of their work, research is a useful tool for improving schools as learning and working environments. Unlike other forms of research, action research is particularly well suited to the work of educators who are concerned with practical outcomes. As Stringer explains, in addition to solving problems, educational practitioners also improve their knowledge and skills and enhance their professionalism.
In the following excerpt, Stringer discusses the data analysis process, which he describes as reflecting on and making judgments about the information gathered and distilling it into a set of ideas that can be applied to the problem(s) under study. Researchers must evaluate their data and determine which are most pertinent to the study. That is, which data will help them to better understand the issue they are examining, and how. To do this, Stringer explains the use of “epiphanic moments (Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or significant experiences” (p. 97) to guide analysis. Unlike analysis intended to develop generalized theories of human behavior, the form of interpretive data analysis described by Stringer focuses on individuals’ and groups’ subjectivities and meaning-making processes in context, otherwise known as an emic perspective. This approach is effective in understanding how to intervene into problems of practice in particular settings and with particular individuals and groups. Because it is focused on meaning making, interpretive analysis is suited to qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and work products, rather than grades, attendance records, test scores, and other forms of quantitative data.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Stringer, E. T. (2004). Giving Voice: Interpretive and Qualitative Data Analysis. In Action research in education (pp. 96–122). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
The diagram shown in Figure 4.3 signals the move from data gathering to data analysis. In terms of the simple Look-Think-Act of action research, the Think component indicates the need for participants to reflect on the information they have gathered, and transform the sometimes large and unwieldy body of information into a relatively compact system of ideas and concepts that can be applied to solutions to the problem at hand.
The process or data analysis requires participants to sift through the accumulated data to identify that information most pertinent to the problem they are investigating. This process of distillation provides the material for an organized set of concepts and ideas that enable them to achieve greater insight, understanding, or clarity about events of interest. The intent is to accomplish common-sense solutions to problems by finding concepts and ideas that make sense to the stakeholders involved. One of the essential features of action research is the move to directly engage the experience and perspective of all participants to ensure that the sense made of the data is common to all.
This differs from common research practice in which researchers analyze data in isolation from the research context and subjects and formulate categories and schema that appear to make sense when applied to a particular theory. In much research, therefore, theoretical formulations often dominate proceedings by inscribing academic perspectives into the process and silencing the voices and perspectives of other participants. Though there is still a need for objective research that engages these types of practice, action research tends to focus on a more phenomenological approach to analysis.
Figure 4.3: Reflection in action research
This chapter, therefore, first presents an approach to data analysis that seeks to preserve participant perspectives by using epiphanic moments (Denzin, 1989b)—illuminative or significant experiences—as primary units of analysis. The ultimate intent is to give voice to those participants and provide a body of ideas and concepts that clearly mesh with important elements of their experience and provide the basis for action. The second process presented is a more traditional form of qualitative analysis categorizing and coding data that distills large amounts of data into a more manageable body of ideas. The purpose of this process is to reveal patterns and themes within the data that expose the key features of events and settings.
Teachers rarely have time during the busy and demanding routines of everyday life in their classrooms to stand back and reflect on their work. Having the luxury to sit back, talk about, and reflect on their classroom practices often provides them with opportunities to gain significant insights into their professional life. I’ve frequently seen teachers’ eyes light up in the course of interviews or focus group dialogues as they see themselves or aspects of their work in new ways. Merely having time to focus their attention in a systematic way is illuminative.
This does not always happen immediately, however. The students in the sexual harassment study, . . . for instance, required an extended period of reflection and analysis to identify the nature and key features of their experience of harassment. The Barrios Juntos group . . . also needed to work through a systematic process of data analysis to reveal the key features of parent experiences in parent-teacher conferences. In each case, however, the process of data analysis enabled participants to extend their understanding of the issue investigated—providing concepts and ideas that enabled them to devise effective actions related to the problems they investigated. Data analysis, for them, was not just a technical research routine, but the means to inform their actions.
Data Analysis (1): Analyzing Epiphanies
The processes of inquiry described in this book largely emerge from the history of research in the academic disciplines. While action research has much in common with the general methodologies of naturalistic inquiry/qualitative research, its purposes are distinctly different. Traditionally, research has sought to provide scientific, objective theories of human conduct and conceptual schemes to explain how and why people act as they do. Action research, however, uses these types of theory as background information—choosing to focus instead on the ways people purposefully construct their own social worlds. The intent is to understand the ongoing, experienced reality of people’s lives rather than seeking an objective truth that explains observed events. We, therefore, employ modes of inquiry that make the world of lived experience directly accessible to an audience, capturing the voices, emotions, and actions of those studied and focusing on those life experiences that shape the meanings persons give to themselves and their own experiences.
The intent of action research is to provide an approach to data analysis more clearly focused on processes and outcomes resonating with people’s own meaningfulness and supplying the basis for effecting positive change in their lives. Action research, therefore, employs processes that engage the concepts and ideas people naturally use to observe, describe, and interpret their own experiences (Spradley, 1979a; Spradley and McCurdy, 1972). This represents an approach to research having the clear intention to learn from and with people, rather than studying them. Denzin (1989b) has suggested that the focus of interpretive research on meanings persons give to themselves and their life experiences requires researchers to capture the voices, emotions, and actions of those studied. The following analytic procedures enable participants to enter each other’s worlds and to understand the events, actions, activities, behavior, and deeply fell emotions that represent the ongoing reality of human experience (Denzin, 1996).
The intent of these procedures is to enable researchers lo accurately and authentically represent people’s lives in non-authoritative, non-colonizing, and non-exploitive ways. They employ processes that not only maintain people’s voices, but also capture the concepts, meanings, emotions, and agendas that can be applied to problems affecting their personal, institutional, and professional lives. Recent research experience (Genat, 2002) suggests the need for voices of the participants, their structures of meaning, their interpretive processes, and their conceptual frameworks to dominate the process of data analysis. The procedures are based on a process of interpretive analysis suggested by Denzin (1989b) and focus on epiphanies—illuminative moments that mark people’s lives. By exploring and unpacking these epiphanies, we seek to reveal features and elements of experience, often not apprehended in the normal course of events that provide significant insight into people’s lives.
Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
As noted previously, epiphanies are illuminative moments of crisis, or transformational, turning point experiences, which result in significant changes to people’s perceptions of their lives (Denzin, 1989b). Epiphanies take a variety of forms—from the devastating experience that enters a person’s life but once, through cumulative epiphanies that emerge over time, to minor epiphanies that are significant but not highly momentous. Epiphanies can be either positive or negative. They may include the experience of exhilaration at passing (or failing) a particularly significant examination, the sense of wonderment (or frustration) emerging from a difficult learning process, or a sense of injustice emerging from an unfair or distressing comment from a teacher, colleague, or administrator.
Epiphanies may vary in intensity, from the life-changing experience of complete failure or triumphant success, to less calamitous events that have significant, but not dire, effects on people’s lives. They emerge as moments of human warmth or hurt, or they can be moments of clarity that add new dimensions to a person’s life experience and invest them with new ways of interpreting or understanding their lives. An epiphany may emerge instantaneously—the “ah-ha” experience, or the “light bulb” that enables a person to say, “so that’s what is going on”—or it may emerge gradually through a cumulative sense of awareness after an ongoing process of experience and reflection.
Rhonda Petty reveals how she came to understand the concept “epiphany.” She writes (Petty, 1997) “When I first read Denzin’s (1989b) definition and description of epiphanies, I associated them with psychotic behavior or life-threatening diseases. My interpretation was too narrow. As Denzin wrote, epiphanies are turning-point experiences, interactional moments that mark people’s lives and can be transformational. My own experience demonstrates, however, that epiphanies can stem from the unlikeliest of sources—a book, a conversation, or the click of a telephone.” Epiphanies can emerge from seemingly minor events and may be best thought of as significant experiences that are set aside from the hum-drum, routine events that have little impact. They are experiences that are in some way distinct and are cause for particular comment or response from those involved.
Interpreting Epiphanies and Illuminative Experiences
Interpretive data analysis first identifies epiphanic or illuminative experiences in the lives or research participants, then deconstructs or unpacks those events to reveal the elements of experience of which they are built. We deconstruct those events using terminology, concepts, and structures of meaning derived from participant accounts. By starting with events significant from the participants’ perspectives, and building understanding of events in their terms, we seek not only to give voice to the participants, but to create understandings that emerge from, resonate with, and are consistent with the world as they know and understand it. We seek emic (insider) constructions that are true to their worlds and their purposes.
We seek not only accounts of individual experience, but to understand the experience of different groups since individuals will interpret events according to their membership in a particular group. Teachers, parents, and students, for instance, are likely to see an issue from quite different viewpoints. We seek to formulate joint accounts providing insight into the perspective and experience of each stakeholding group.
Figure 4.4 shows how data related to the perspectives of teachers, students, and parents is analyzed and used as the basis of a report on a school issue. Researchers:
· Review information acquired from stakeholders in the data-gathering phase.
· Identify epiphanies, or illuminative moments, within individual participants’ experience.
· Deconstruct or “unpack” those events to reveal the detailed features and elements of which epiphanies are constructed.
· Use those features and elements to construct individual accounts describing how selected individuals experience and interpret the issue investigated.
· Use the features and elements within individual accounts to construct joint accounts revealing the perspectives and experiences of each stakeholding group.
Finally, joint accounts provide the material for a collective account—an overall version chronicling events by comparing and contrasting the perspectives of the different stakeholding groups within the setting. Analysis identifies points of commonality of perspective and experience and points of discrepancy, diversity, or conflict. Points of commonality provide the basis for concerted action, while discrepant perspectives, viewpoints, or experiences signal the need to negotiate agendas and actions around unresolved issues.
Figure 4.4: Analyzing epiphanies
Source: Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. N. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd Edition), © 1994 SAGE Publications, Inc, p. 305.
References
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive biography: Qualitative research methods series 17. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism (Vol. 16). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Denzin, N. K. (1996). Interpretive ethnography: Ethnographic practices for the 21st century. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Genta,W. (2002). Indigenous content in master of public health programs. Aboriginal and Islander Health Worker Journal, v. 28, p. 19–19.
Petty, R. (1997). Everything is different now: Surviving ethnographic research. In, Stringer, E., Agnello, M., Baldwin, S., McFayden, L., Christensen and D. Henry (Eds.), Community-based ethnography: Breaking traditional boundaries of research, teaching, and learning, (p. 68–84). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview (pp. vii–247). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Spradley, J. P., & McCurdy, D. W. (1972). The cultural experience: Ethnography in complex society (p. 18). Chicago: Science Research Associates.
Source: Stringer, E., Action Research in Education, 1st. ed. ©2004. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Summary
As previously discussed, action researchers often collect many different forms of data, both qualitative and quantitative. The next step is to review and make judgments about the data and to distill it into relatively succinct ideas that can be used to explain and effectively intervene into the problem under study. This is data analysis. In this excerpt, Stringer discusses how to analyze qualitative data using an interpretive approach in which epiphanic moments are the unit of analysis. That is, in analyzing the data, the researcher considers the perceptions, experiences, and events that are significant to participants as primary phenomena to identify and examine. Stringer offers several reasons researchers should pay attention to epiphanies. First, acknowledging the feelings, understandings, and actions that are significant to participants gives them a voice in the research. Second, researchers can build understanding and make decisions that are authentic to the participants’ experiences and understandings.
Once epiphanies in the data are identified, the researcher then “deconstructs or unpacks those events to reveal the elements of experience on which they are built.” That is, the next step is to identify how and why previous events have shaped an epiphanic moment. For example, a contentious interaction might mark a turning point in how a teacher thinks about and approaches her relationships with parents. The researcher would want to understand the factors that led to and shaped the interaction. These factors might include the teacher’s and parents’ expectations of each other or the parents’ wariness of the teacher. Those explanatory factors are then used to create individual accounts of participants’ experiences and how they understand them. Next, the researcher looks across individual accounts to identify similar perceptions and experiences from which he or she will create joint accounts or explanations that apply to multiple individuals. Finally, joint accounts are used to guide decisions about how to intervene into the problem under study. For example, if in a study on vocabulary learning, researchers discover that most students do little reading outside of school, they may want to design a strategy to increase out-of-school reading. Overall, the interpretive data analysis that Stringer describes is aimed at understanding and intervening in problems in ways that are authentic to individuals within the context under study.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Stringer highlights the importance of examining the experiences of groups—not only individuals—and how they understand those experiences, because meaning making is a social activity. That is, how individuals interpret and make sense of the world around them is influenced by others with whom they interact. For example, Stringer points out that as distinct groups, teachers, parents, and students may have different perspectives on a single issue. A group’s perspective, of course, is influenced by its members’ particular vantage points, their past and present experiences, and their interests and desires. Suppose a group of practitioners is conducting an action research project on the lack of parent involvement in a school. How might parents and teachers differ in how they understand the issue? What factors might contribute to those understandings?
2. The aim of interpretive data analysis is to understand how research participants make meaning of their own experiences rather than imposing an outside explanation. For example, many researchers have concluded that K–12 students drop out of school because they do not care about or understand the value of education. However, interpretive research shows that many youth themselves attribute their dropping out to lack of support from school staff. For what reasons and in what ways is it important for practitioner-researchers to account for the ways that their participants understand their own experiences?
3. Interpretive data analysis focuses on participants’ epiphanies, described as events, experiences, interactions, and realizations that are significant to individuals and groups. According to Stringer, in order to capture their epiphanies, researchers must collect data on participants’ perceptions, emotions, and actions. What is the value for action researchers, in identifying epiphanies? Suppose you are conducting interviews with new teachers to understand how well prepared they are to work with students from different racial or ethnic, class, and linguistic backgrounds. What kinds of questions might you ask to uncover the kinds of epiphan
4.7 Using Research Data to Improve Student Achievement, by Karen Zantop
Introduction
Karen Zantop is a sixth-grade language arts teacher in Pasco County schools in Florida who is also involved in dropout prevention in the school district. Zantop, who has over 20 years’ experience as a teacher, is particularly focused on students at risk for academic failure. In describing a schoolwide effort to improve middle-school students’ writing skills, Zantop gives voice to a classroom teacher’s experience of action research. In the following excerpt, Zantop describes how she and other teachers worked collaboratively to identify and address students’ writing challenges. She explains that their action-research–based approach differed from more conventional strategies for improving instructional practice and student learning. Rather than assessing students’ needs through a “routine of committees and meetings” (p. 84), school staff set about gathering and evaluating information about students’ writing abilities, from multiple sources. As a result, they were able to devise interventions that were successful in meeting the particular needs of their students. Subsequently, their students’ scores on the statewide writing assessment improved.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Zantop, K. (2010). Using research data to improve student achievement. In R. Brindley and C. Crocco (Eds.), Empowering the voice of the teacher researcher (pp. 84–89). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Facing a decline in students’ state assessed writing performance, Karen Zantop leads a team that uses standardized test data as a starting point for overall improvement in student writing. The results of their action research informed the practices of the entire faculty.
Most school years begin with a routine of committees and meetings to assess what is best for our students and our school as a whole. Not this year! While the goals were the same, this year the talk was all action research. Having been introduced to this new approach, the question on most of our minds was “What now?” Was this just another gimmick thought up by some company to make a lot of money and a name for themselves? Let’s face it, teachers have seen fads come and go. Does action research work? Has it been effective in helping students excel?
We didn’t know but ventured as requested further into this unknown territory. Managing a school from a model using teacher research to promote student success was an interesting idea. After a visit from two colleagues at the University of South Florida (USF), we were off and running.
A Different Approach
When using action research, teachers don’t form a committee in the traditional sense and decide what type of research to explore. Rather, they discern what the particular needs are for the student population and proceed with the action research process. In our case the language arts teachers quickly identified an area of student need. Our school’s writing scores on the Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test (FCAT) had begun to fall over several years and from a 3.8 to a 3.7 (on a 1.0 to 6.0 scale) in the previous year. As a result, we lost our “A” school rating.
If this score truly reflected a decline in our students’ ability to write effectively, then someone needed to take a look at the situation and take action to promote better writing practices schoolwide. Several brave language arts teachers decided to take on this formidable task. Action research as we would come to know it had begun. This is a story of how our school went from an average school score of 3.7 to 4.4 on the FCAT Writes in just three years.
* * *
Planning Our Work Together
During the first year we created a scope and sequence for our middle school that teachers could use vertically across the grade levels so that there was a systematic development of writing skills. This was a new direction for us and led to some earnest conversations among the eight language arts teachers, each of whom had strong opinions. Fortunately we received invaluable support as the school district implemented curriculum mapping for all subject areas.
Armed with these materials, the group created posters to foster good writing. The sixth grade teachers took responsibility and designed “Topic, Audience, Purpose, Plan” (TAPP) posters. These were created to focus the students on important aspects of the writing process and were made available to each classroom in the school.
To assist our action research, our group believed a visit to another school would help us research successful techniques for the writing process. Our neighboring middle school’s students had scored the highest in the county for several years, and we wanted to see if any of their strategies could be used to improve our students’ writing abilities. After the visit, we decided to adopt some new strategies.
Firstly, it seemed imperative that we have a schoolwide writing practice day so that students in every grade would get some early feedback on their own achievement level. The practice writing day went well, so we proceeded to add a practice writing for all sixth and seventh grades while the eighth grades sat for the FCAT writing test. We hoped that this experience would serve the younger students well, and within three years our school writing score was an average 4.3.
Several factors could have influenced these scores, but we continue to use and build on the practices we discovered through our action research. Dividing up this work was easy as every teacher volunteered to do their share. One teacher was responsible for creating the practice test for the sixth and seventh graders. This was a complex job, but the teacher was willing to take it on. All teachers were given the test and answer key so they could work with their assigned students.
We did confront some problems with this type of planning and these types of activities. There was some irregularity in the grading as teachers responded to the writing in different ways, and some students did not get a final score. Sadly, those students felt left out. We wondered whether for some teachers grading represented too much extra work, so we knew that the next time we would need to plan to enlist the help of other colleagues such as assistant principals and the reading specialist.
Reaching Individual Students through Conferencing
The action research committee also recommended the school obtain substitutes for the eighth grade teachers prior to the FCAT Writing test. This allowed the teachers to work one-on-one with each student, who now received personalized tutoring on his or her writing. I had the opportunity to observe and conference with students, and they greatly appreciated the effort and were motivated in their writing endeavors. They listened intently and appreciated each suggestion and saw how their scores were improving.
We relied upon ourselves to make this task manageable for all students. We came up with a list of “must dos” to augment the scheduled writing classes. We required each student to write a minimum of 350 words so that their stories had sufficient interest and detail. Using the state scoring rubric to guide students, they were then coached to go back and use more descriptive vocabulary. Techniques such as projecting into the future to create the best conclusion proved extremely effective.
Of all the strategies we tried, the action research committee found the days given to individual conferencing to be a powerful strategy. We believe there is nothing better than giving students personal positive and corrective feedback on their writing samples. As a result of our observations of the process, a best practices list was compiled and distributed to all our colleagues, and the entire staff have responded by including these ideas in their lessons.
We were pleased at how many teachers stepped in to grade practice essays. Our principal, assistant principals, reading specialist, and others took on this job with enthusiasm! Attention to writing had reached an all-time high, and all that was left was to wait “impatiently” for the results.
The Results of the Writing Emphasis
At long last and after a school year of action research, the scores were in, and we met our goal of improving student writing. Originally, we had planned that the principal would shadow anyone who earned a top score of six on the test. To our delight, SSMS students received so many perfect scores that this was impossible. Instead our principal agreed to sit on the roof all day to celebrate the success of our eighth graders, to the delight of all our students.
After the students received their scores, the committee agreed to survey them on how they were able to improve the overall quality of their writing. We realized that our students had made great strides in their ability to write, and we would only have this short window of opportunity at the end of the year to pick their brains about how they perceived the writing process and instruction. We asked them three simple questions:
· What writing technique did you use while taking the FCAT Writing test that you feel helped your score?
· Had you ever used this technique before?
· What did you learn in your class this year that helped you to become a better writer?
Students responded that the individual conferences, the “No Dead Verbs” lesson, the formal essay training, and Caught ‘ya! Grammar with a Giggle (by Jane Keister, 2003) were their favorites. They also noted critical techniques such as planning tools, enhancing vocabulary, and focusing on topic. They reported that they felt intelligent, capable, and empowered to become better writers and felt prepared to respond on the state’s formal writing assessment. We summarized the results and sent them to the faculty. The state writing scores that followed our research and implementation were indeed impressive, and we felt our time spent on research was beneficial. The writing scores are shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Student writing scores
Academic year
Percent of students testing at the passing score of 3.5 or above
2005
71\% (The year we lost our “A” rating.) We began our action research in fall 2005.
2006
86\% (The next school year a new middle school opened and took a significant amount of our lower socioeconomic population.)
2007
91\%
2008
93\%
Our writing action research group continued to serve as a resource during the next school year (2006–2007). We didn’t want to lose the gains from the teachers’ and students’ hard work. Staff members continued to be aware of and use our strategies. The school score continued to increase as we continued to implement the great practices that resulted from our action research. We understand that any one action research initiative doesn’t last forever, and as we respond to student needs, there may come a time for a commonsense conclusion, but for now we continue to research and implement effective practices.
The reader can be left with two important thoughts. With focused preparation and instruction students have the ability to write in an organized and creative manner. Action research helped us to create some basic guidelines and lesson plans to achieve the desired results of boosting the writing skills and scores of our eighth grade student body. Our research on writing strategies is ongoing. We have moved from our original research to include new techniques. In the end we had a dedicated group of motivated educators who believed in our students and their ability to rise to our writing expectations.
References
Keister, J. B. (2003). Caught ‘ya! Grammar with a giggle for middle school. Gainesville, FL: Maupin House.
Source: Zantop, K. (2010). Write-On: Using research data to improve student achievement. R. Brindley and C. Crocco (Eds.), Empowering the Voice of the Teacher Researcher. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Summary
In the article, Zantop describes how a team of middle-school language arts teachers engaged in a collaborative, action research project to improve students’ writing skills, schoolwide. Their efforts were prompted by a decline in scores on a statewide writing assessment. By gathering and analyzing information about the students’ writing challenges, the team was able to identify their students’ particular learning needs and to design specific interventions aimed at those needs.
Several key factors led to the success of the project. The first factor was cooperation between the teachers. In collaboration with all of the language arts teachers in the building, the team identified the needed content and sequencing of learning goals, which applied across classrooms. As Zantop describes, multiple teachers volunteered to participate in this work with the support of the school district. Teachers also agreed to engage in “conferences” with each student to give them individualized feedback on writing samples, which Zantop describes as one of the most effective aspects of the intervention. Second, the research team visited a school whose students were more successful in the state writing assessment to understand the strategies that fostered that success. Finally, after students completed the state assessment, the research team sought feedback about their experiences. Specifically, they asked what the students had learned in class and which techniques were used to improve writing skills. This information helped the school further improve its intervention strategies.
Few books or articles on school-based action research are written by current classroom teachers. Further, the emphasis on standardized testing is often framed as a deterrent to action research as a means for enhancing teaching and learning. Thus, this excerpt provides an important perspective. It shows how action research can be used to improve standardized test scores from the viewpoint of a practicing classroom teacher. In Zantop’s experience, action research can be a powerful tool for understanding and successfully addressing students’ learning needs.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. In the action research project in which Zantop is engaged, she describes considerable buy-in and cooperation among the eight language arts teachers, across the school. For example, they volunteered to take on planning tasks and to meet with each student in order to provide them with specific feedback on their writing samples. Although she described some inconsistencies in the teachers’ efforts, Zantop portrays a relatively high level of teacher participation and cooperation. Consider a similar action research project focused on your particular discipline or grade level of interest. What barriers might arise in fostering teacher buy-in and collaboration, and how might those barriers be addressed?
2. Conducting action research is an iterative process, and one vital aspect of improving the research is gathering and analyzing data regarding the outcomes of action. One way Zantop’s team gathered and analyzed data was by asking students directly about what helped them improve their writing skills and their scores on the state assessment. What types of information can students provide about teaching and learning that cannot be fully captured by teachers’ accounts and evaluative forms of assessment? In what ways can student assessments of their own learning be helpful in enhancing teacher practice?
3. In gathering information on how to improve writing instruction, Zantop describes how the research team visited another school in which students had been more successful on the state writing assessment. The importance of teachers observing successful strategies and best practices in other schools and classrooms is highlighted in other chapters in this book. Although important, this strategy can to lead to feelings of inadequacy among teachers who are deemed less successful. If a school were to implement a formal process for teachers to learn from each other, how might they do this in a way that does not make teachers feel bad? How could such a process be incorporated into an action research project aimed at improving standardized test scores?
4.8 School Climate Through Students’ Eyes, by William Preble and Larry Taylor
Introduction
William Preble is a professor of education at New England College in New Hampshire where he teaches courses in educational psychology, school climate and leadership, and educational research. He is also the founder of the Center for School Climate and Learning, which conducts action research with schools and other organizations. Preble has worked with many schools throughout the country to help school leaders, teachers, and students improve school climate, safety, respect, student leadership, and teaching and learning. Before teaching at the university, Preble was an elementary- and middle-school classroom teacher and the principal of an elementary school. Larry Taylor is a professor of psychology, also at New England College. His work focuses on advocacy and combining research, theory, and practice. Taylor has developed multiple university partnerships with nonprofit organizations that serve at-risk populations, providing opportunities for students to develop real-world competencies in the area of human services.
In the following excerpt, Preble and Taylor describe a districtwide action research project on school climate in Tennessee. The project was prompted by a racist incident in one of the high schools that prompted several students and their families to successfully sue the school district with the support of the U.S. Department of Justice. As part of the ruling and settlement, the district worked with Preble and Taylor to assess, monitor, and improve the climate in 30 schools in the district. To do this, they, along with university students, conducted action research in collaboration with K–12 staff and students. They found that compared with students, administrators and teachers had very different perceptions of the aspects of school climate, such as relationships and safety. By allowing students to be actively involved in the research, by educating school staff about how students were experiencing school, and by having both groups work together to identify and devise solutions to problems, many of the schools were able to significantly improve the school climate and, as a result, student performance. Preble and Taylor argue and demonstrate that action research, in which students and teachers are actively involved, can be a powerful tool for enhancing both academic outcomes and social environments in schools.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Preble, W., & Taylor, L. (2008). School climate through students’ eyes. Educational Leadership, 66(4), 35–40.
By involving students in collaborative action research, school leaders gain vital information to guide school improvement.
What would you think if your own children—or students in your school—made the following comments?
Students in this school drop out because they’re pushed off to the side. They are not seen as the kids who will succeed, and because of that, no one even tries to help them succeed. —12th grade student
ESL students get picked on at this school more than other kids. It depends on your religion and your culture, too. After 9-11, Muslim kids started to get picked on a lot. My friend who is Muslim came here and got smacked around because she was wearing the scarf.—10th grade student
I get picked on because I walk funny . . . one kid calls me “duck” and “waddle” and he quacks at me. My mom called the school and they told him not to do it any more, but he still does when teachers aren’t watching. He bullies everybody when teachers aren’t looking.—6th grade student
Students’ stories can offer profound insights into school climate issues that affect the quality of education. When we couple these stories with simple descriptive statistics from school climate surveys, such as the percentage of students and teachers who agree with statements like “I feel safe at this school,” we have a valuable source of information to shape school improvement.
With our colleagues at Main Street Academix (
http://www.msanh.com
) and our students at New England College, we have been conducting research on school climate and helping educators develop respectful schools for nearly 10 years. We have worked with hundreds of schools and thousands of teachers and student leaders across the United States to understand the positive and negative effects of school climate and its links to bullying, harassment, discipline systems, dropout rates, teaching practices, and teacher and student success. Here’s what we learned from our work in one school district that used our student-led action research process to guide school improvement.
The Need for Change in Sullivan County
In 2002, several students and their families sued Sullivan County School District, a Tennessee district whose student population is more than 96 percent white. The primary lawsuit resulted from the mock lynching of a black student by white students in the hallway of one high school. Because of the seriousness of these problems, the U.S. Department of Justice joined concerned students and their families in their complaints against the district. The courts ruled in their favor, finding that the district had been deliberately indifferent to pervasive racial harassment and violations of civil rights in its schools.
In response to the court decision, Sullivan County’s leaders took action. As director of schools John O’Dell said,
At first we were a little defensive, but then we tried to put ourselves in the shoes of these students. I thought, what if I were one of only a handful of white students in a school of more than 1,000 African American students? How would I feel, especially if someone tried to choke me?
“We decided that we needed to face up to the fact that we had some problems in these schools and that we needed to address them head-on,” said Janie Barnes, the district’s compliance coordinator. “We saw it as a chance to do what was right and to ensure that every student was safe and free from harassment of any kind.”
As part of the final legal settlement of the court cases, the school board asked Main Street Academix to develop a plan to assess the current racial, social, and academic climate in each of the 30 Sullivan County schools and to use these baseline data to monitor and guide a four-year improvement plan. District leaders embraced the idea of collecting and using new kinds of data to better understand what was happening in their schools and committed themselves to doing whatever was needed to change the attitudes and behavior that were hurting students in these schools.
Revealing Blind Spots
Our work collecting and using qualitative and quantitative school climate data to improve schools is based on our belief in the power of perception to shape attitudes and behavior. When teachers or principals perceive their schools to be safe and respectful places, they may be blind to problems going on right under their noses—and therefore be unresponsive. Students repeatedly tell us, “School climate is what happens when grown-ups are not around.” Data that reveal and compare adult and student perceptions of school climate are often a real eye-opener.
One morning we went to one of Sullivan County’s four high schools to share the school’s initial school climate data with the principal. The data consisted of simple descriptive statistics—the percentage of students and teachers who agreed or disagreed with specific statements related to peer respect and belonging; student-adult relationships; the presence of racist language, graffiti, or behavior; the use of certain pedagogical practices; and so on.
The principal invited us into his office. We sat down, opened the report, and began to review his school’s climate data. After 10 minutes, we thought the man was about to explode. “This is not my school!” he exclaimed angrily.
We turned to the next page of graphs and asked, “Is this your school?” He paused, looking carefully at the data, and said slowly, “Yeah, this looks more like my school.” We pointed out that those data showed the perceptions of his college-bound students, whereas the first graphs had shown the climate perceptions of all his students. We then showed him some data that revealed equally dramatic gaps between the perceptions of his school’s teachers and students. He was shocked, but he became more interested in understanding the data. We spent the next hour discussing the very different perceptions of school climate among the various stakeholder groups in his school.
This principal loves his students and his school. After he calmed down, we could see that he was thinking deeply about the story of school climate that was unfolding before him. Since that morning, he has been engaged and excited about using data and working with student leaders to improve his school. He joined and helped lead our district leadership team as a key advocate of the student-led action research process in Sullivan County.
The journey of this school administrator illustrates what can happen when educators work with colleagues to interpret data collected as part of collaborative, student-led action research. Often, an examination of the data engenders cognitive dissonance—the feeling of uncomfortable tension that comes from holding two conflicting thoughts in the mind at the same time. For example, a teacher looking at the data in Table 4.6 may think, “I feel that our students treat one another with respect, but I see that only 48 percent of all students and 34 percent of non-collegebound students agree. What’s that all about?” Reviewing such comparisons often results in heated discussions about the meaning of the data and ultimately leads to new ideas about what the school needs to do to improve.
Cognitive dissonance is a powerful motivator. Over and over again, we have seen dissonance lead to tension, discussion, and reflection and then jump-start a process of energized leadership and action by teachers, administrators, and students.
Table 4.6: Comparisons of student and teacher perceptions
Percentage for “agreed” or “strongly agreed”
Non-college-bound students
All students
Faculty
I feel physically safe being who I am at my school (free from threats, harassment, or violence).
46\%
58\%
80\%
Students are willing to step forward and help when they see others getting picked on or harassed.
45\%
42\%
55\%
Girls are treated with respect by boys at this school.
41\%
45\%
32\%
Boys are treated with respect by girls at this school.
32\%
50\%
40\%
I think students mostly treat one another with respect at this school.
34\%
48\%
68\%
When teachers act to help sutdents who are harrassed, it really works.
40\%
45\%
81\%
When principals and other administrators act to help kids who are harrassed, it really works.
51\%
57\%
75\%
Students’ work is displayed publically and celebrated by teachers.
29\%
47\%
82\%
Teachers make it clear to all students what is expected to be successful.
70\%
83\%
94\%
Adults in my school invite students to help make decisions about school rules and discipline procedures.
24\%
31\%
25\%
It Starts With Students
The data that laid the foundation for change in Sullivan County came from student-led action research. Why start with students? The growing literature on “youth-led, participatory research” (Ozer et al., 2008) shows that it is a developmentally appropriate strategy for increasing youth voice and student engagement in improving schools (Cargo, Grams, Ottoson, Ward, & Green, 2003). Inviting young people to serve their schools and communities as partners in action research creates an exciting sense of student ownership and control. As students help ameliorate the problems identified in the research, they learn a great deal—and they teach adults a good deal as well.
Beginning in 2003, we have helped Sullivan County implement a collaborative, student-led action research process developed by Main Street Academix. The process involves the following three stages:
Stage One
We begin by creating a district-level adult leadership team to guide the process. We work with principals and teachers from each school to recruit and select diverse teams of student leaders to serve as the subjects of interviews and focus groups. Selecting truly diverse students for these roles—athletes, Goths, academically successful students, those who struggle academically, and so on—is a crucial part of the process.
Undergraduate and graduate students (in the case of Sullivan County, students from New England College) conduct student interviews and focus groups with students in grades 3–12. We use college students because young people speak more freely and frankly about their school experiences to other young people. We then invite the students who were the subjects of the interviews and focus groups to take on new roles as researchers. We train these students to help administer schoolwide adult and student school climate surveys.
Students explain the purpose of the surveys to their peers and describe how the results will be used to better understand and compare student and teacher perceptions of school climate and respect in their school. When peers lead the data-collection process in this way, students take the surveys seriously, and we get great data.
Stage Two
Main Street Academix compiles the results of the surveys, interviews, and focus groups, and we schedule a time to work with the principal and a school level adult design team to share these results with the student leaders. Students review their school’s data and select the areas that they believe represent the most serious problems.
Student leaders then help the adult design team present the school’s results to their teachers. One especially powerful role the student researchers play is to select the most potent student and teacher quotes from the qualitative data and to read these words aloud to teachers. These stories and quotes are often provocative and grab the teachers’ attention, making them more interested and more willing to look deeply into their survey results. For example, one student commented,
School isn’t taken seriously here because teachers don’t care at all on a personal or even one-on-one helpful level. Doing well academically is not encouraged here at all, and coming to school on a daily basis is a joke for some students.
In each school, the teachers use the qualitative and quantitative data to sort out the most powerful issues. They prioritize problem areas and set goals for improvement. When students and teachers compare their respective goals, they almost always find a lot of agreement on what needs to change. It becomes natural for them to come together and work toward these common goals.
Stage Three
This is the most important stage. Teachers and students develop meaningful action steps to address needs indicated by the data. Students, teachers, and administrators divide into teams to work on one particular goal. They brainstorm ideas as a team and then review a menu of research-based best practices provided by Main Street Academix. They select a final set of strategies that make the most sense to them and develop action projects and plans to address the problems revealed by their school’s data. Teachers and students work together to implement these action projects, with student leaders playing meaningful leadership roles.
As people become involved in analyzing their data, identifying their own needs, and offering their own solutions to these problems, the levels of defensiveness and resistance lessen, and engagement in the process grows. In hundreds of schools in which we have implemented this process, educators and students have come together, looked at data, identified common problems, and developed solutions that they were willing to work on together.
Widening the Focus
The most exciting thing about Sullivan County’s journey is the way the issues of school climate have quickly melded with issues of students’ overall personal development and academic success. Sullivan County schools have done remarkable things to reduce harassment in their schools. They have adopted new harassment policies and disciplinary processes to fight hate speech, racial and sexual harassment, and bullying of all kinds; provided antibias training for all teachers, administrators, bus drivers, substitute teachers, and teachers’ aides; and established student unity teams to fight intolerance, bullying, and bigotry in high schools and middle schools. But the initiative in Sullivan County soon grew beyond bullying and harassment to become a much more comprehensive discussion about effective schools, respectful teaching, and student learning. School instructional initiatives that resulted from the process included
· Learning how to meet the different needs of all learners through differentiated instruction.
· Using hands-on, manipulative-based mathematics instruction for learners who struggled with abstract concepts in mathematics.
· Establishing positive expectations for respectful behavior in every classroom.
· Showcasing and celebrating students’ academic work in the hallways and at parent-teacher meetings.
· Catching students being good and acknowledging positive behavior rather than focusing solely on punishing misbehavior.
· Developing peer-tutoring and reading-buddies programs between younger and older students.
· Initiating community-based learning and service learning programs.
At first, some educators struggled with the concept of building respectful schools through empowering students. After all, weren’t the kids the problem? But after some initial challenges, and after looking carefully at their school climate data, Sullivan County principals and teachers began to routinely bring students into their discussions. Teachers saw how genuinely moved and motivated students were when asked to serve on student leadership teams. They saw students building closer bonds of friendship as they worked together to solve school climate problems. As the work went forward, many teachers and principals concluded that collaborative action research was an empowering approach to school improvement. Buy-in across the district grew.
The Student Achievement Connection
After four years, about two-thirds of the schools in Sullivan County had made significant, measurable improvements in school climate. In spring 2006, we analyzed the relationship between school climate and student academic performance on Tennessee’s state achievement tests in the district’s schools. We found a greater increase in academic achievement in the schools that had made significant improvement in school climate than in those that had not improved school climate (Preble & Newman, 2006).
Our findings in Sullivan County are consistent with other recent research on the connections between school climate and learning reported by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). Its review of more than 700 studies indicates that when school climate measures go up, students’ performance on statewide tests in reading, mathematics, and writing also goes up (CASEL, 2008; Viadero, 2007).
Although the Justice Department ended its mandate that Sullivan County address the problem of harassment and improve school climate in 2007, the school board voted to continue to conduct collaborative action research and keep working to improve school climate and respect. In the past year, we have trained 28 school climate leadership teams made up of more than 125 Sullivan County principals, teachers, and support staff to facilitate this student-led, collaborative action research process in the future. More than 300 student leaders have been engaged in powerful leadership roles.
In 2007–08, these school-based leadership teams of students and teachers collected a third round of school climate data to check the sustainability of their efforts. All schools are now setting new goals for continued improvement and have designed a new set of improvement projects to keep moving forward and to sustain the gains made in years past.
Deeper Than Test Scores
Sullivan County’s experience demonstrates that involving students and teachers in using school climate data can be a powerful strategy for changing attitudes and behavior. One district superintendent attending a recent statewide conference expressed the need for this kind of data:
We have tried everything we can think of academically to raise our test scores over the past five or six years. Yet, while we have made some improvement, we seem to be stuck. Until we address the school climate issues that we know are going on in our schools, I don’t think we will ever reach our full potential as a school system.
We believe that he’s right. Because students learn best when they are physically and emotionally safe, school climate is an essential component of school success. When it comes to data, educators need to think about a broader spectrum of evidence than test scores. They also need data that enable them to see deep into the heart and soul of their schools and the lives of their students.
References
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. (2008). Social and emotional learning and student benefits: Research implications for the safe schools/healthy students core elements. Chicago: Author.
Cargo, M., Grams, G., Ottoson, J., Ward, P., & Green, L. (2003). Empowerment as fostering positive youth development and citizenship. American Journal of Health Behavior, 27 (Suppl. 1), S66–S79.
Ozer, E. J., Cantor, J. P., Cruz, G.W., Fox, B., Hubbard, E., & Moret, L. (2008). The diffusion of youth-led participatory research in urban schools. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 278–289.
Preble, W., & Newman, A. (2006). School climate improvement means higher academic performance in Sullivan County schools. Unpublished report.
Viadero, D. (2007). Social-skills programs found to yield gains in academic subjects. Education Week, 27(16), 1, 15.
Source: Preble, W., & Taylor, L. (2008). School climate through students’ eyes. Educational Leadership, 66(4), 35–40. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
In the article, Preble and Taylor show how collaborative action research can be used to understand and improve school conditions, describing a districtwide project on school climate. In this project, Preble and Taylor and some of their university students worked with K–12 school staff and students to evaluate and improve school climate in 30 schools in a district in Tennessee.
The authors carried out the project in three stages. The first stage focused on choosing research design, selecting a participant sample, and collecting data. Preble and Taylor created a leadership team to guide the research process at the district level, and they worked with school staff to identify student interviewees. Student interviewees were then trained to administer surveys among their peers and teachers. The authors point out how students are more likely to take the survey seriously when their peers are leading the data-collection process, leading to more accurate and reliable data.
Stage two of the process focused on analyzing and reporting the data. The university-based researchers compiled and analyzed the data and brought their findings to administrators, teachers, and students. As Preble and Taylor describe, there are often discrepancies between how the administrators and teachers and the students view the school climate, and the school staff can, initially, be resistant to accepting findings that conflict with their own views. For example, teachers who see students as responsible for a poor school climate may resist students’ views that teachers are disrespectful. However, Preble and Taylor found that as students and school staff work together to make sense of the findings and identify pressing problems, “they almost always find a lot of agreement on what needs to change” (p. 38). Finally, in the third stage of the project, students and teachers worked together to devise and implement strategies to improve school climate, guided by the research findings.
Active involvement of students and teachers, not simply as subjects but as partners in the research process, helped students and teachers take ownership of the project and to be truly invested in transforming school climate. As Preble and Taylor describe, in many of the schools in which they worked active involvement led to a broader focus on improving school effectiveness and to the development of instructional initiatives. In conclusion, the authors state the importance of school climate in fostering high academic achievement. In seeking to improve schools, they urge educators to think beyond standardized test scores and to consider using data that will help them better understand and improve social aspects of the school environment.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Preble and Taylor highlight the importance of not merely involving students in action research as subjects but engaging them in data collection and analysis and problem identification. Through such participation, they can build vital knowledge and skills and enhance their engagement in schooling. It is relatively easy to see how older students might participate in research related to a topic such as school climate. However, involving young children or engaging students in a project on an academic topic might prove more difficult. Consider a common problem related to teaching and learning in your discipline or that pertains to pre-K or elementary-school children. How could you involve students in investigating this problem?
2. In the excerpt, Preble and Taylor discuss an incident in which a school principal initially refuses to accept research findings as valid because they conflict with what he believes is happening at his school. When people encounter information that is not aligned with their previous beliefs, rather than considering they might be wrong, they often dismiss or invalidate the new information. How might you present teachers with information that conflicts with their beliefs in such a way that they do not become defensive or reject the information?
3. Preble and Taylor believe that action research aimed at improving student outcomes should first and foremost consider students’ experiences and perceptions. They open their article with powerful quotes from three students in their study on school climate. Identify as many specific problems or issues that might be reflected in the quotes. What additional information would you need in order to know if those issues or problems are significant in the school context, and how might you go about getting that information?
4.9 Reporting Classroom Research, by David Hopkins
Introduction
David Hopkins is a professor of policy and society and chair of international leadership at the Institute of Education at the University of London. Hopkins was previously a professor and dean of the faculty of education at the University of Nottingham and has served as the chief advisor on school standards in the Department of Education and Skills under the secretary of state. Hopkins has been involved in school improvement efforts through research, policy, and practice at the local and national levels for the last four decades. He is an advocate of personalized learning and holistic approaches to school reform that address the academic, social, and emotional well-being of all members of the school community.
In the following excerpt, Hopkins discusses different ways that teacher-researchers can disseminate their findings and the elements of effective reports and presentations of research. The excerpt focuses primarily on written reports, discussing the nature and purposes of, and the audiences for, research reports. It also covers the conventional sections of a research report and the information that should be included. Finally, other presentation forms and venues are discussed, including video, images, poetry, and websites. Hopkins asserts that classroom research “is incomplete until it is in the public domain” (p. 152). He believes that it is important for teachers to share the processes and results of their research in order to contribute to educational improvement on a broader scale, to promote a culture of inquiry in schools, and to enhance professionalism among practitioners in the field.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Hopkins, D. (2008). Reporting classroom research. In A teacher’s guide to classroom research (4th ed., pp. 144–155). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.
The link between research and action has been an implicit theme throughout this book. To teacher-researchers, research alone is a necessary but not sufficient condition: research has to feed action and development. The classroom research process described in previous chapters has as its goal professional development and the enhancement of classroom performance. The fourth stage in the analytical framework discussed in this chapter is action, which itself is monitored and researched using classroom research procedures. This is the crowning achievement of the research process. In this concluding section, I want to look at some of the ways in which the action and information generated by the research process can be reported.
A classroom research report can in itself have significant impact. Technology in particular has provided the opportunity to teachers from all over the world to come closer together. This has opened up the prospect for substantive and sustained professional dialogues and the global exchange of ideas and good practice. These activities, in my opinion, are invaluable, as I believe that classroom researchers should not only feel responsible for improving their own classrooms but be concerned about the improvement of all classrooms and all schools in their own country and, yes, in the world. Hence, when classroom research reports are shared across a school, across a system and across systems they hold the potential to transform classroom practices around the globe and for the better.
In this chapter I will illustrate the various ways in which classroom research can be reported: first, by exploring literature on report writing; second, by discussing how one could write a report; third, by outlining other formats for reporting research; fourth, by identifying appropriate questions for evaluating your research report; fifth, by setting out criteria on how research can inform action; and sixth, by considering different approaches to the dissemination of results, before suggesting further reading for this chapter.
Reporting Research
Producing accounts of research could never be a literal representation of events. Denscombe (2007: 285) provides us with a useful list of why envisioning a literal depiction is impossible:
· There are always limitations to the space available to provide the account of what happened, which means the researcher needs to provide an edited version of the totality. Decisions need to be made about what can be missed out of the account.
· The editorial decisions taken by the researcher are likely to be shaped by the researcher’s need to present the methods in their best possible light. Quite rationally, the researcher will wish to put a positive spin on events and to bring out the best in the process. Without resorting to deceit or untruths, the account of research will almost certainly entail some upbeat positive filtering. The point, after all, is to justify the procedures as ‘good’ research.
· Although research notes will be used to anchor the description of what happened during the course of the research, the writing up of the research is inevitably a retrospective vision. Situations and data are likely to have a different meaning when viewed from the end of the research process from that at the time they occurred. They will be interpreted with the vision of hindsight.
· The impact of social norms and personal values on the way we interpret events pretty well guarantees that, to a greater or lesser extent, any account of research should be regarded as a version of the truth rather than a literal depiction of what happened. Within the social sciences, the idea of a purely objective position is controversial and a researcher would be naive to presume that her/his account can stand, without careful considerations, as an ‘objective’ description of what actually occurred.
The end product, therefore, no matter how scrupulous it attempts to be, must always be recognized for what it is—an account of the research.
* * *
To avoid ‘self-indulgent’ descriptions and capitalize on the power of a research report, teacher-researchers need to put their data together in such a way that:
· the research could be replicated on another occasion;
· the evidence used to generate hypotheses and consequent action is clearly documented;
· action taken as a result of the research is monitored;
· the reader finds the research accessible and that it resonates with his or her own experience.
The process of setting a clear purpose, of using a methodology which provides valid results, and then using these as a basis for action, can be assisted if the researcher keeps a loose-leaf log or diary as the research progresses. An ongoing research diary like this also provides an invaluable basis for reflection and is great fun to look at with the wisdom of hindsight. It provides an excellent record of how one’s views and attitudes evolve over time. The diary can also reveal the researcher’s biases and how these impacted on decisions taken during the research and on the interpretation of events. Such information is invaluable when writing a report where personal biases should be highlighted and attempts to address them indicated, and their possible impact on the research results accounted for.
Writing a Report
One of the first things one has to consider when preparing a research report is the intended audience. Teacher-researchers have to decide in advance who they are writing for and choose the most effective format and style to address their audience. The British Educational Research Association’s (2000) Good Practice in Educational Research, identifies three major audiences for research writing: researchers, policymakers and practitioners, and asserts that ‘it is good practice in all research writing to aim for lucid prose which communicates effectively to the intended audience and avoids what that audience may perceive as jargon or obscurantism’ (p. 2).
The length of the report is also something that needs to be taken into account. Most people that read reports say that they are either too long to read or so short that there is insufficient evidence to be believable. The best bet is a report as short and condensed as you can make it (with detailed justification tucked away in appendices). The biggest temptation is to display your productivity in too many pages.
Formulating the report comes next. There are a number of guidelines and criteria available that are helpful at this stage. To begin with, there is the somewhat traditional approach that uses as a guide, points similar to the following:
1. Statement of intent
· clarify purpose
· rationale
2. Procedures and process
· research design
· techniques of data collection
· verification of concepts
· what actually occurred
3. Results and implementation
· outcomes of research
· theoretical implications
· action taken as a result
· evaluation of action
4. Meta-analysis
· review whole process
· conclusions as to the usefulness of the research
· what would you do differently next time?
* * *
Other Formats for Reporting Research
Classroom researchers should not feel constrained by the traditional research report format when sharing the product of their research, as there are any numbers of approaches that can be used for reporting research. As Giroux (1992: 21) suggests, we need a ‘politics and pedagogy developed around new languages capable of acknowledging the multiple, contradictory and complex subject positionings people occupy within different social, cultural and economic locations’. The important thing is for the information to be valid and to have been carefully analyzed and the fundamental point is that action should result from the research. Researchers in education have become increasingly interested in different forms of interpreting and representing data (Percelli 2004a, 2004b; Schratz 2001). Here are a few examples:
· Cartoons or photography: often classroom researchers use the cartoon format or photographs to get a key finding from their research across in a powerful and accessible way.
· Video or film: a visual representation using video or digital camera provides concrete images that an audience can relate to their own situation.
· Dance or theatre: once again a visual representation, a performance using students or professional dancers or actors has the potential to have a profound impact on the audience.
· Fiction: using data or constructs from the research to tell a story often encourages reflection and discussion more effectively than the traditional report. As long as the quotations or events are ‘real’, then a fictional setting may enhance the message.
· Diaries: using extracts from one’s diary to present insights from the research is valuable data.
· Poetry: this is another form of highlighting the learnings of one’s research.
· Data reduction and display: displaying reduced data is often a powerful way of stimulating discussion. This approach allows large amounts of data to be displayed economically and it could be accompanied by another page of questions, commentary or explanation that highlighted the main issues.
· A ‘patchwork’ approach: Winter (see for example Winter et al. 1999) has pioneered what is known as the patchwork approach. Here researchers are encouraged to use a combination of approaches to present the different stages of the research process. So, researchers could use film, poetry, reports and any other way they choose to communicate their findings.
Finishing a research report could feel like sitting an exam without being quite sure what the question is, but in the knowledge that the world will read and mark your paper according to an unpredictable whim. The mental blocks, the mad desire to postpone writing for more research or for another coffee is normal. But, one thing is certain. It is worth it.
Dissemination of Results
At the beginning of this chapter I briefly discussed how powerful a classroom research report can be. I even claimed that reporting classroom research results has the potential to transform classroom practices around the world. This implies that the research will be disseminated. Classroom researchers should be aware that research is incomplete until it is in the public domain. Thus, decisions about who is going to disseminate the results, and coming back to our discussion earlier about the report’s audience, to whom it will be disseminated and for what use, have to be made.
There are a variety of ways in which you can disseminate the results of your research. The most immediate way of course is sharing the research within your own school. Teachers have the opportunity through staff meetings, presentations in the school’s professional development days and informal discussions with colleagues not only to change practices across the school, but also to engage in professional dialogue about classroom research and promote a culture of inquiry within the school. Currently, many schools encourage their teachers to undertake small research projects and some of them require newly qualified teachers to conduct a classroom research project in their first term.
Another way of communicating research is through school networks. In England there is an increasing number of informal and formal school networks which allow the quick exchange of information between schools, which of course is a smart school improvement strategy. Formal networks such as those of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT) and the erstwhile National College of School Leaders (NCSL) networked learning communities project bring together practitioners at a local level and then connect local networks to the regional and national. Hence, the dissemination of such results is one on a bigger scale.
Publications can also make your work accessible to wider audiences and could include:
· chapters in books: there is an increasing number of books published by universities and organizations such as the GTCE, the SSAT and the NCSL, presenting classroom research examples. There is also an increasing number of schools that publish research conducted by their own staff within the school but also externally;
· papers in academic journals;
· articles in teacher magazines.
However, the quickest, most powerful and nowadays possibly the most accessible approach to dissemination is the Internet—this is certainly true for developed countries and is becoming true for many developing ones. As mentioned earlier, technology has opened up opportunities for people to connect with others across the world and share information instantly. Classroom researchers are now publishing their results in their schools’, network’s and their own personal websites. Imagine a colleague in China reading your research, identifying similarities between your school and theirs and deciding to adopt the practice suggested by your research in order to improve teaching and learning in their school!
Before concluding this section, it is worth reflecting more imaginatively on how classroom researchers can support their dissemination efforts. One particular example involves a re-think of the audience for classroom research and its intended purpose. Miles and Huberman’s (1994: 305) ‘Matrix for Objectives of Dissemination Strategy Planning’ could effectively support classroom researchers’ dissemination efforts. This is because it requires researchers to consider their audiences and sub-audiences and the effects it provides, which range from the simple awareness that the message exists to implementation and routinization. This matrix is seen in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Matrix for objectives of dissemination strategy planning
Source: Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 305.
References
British Educational Research Association. (2002). Good Practice in Educational Research.
http://www.bera.ac.uk
/
Denscombe, M. (2007). The Good Research Guide. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Giroux, H. (1992). Border Crossings: Cultural Workers and the Politics of Education. New York: Peter Lang.
Percelli, V. (2005) Re-imagining research, re-presenting the self: putting arts media to work in the analysis and synthesis of data on ‘difference’ and ‘disability’, International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 18(1): 63–83.
Schwandt, T. and Halpern, E. (1988). Linking Auditing and MetaEvaluation. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Winter, R., Buck, A. and Sobiechowska, P. (1999). Professional Experience and the Creative Imagination. London: Routledge.
Source: Hopkins, D. (2008). A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Research, 4th edition. © 2008. Reproduced with the kind permission of Open University Press. All rights reserved.
Summary
In this excerpt, Hopkins advocates for teacher-researchers to share their research processes and findings both within in and beyond their schools, to contribute to a broader body of knowledge on which teachers across the world can draw. The most conventional form of sharing is through research reports. Quoting Brooker and MacPherson (1999), Hopkins concurs that because of the poor quality of many teacher action research reports, they are not useful beyond the immediate context in which the research was conducted. First and foremost, high-quality research reports are based on high-quality research. If a project is unorganized, if data collection is spotty, and if data is inaccurate, it will be impossible to produce an excellent report.
Effective research reports describe the project such that it can be replicated. They present sufficient evidence so that the reader finds claims and conclusions logical and plausible. They are also written in a way that is accessible to the chosen audience and is likely to resonate with their experiences. To do this effectively, teacher researchers must be intentional about identifying and writing in a way that will appeal to a target audience, such as educational practitioners, educational researchers, or policy makers. A researcher can write multiple reports about single research project, in various styles, for different audiences. For example, one report may be written for school staff and another for a practitioner magazine, academic journal, or book chapter.
As described, research reports should have four major elements: (a) the statement of intent, (b) an explanation of the research procedures and processes, (c) a description of the findings and action steps, and (d) a discussion of the implications of the research. Although researchers want to present their work in the best possible light, reflections about challenges and things that could have been done better can help readers implement their own projects. Hopkins advises that research reports should be as succinct as possible, while providing enough information to show how the project was carried out and explain the logic of how and why the researcher arrived at particular conclusions and took certain actions.
Research findings can also be disseminated in more unconventional forms, such as images, video, fiction, poetry, performances, and websites. As Hopkins points out, the Internet and other new technologies provide opportunities for teachers to share their research with others across the globe. Regardless of format, practitioner-researchers should ensure that presentations of their projects are appropriate for and informative to their target audiences.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Hopkins points out that many research reports written by practitioners are not useful to others in the field because they are not of high quality. He also states that in order to produce an effective research report, the project on which it is based must be rigorous. Why is this so? Considering the excerpts by Craig, Calhoun, Robinson and Lai, and Stringer, what can researchers do, at each stage of the process—problem identification, data collection, and data analysis—to ensure that the project will be of high quality? For example, if a research team is conducting classroom observations to gather information about student engagement, what will be important to ensure that the data they collect are accurate?
2. In addition to written reports, Hopkins mentions other forms and venues through which to report the processes and findings of action research projects. He also points out the importance of ensuring that the mode of presentation is appropriate for the target audience. Consider, for example, Preble and Taylor’s study on school climate. Creating a comic strip that depicts major findings from the study might be appropriate for students but not for policy makers. Although other teachers might be very interested in the everyday details of how the research project was carried out, district officials may be much more interested in synopses of the findings. Considering your own school or district or the context in which you hope to work, identify several potential audiences with whom teachers might share their research. What particular aspects of the research might be most interesting to them? What presentation formats might appeal to them?
3. Hopkins outlines the sections of a conventional research report, which include descriptions of the study purpose and rationale, the procedures and processes of the research, the findings and action steps, and the broader implications and next steps. There is a distinct logic to the order of these sections. That is, they begin with an introduction to the topic and the project, and each section provides information that contextualizes and helps the reader understand the following sections. Review Hopkins’ outline of a research paper and describe how each section is related to the following section, in terms of helping the reader understand the research project and the claims made by the researcher. For example, why would the reader need to understand the concepts used in the study in order to understand the outcomes of the research?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
· The goal of teacher action research is not merely producing knowledge but solving real-life problems. Action is an explicit component of action research. Teachers and other educational practitioners use action research as a strategy for improving teaching practice, student academic outcomes, and school climate. Rather than seeking generalizable knowledge, action researchers seek to understand and to solve problems as they apply to the particular people and contexts they are studying.
· To be most useful, action research must be carried out in a systematic and rigorous way. Planning an investigation into a topic with intent, then gathering, organizing, and evaluating information systematically distinguishes research from informal inquiries that teachers conduct daily. This more formal approach increases the likelihood that the problem under study will be well defined and the information collected is accurate. This, in turn, helps practitioner-researchers develop effective strategies for addressing the problem.
· In sharing their research with others, educational practitioners can enhance professionalism and advance knowledge in the field. Engaging in action research is a form of professional development through which school staff can deepen their knowledge about the learning processes and gain research, problem-solving, and analytic skills. Collaborating with colleagues on research projects, they can promote a culture of inquiry and build professional learning communities focused improving instructional practice.
· It is important for action researchers to be aware of their preconceived notions and how they affect the research process. One factor that can compromise the trustworthiness of an action research project is researcher bias. If the researcher makes assumptions about the nature of the problem based on incorrect or incomplete information, the research is likely to be based on a false premise. Preconceived notions may cause a researcher to overlook information that is important. Although it is impossible (and, often, not advantageous) to completely eliminate one’s biases, it is important for researchers to be aware of their assumptions and their impact on the research.
· Including students as co-researchers in action research can help them learn valuable skills and take ownership of their schooling experiences. Preble and Taylor, in particular, discuss the value of including students as co-researchers in the action research process. In including them in research efforts, students can become invested in solving school-based problems and learn skills related to research, problem solving, analytic thinking, and collaboration. Working together towards a shared goal can also strengthen relationships between student and school staff.
A Closer Look: Action Research
An instructor discusses possible action research topics for classroom teachers and why he finds them compelling.
00:00
00:00
1. In listening to this instructor discuss potential action research projects, what factors drive his interest in the particular topics he suggests? Can you think of other motivating factors?
2. Across the three possible projects that the instructor discusses, what are the individual and common learning goals and how are they important?
Tying It All Together
This chapter described the utility of action research for teachers and other school practitioners, as compared with other forms of research. It also examined the research process, giving examples of the process in action within several school contexts and as related to different research topics. Although practitioner-researchers implement a variety of strategies for action research, they all draw from core principles. First, their research is aimed at improving a particular problem of practice in the context in which they work. Second, they engage in the “ ‘look, think, act’ routine” (Stringer, 2007, p. 8). That is, they look more deeply at the problem they seek to study; they gather information that helps them to think about the problem in a more complex way; and they use what they have learned to intervene into the problem. They re-engage in this process multiple times in order to continually improve their understandings and interventions.
With the current focus on the role of teachers in student achievement, practitioner action research is seen as one way to improve classroom instruction and teacher professionalism. In tying their understandings to previous chapters, it is important for readers to consider how action research might be used to address equity issues in schools and to meet the needs of students, particularly those at risk for academic failure. Looking forward, readers should consider the potential of action research in schools as a means for fostering self-reflection and collaboration among teachers and developing teacher leadership.
End of Chapter Critical Thinking Questions
1. As the excerpts suggest, action research can require considerable time and energy. Although more pre- and in-service teachers are being encouraged to conduct classroom-based action research, there is also growing emphasis on preparing students for standardized tests, which can draw teachers’ time and attention away from more innovative classroom practices. Particularly in low-performing schools, where there is intense focus on raising student state test scores, what argument(s) would you make to administrators and teachers in favor of conducting action research? How can action research augment rather than take away from teachers’ efforts to increase student test scores? What supports would teachers need to do this?
2. Stringer and Brighton point out that educational practitioners often do not find conventional research useful, because it focuses on the production of generalized knowledge rather than context-specific information and action. On the other hand, some university researchers feel that practitioners do not take advantage of the plethora of research available, which could provide them with valuable insights into their everyday classroom practices. This dichotomy is known as the “theory–practice divide” in which theoretical knowledge developed by researchers does not affect on-the-ground practices. Do you believe that the perception that practitioners are unjustifiably dismissive of academic research has any merit? Why or why not? How can action research help bridge the theory–practice divide?
3. Validity—an extremely important concept in research—refers to the degree to which claims made by the researcher(s) are logical and plausible. Validity, in turn, depends on the authenticity of the researcher’s understanding of the nature of the problem under study and the accuracy of the data collected. As Robinson and Lai point out, researcher bias can threaten the validity of a research project. In reviewing the article by Preble and Taylor, what evidence of bias do you see on the part of school staff pertaining to the issue of school climate? If staff members with those biases had planned the study, rather than Preble and Taylor, how might it have been different? How might they have defined the problem? What data might they have collected? Who might they have enlisted to collect data, and from whom? Whom might they have charged with evaluating the data and devising strategies for intervention?
4. Stringer states that action research projects should “take into account the social, cultural, interactional, and emotional factors that affect all human activity” (p. 9). Similarly, Calhoun advises educational action researchers to collect data in the academic, social, and personal domains. Suppose a fourth-grade teacher is conducting an action research project in her classroom, guided by the question “How can I help my students improve their reading comprehension?” Explain how factors related to culture, social interactions, and emotions might be related to reading comprehension skills and how the teacher might go about learning more about those relationships through the research.
Further Reading
Blair, E. (2010). How does telling the truth help educational action research? Educational Action Research, 18(3), 349–358.
Brown, T. M., & Galeas, K. (2009). Confronting “limit situations” in a youth/adult educational research collaborative. The Sophist’s Bane (Spring), 7–13.
Brown, T. M., & Rodriguez, L. F. (Eds.). (2009). Youth in participatory action research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bryant, J., & Bates, A. (2010). The power of student resistance in action research: Teacher educators respond to classroom challenges. Educational Action Research, 18(3), 305–318.
Capobianco, B. M., & Feldman, A. (2006). Promoting quality for teacher action research: Lessons learned from science teachers’ action research. Educational Action Research, 14(4), 497–512.
Cammarota, J., & Fine, M. (2008). Youth participatory action research: A pedagogy for transformational resistance. In J. Cammarota & M. Fine (Eds.), Revolutionizing education: Youth participatory action research in motion (pp. 1–11). New York: Routledge.
Cook-Sather, A. (2006). Sound, presence, and power: “Student voice” in educational research and reform. Curriculum Inquiry, 36(4), 359–390.
Feldman, A. (2007). Teachers, responsibility and action research. Educational Action Research, 15(2), 239–252.
Glassman, M., Erdem, G., & Bartholomew, M. (2013). Action research and its history as an adult education movement for social change. Adult Education Quarterly, 63(3), 272–288.
Goble, G. A. (2007). Ethics, research, and reflection. In S. E. Israel & C. Lassonde (Eds.), The ethical educator: Integrating ethics within the context of teaching and teacher research (pp. 101–108). New York: Peter Lang.
Goodnough, K. (2011). Examining the long-term impact of collaborative action research on teacher identity and practice: The perceptions of K–12 teachers. Educational Action Research, 19(1), 73–86.
Herr, K., & Anderson, G. L. (2005). The action research dissertation: A guide for students and faculty. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Honigsfeld, A., Connolly, M., & Kelly, S. (2012). Demystifying teacher action research: Lessons learned from a graduate education capstone experience. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 79(2), 15–21.
Hoppey, D. (2013). Linking action research to response to intervention (RtI): The strategy implementation project. Networks: An On-line Journal for Teacher Research, 15(1).
Lytle, S. L., Portnoy, D., Waff, D., & Buckley, M. (2009). Teacher research in urban Philadelphia: Twenty years working within, against, and beyond the system. Educational Action Research, 17(1), 23–42.
Marquez-Zenkov, K., Harmon, J., van Lier, P., & Marquez-Zenkov, M. (2007). If they’ll listen to us about life, we’ll listen to them about school: Seeing city students’ ideas about ‘quality’ teachers. Educational Action Research, 15(3), 403–415.
Mills, G. E. (2014). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
McIntyre, A. (2000). Inner-city kids: Adolescents confront life and violence in an urban community. New York: New York University Press.
McNiff, J. & Whitehead, J. (2006). All you need to know about action research. London: Sage.
Morrell, E. (2008). Six summers of YPAR: Learning, action, and change in urban education. In J. Cammarota & M. Fine (Eds.), Revolutionizing education: Youth participatory action research in motion (pp. 155–184). New York: Routledge.
O’Brien, R. (2001). Um exame da abordagem metodológica da pesquisa ação [An overview of the methodological approach of action research]. In Roberto Richardson (Ed.), Teoria e prática da pesquisa ação [Theory and practice of action research]. João Pessoa, Brazil: Universidade Federal da Paraíba. Available:
http://www.web.ca/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html
Preble, B., & Taylor, L. (2008). School climate through students’ eyes. Educational Leadership, 66(4), 35–40.
Razfar, A. (2011). Action research in urban schools: Empowerment, transformation, and challenges. Teacher Education Quarterly, 38(4), 25–44.
Souto-Manning, M., & Mitchell, C. (2010). The role of action research in fostering culturally-responsive practices in a preschool classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(4), 269–277.
Spaulding, D. T., & Falco, J. (2013). Action research for school leaders. Boston, MA: Pearson.
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data
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fate-control variables
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generalizable
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observations
patterns
phenomenon
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reliability
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e. Embedded Entrepreneurship
f. Three Social Entrepreneurship Models
g. Social-Founder Identity
h. Micros-enterprise Development
Outcomes
Subset 2. Indigenous Entrepreneurship Approaches (Outside of Canada)
a. Indigenous Australian Entrepreneurs Exami
Calculus
(people influence of
others) processes that you perceived occurs in this specific Institution Select one of the forms of stratification highlighted (focus on inter the intersectionalities
of these three) to reflect and analyze the potential ways these (
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ness Horizons
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nt
When considering both O
lassrooms
Civil
Probability
ions
Identify a specific consumer product that you or your family have used for quite some time. This might be a branded smartphone (if you have used several versions over the years)
or the court to consider in its deliberations. Locard’s exchange principle argues that during the commission of a crime
Chemical Engineering
Ecology
aragraphs (meaning 25 sentences or more). Your assignment may be more than 5 paragraphs but not less.
INSTRUCTIONS:
To access the FNU Online Library for journals and articles you can go the FNU library link here:
https://www.fnu.edu/library/
In order to
n that draws upon the theoretical reading to explain and contextualize the design choices. Be sure to directly quote or paraphrase the reading
ce to the vaccine. Your campaign must educate and inform the audience on the benefits but also create for safe and open dialogue. A key metric of your campaign will be the direct increase in numbers.
Key outcomes: The approach that you take must be clear
Mechanical Engineering
Organic chemistry
Geometry
nment
Topic
You will need to pick one topic for your project (5 pts)
Literature search
You will need to perform a literature search for your topic
Geophysics
you been involved with a company doing a redesign of business processes
Communication on Customer Relations. Discuss how two-way communication on social media channels impacts businesses both positively and negatively. Provide any personal examples from your experience
od pressure and hypertension via a community-wide intervention that targets the problem across the lifespan (i.e. includes all ages).
Develop a community-wide intervention to reduce elevated blood pressure and hypertension in the State of Alabama that in
in body of the report
Conclusions
References (8 References Minimum)
*** Words count = 2000 words.
*** In-Text Citations and References using Harvard style.
*** In Task section I’ve chose (Economic issues in overseas contracting)"
Electromagnetism
w or quality improvement; it was just all part of good nursing care. The goal for quality improvement is to monitor patient outcomes using statistics for comparison to standards of care for different diseases
e a 1 to 2 slide Microsoft PowerPoint presentation on the different models of case management. Include speaker notes... .....Describe three different models of case management.
visual representations of information. They can include numbers
SSAY
ame workbook for all 3 milestones. You do not need to download a new copy for Milestones 2 or 3. When you submit Milestone 3
pages):
Provide a description of an existing intervention in Canada
making the appropriate buying decisions in an ethical and professional manner.
Topic: Purchasing and Technology
You read about blockchain ledger technology. Now do some additional research out on the Internet and share your URL with the rest of the class
be aware of which features their competitors are opting to include so the product development teams can design similar or enhanced features to attract more of the market. The more unique
low (The Top Health Industry Trends to Watch in 2015) to assist you with this discussion.
https://youtu.be/fRym_jyuBc0
Next year the $2.8 trillion U.S. healthcare industry will finally begin to look and feel more like the rest of the business wo
evidence-based primary care curriculum. Throughout your nurse practitioner program
Vignette
Understanding Gender Fluidity
Providing Inclusive Quality Care
Affirming Clinical Encounters
Conclusion
References
Nurse Practitioner Knowledge
Mechanics
and word limit is unit as a guide only.
The assessment may be re-attempted on two further occasions (maximum three attempts in total). All assessments must be resubmitted 3 days within receiving your unsatisfactory grade. You must clearly indicate “Re-su
Trigonometry
Article writing
Other
5. June 29
After the components sending to the manufacturing house
1. In 1972 the Furman v. Georgia case resulted in a decision that would put action into motion. Furman was originally sentenced to death because of a murder he committed in Georgia but the court debated whether or not this was a violation of his 8th amend
One of the first conflicts that would need to be investigated would be whether the human service professional followed the responsibility to client ethical standard. While developing a relationship with client it is important to clarify that if danger or
Ethical behavior is a critical topic in the workplace because the impact of it can make or break a business
No matter which type of health care organization
With a direct sale
During the pandemic
Computers are being used to monitor the spread of outbreaks in different areas of the world and with this record
3. Furman v. Georgia is a U.S Supreme Court case that resolves around the Eighth Amendments ban on cruel and unsual punishment in death penalty cases. The Furman v. Georgia case was based on Furman being convicted of murder in Georgia. Furman was caught i
One major ethical conflict that may arise in my investigation is the Responsibility to Client in both Standard 3 and Standard 4 of the Ethical Standards for Human Service Professionals (2015). Making sure we do not disclose information without consent ev
4. Identify two examples of real world problems that you have observed in your personal
Summary & Evaluation: Reference & 188. Academic Search Ultimate
Ethics
We can mention at least one example of how the violation of ethical standards can be prevented. Many organizations promote ethical self-regulation by creating moral codes to help direct their business activities
*DDB is used for the first three years
For example
The inbound logistics for William Instrument refer to purchase components from various electronic firms. During the purchase process William need to consider the quality and price of the components. In this case
4. A U.S. Supreme Court case known as Furman v. Georgia (1972) is a landmark case that involved Eighth Amendment’s ban of unusual and cruel punishment in death penalty cases (Furman v. Georgia (1972)
With covid coming into place
In my opinion
with
Not necessarily all home buyers are the same! When you choose to work with we buy ugly houses Baltimore & nationwide USA
The ability to view ourselves from an unbiased perspective allows us to critically assess our personal strengths and weaknesses. This is an important step in the process of finding the right resources for our personal learning style. Ego and pride can be
· By Day 1 of this week
While you must form your answers to the questions below from our assigned reading material
CliftonLarsonAllen LLP (2013)
5 The family dynamic is awkward at first since the most outgoing and straight forward person in the family in Linda
Urien
The most important benefit of my statistical analysis would be the accuracy with which I interpret the data. The greatest obstacle
From a similar but larger point of view
4 In order to get the entire family to come back for another session I would suggest coming in on a day the restaurant is not open
When seeking to identify a patient’s health condition
After viewing the you tube videos on prayer
Your paper must be at least two pages in length (not counting the title and reference pages)
The word assimilate is negative to me. I believe everyone should learn about a country that they are going to live in. It doesnt mean that they have to believe that everything in America is better than where they came from. It means that they care enough
Data collection
Single Subject Chris is a social worker in a geriatric case management program located in a midsize Northeastern town. She has an MSW and is part of a team of case managers that likes to continuously improve on its practice. The team is currently using an
I would start off with Linda on repeating her options for the child and going over what she is feeling with each option. I would want to find out what she is afraid of. I would avoid asking her any “why” questions because I want her to be in the here an
Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using an Internet site as means of collecting data for psychological research (Comp 2.1) 25.0\% Summarization of the advantages and disadvantages of using an Internet site as means of collecting data for psych
Identify the type of research used in a chosen study
Compose a 1
Optics
effect relationship becomes more difficult—as the researcher cannot enact total control of another person even in an experimental environment. Social workers serve clients in highly complex real-world environments. Clients often implement recommended inte
I think knowing more about you will allow you to be able to choose the right resources
Be 4 pages in length
soft MB-920 dumps review and documentation and high-quality listing pdf MB-920 braindumps also recommended and approved by Microsoft experts. The practical test
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One thing you will need to do in college is learn how to find and use references. References support your ideas. College-level work must be supported by research. You are expected to do that for this paper. You will research
Elaborate on any potential confounds or ethical concerns while participating in the psychological study 20.0\% Elaboration on any potential confounds or ethical concerns while participating in the psychological study is missing. Elaboration on any potenti
3 The first thing I would do in the family’s first session is develop a genogram of the family to get an idea of all the individuals who play a major role in Linda’s life. After establishing where each member is in relation to the family
A Health in All Policies approach
Note: The requirements outlined below correspond to the grading criteria in the scoring guide. At a minimum
Chen
Read Connecting Communities and Complexity: A Case Study in Creating the Conditions for Transformational Change
Read Reflections on Cultural Humility
Read A Basic Guide to ABCD Community Organizing
Use the bolded black section and sub-section titles below to organize your paper. For each section
Losinski forwarded the article on a priority basis to Mary Scott
Losinksi wanted details on use of the ED at CGH. He asked the administrative resident