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Corrections highlighted by marker and add abstract and change titles to Related Literature,Learning Theory Association, Define Key Terms,Gaps in the Research, Biblical Worldview,Conclusion and add 7 more references 1 DISCIPLINE ISSUES IN EDUCATION AND LEARNING Michael Whitener Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Your author note should appear here. Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 School of Education, Liberty University Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 This title does not need to be underlined. 2 Introduction In this document that concerns discipline issues in education and learning, I will be explaining about, teaching and learning, issues of culture, identity, and inequality in multicultural education. Because many modern civilizations are made up of individuals from many cultural backgrounds, understanding multiculturalism requires admitting this. Multiculturalists see this as a positive development for society, one that should be embraced rather than resented. To say that there are different cultural groups in such a society is to say that it is multicultural. When it comes to public policy and legislation, multiculturalists are certain that the many cultures that make up our society need to be recognized and respected. An interconnected socio-economic structure is at the heart of multicultural educations premise that individuals from various cultural origins may live peacefully. Having a strong sense of Britishness as well as British nationalism gives you a better comprehension of the material. Prior to the development of multicultural education as a concept, educational institutions made little effort to promote cultural integration theories. People living in regions where the British had a significant influence, whether via colonialism or otherwise, were compelled to conform to British nationalist standards. The result is that pupils must come to school well-prepared, with understanding of methods and procedures for engaging responsibly and productively with people from various cultures (Gregory, 2017). Educating Students from Diverse Backgrounds Multicultural education has a long history that can be traced back to the Civil Rights Movements ethnic studies of something like the 1960s. Movement leaders wanted to fight for African-Americans equal educational rights on an equal basis with whites in the U.S. Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Take this heading out. Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 You should have included an abstract on a separate page. The abstract needs to provide a brief but comprehensive summary of the contents of your paper. It helps the reader to decide whether to read the full text. The heading should be centered in bold font. Abstracts are not indented and written as a double spaced single paragraph. The abstract should not be longer than 250 words. Make sure that you list 3-5 keywords below the content . 3 educational system. Multicultural educations overarching goal is to assist students become more equipped and more capable of understanding people from various cultural backgrounds. It also encourages students to become more conscious of the value of cultural blending in building strong communities (Downie, 2021). It is the goal of multicultural education to provide pupils from all walks of life a knowledge of society. It provides students with a unique educational opportunity that aims to displace more traditional methods of instruction. It used to be that educational systems were based on the cultures of their respective countries. People from all around the globe have been raised for a long time in ways that have forced them to accept brutality at the cost of their own cultural values. As a result of the British Empires size and wide spread of territories, the outcome was mostly favorable. Taking a close look at the current scenario reveals that, despite efforts to promote multiculturalism, brutishness persists in the educational system. When people in the West think of the fight on terror, they often think of people from the Muslim community. This serves as a powerful illustration of the fact that much more work needs to be done to enhance the existing systems and methods to intercultural education throughout the globe. In order for children to acquire a strong sense of balance, educators must create and utilize systems that assist students establish a strong feeling of national, regional, as well as global identity. Todays globe has evolved in many ways in favor of globalism. If you take a glance at the main cities across the globe, youll see that they have a diverse population with a variety of cultural identities (Gregory, 2017). Many schools having failed miserably in their attempts to teach and practice diversity. The educational system is still firmly rooted in the old ways, providing pupils from different 4 cultural backgrounds with instruction that lacks cultural relevance. Because of this, students want educational systems that are based on their own beliefs. As a result, kids become disinterested in going to school and their education loses significance. One just has to go to Britain to see that individuals from various cultures have a very different perspective on how important and what the educational system is like. An in-depth examination of the topic reveals that racism is a significant factor in schools decision to abandon multicultural education. While there is a widespread misconception in society that whites have it all figured out, this is far from the case (Polkinghorne, 2021). What can educators do to foster a more diverse learning environment? Educators or instructors criticize the preoccupation with the procedures for the extent to which brutishness remains to promote the idea of standardized curriculum. Teachers should change their emphasis away from evaluating students output or performance using conventional methods in order to promote intercultural education. They must put an emphasis on the skills and capabilities of their students while also appreciating the many cultural backgrounds they come from. Instead of regulating or predetermining whatever is taught in schools, we must abandon this mentality. Curriculums that are established or preset in traditional educational systems stay stagnant throughout time. Global trends indicate that cosmopolitan populations of students require a dynamic learning environment with curriculum that reflect that diversity (Downie, 2021). Many educators are still preoccupied with the kinds of questions that will be asked of their pupils in upcoming exams. The practice has already been going on for a long time, with little regard for how learners cultures are changing and evolving. In a classroom setting, little or no time is devoted to subjects that arent directly evaluated in exams. The educational system is, Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Take this heading out Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Your research question should be explicitly stated at this point. 5 in some respects, trapped in the past. Alternative education offers a dynamic system of curriculum that will suit the cultural requirements of students from many cultures. Multicultural education supports this approach. It is true that current national standards conforming to conventional methods have significant legal or policy support in the education sector, but a multicultural approach risks being delayed because of this (Polkinghorne, 2021). Regarding the tendencies that encourage postponement and abandonment of intercultural education, teachers have a major role to play Educators must understand that they may have a significant impact on education policy by advocating for intercultural education. To put it another way, teachers should be more than just implementers of sector policies; they should be active participants in their formulation. Teachers, after all, are the ones that have daily contact as well as interactions with the students. As a result, the subject of social justification is raised. A socially just classroom is one in which the expression of social justice has whole or desired support. People from all walks of life are treated with dignity and respect in these settings. Teachers are in charge of ensuring that social justice is developed and maintained in the classroom. Its impossible to ignore the fact that promoting social justice throughout the classroom has a significant impact on intercultural education. However, an examination of the issue reveals that encouraging social justice also aids learners or students in developing qualities such as democracy promotion. Additionally, the atmosphere fosters teamwork and cooperation, both of which are critical for societys overall output (Downie, 2021). Working with multicultural students and their families Schools and educational institutions have a crucial role in improving students values as well as attitudes toward one another and the conditions of life, which is the basis for Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Take this heading out 6 multicultural education. Having a high level of self and self-respect definitely helps in terms of developing a persons identity. Everyone knows that ones surroundings have a major impact on ones identity. Peoples main life choices are influenced greatly through their experiences in their surroundings, which in turn help shape their preferences, values, including problem-solving abilities. Its also crucial to keep in mind that school is where kids spend the majority of their time. Students are also closer to their instructors than even family members. Multicultural education promotes the development of a social structure that emphasizes the qualities of many cultures from various areas in order to reduce student division. As they engage with pupils, teachers should represent this critical element in both the instructional materials they provide and their own conduct. Keep in mind that cultural differences exist not just in theory, but also in practice. As a result, educators must use instructional methods that are sensitive to cultural differences and do not reinforce prejudices. Teachers must also use caution when addressing topics that may offend students of different backgrounds. If they want to be held accountable, they must respond effectively to the learning differences shown by students from various cultures (Polkinghorne, 2021). Assisting multilingual and multicultural childrens as well as learners language development Culturally responsible teaching stresses the necessity for instructors to recognize the strengths and limitations of students from various cultures for the benefit of children as well as learners in schools. In this way, they are prepared to cope with circumstances involving incongruity due to cultural mismatch or disparities. Taking a close look at this idea reveals that instructors are also accountable for supporting the language development of students from diverse cultural backgrounds. Culture has a significant impact on how we define ourselves. As a result, the youngsters grow into responsible people with a clear sense of self and place in the Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Take this heading out 7 community. Thus, instructors must acknowledge and endeavor to provide course materials that are culturally-specific while also promoting an awareness of global culture in the classroom. The promotion of a multilingual voice throughout the classroom provides a feeling of belonging to children from many cultures. Making the students feel appreciated has an undeniable link to empowering them in school. As a result, students are likely to acquire a feeling of responsibility for their school responsibilities and assignments, which will lead to better grades (Gregory, 2017). A feeling of cohesion and acceptance of differences Multiculturalism has the power to both promote and enforce anti-discriminatory behavior in society. Citizens should refrain from making negative assumptions about people of other cultures based on stereotypes and discrimination. Peoples self-esteem would be harmed, and this may destroy their futures for good. Meaningful relationships, partnerships, and cohabitation would be discouraged if the effects were to take place. A countrys residents must be welcoming to individuals from all over the globe, regardless of where they come from or what culture they come from. Looked at from a distance, the United States today is one of the most successful as well as productive countries, thanks in part to its people tolerance for diversity. Discipline is very important both in the home and in educational institutions When it comes to behavior regulation, discipline is the intentional or non-deliberate action taken. Adherence to laws and rules, as well as cultural norms and values, is indeed the practice of keeping ones composure under pressure, even when dealing with difficult individuals or situations. Discipline is the process of teaching appropriate behaviors and unlearning harmful ones while providing encouragement, direction, and support. The goal is to establish boundaries, Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Take this heading out Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Take this heading out 8 define duties, and hold each other accountable while also establishing a predictable, ordered, and stable environment (Downie, 2021). Discipline must be observed or practiced in order to be effective, as stated in the famous phrase, choices have consequences. There are many instances when such a correction is unavoidably the result of a major trigger, with potentially disastrous effects. In less than four months, the global Coronavirus, also known as COVID-19, has spread like wildfire and killed tens of thousands of people. The exponential spread of the pandemic is being exacerbated by a lack of individual discipline, especially following basic recommendations like washing hands properly with soap, maintaining a one-to-two-meter social distance, including putting oneself into quarantine for 14 days (Polkinghorne, 2021). Indiscipline may show itself in a variety of ways in the classroom, including violating rules, bullying, truancy, tardiness, cultism, alcohol and drug addiction, sexual harassment, insulting/assaulting, stealing, rioting, striking, as well as other anti-social behaviors. Such a lack of self-control will show up later in life if left unchecked. On the other hand, establishing discipline from an early age aids in the restoration of balance in such a persons life, as shown by our security and military forces. As a result of establishing a stress-free learning atmosphere, discipline aids the planning process by encouraging students to adhere to and keep a daily schedule. It also helps to shape students personalities and boosts their motivation, all of which lead to higher scores. When formulating academic performance models, factors like exam anxiety, the surrounding environment, intrinsic motivation, and emotions must be taken into account. Researchers have shown an association between student discipline and grades, with grades rising in correlation to discipline levels. 9 While educational institutions have a responsibility to enforce the norms or codes of conduct that guide student behavior, parents too have a role to play in ensuring uniformity. Dress code, hairstyles, and fundamental manners are all established at a young age. Pupils are shaped by their relationship with their parents and instructors, particularly those in positions of leadership. Discipline must be addressed from such an early age if excellent education is to be achieved with maximum learner effect. Because disciplined learners are focused and self-driven, they are more likely to study and acquire the necessary information and abilities (Polkinghorne, 2021). Regardless of how busy they are at work, parents should make time to talk to their children about a variety of topics, especially discipline. In addition, there is a growing need for improved advice and counseling in schools to assist students in achieving predetermined ideals. Children and young people who have good social and spiritual habits are more likely to do well in school. By establishing criteria and deciding how far they can go in the face of many impediments, the learner must develop self-discipline. Self-discipline will be critical during the height of COVID-19, when learning has been moved to the house since schools are closed and monitoring is in the hands of parents (Downie, 2021). Boarding schools have several advantages, one of which is that they have strict discipline policies. Many families choose boarding schools for their children because of the tight-knit community. Successful boarding schools place a premium on maintaining order, and students at these establishments are constantly monitored by the administration and faculty. When attending a boarding school, students may put their academic achievement ahead of social pressure. Students who live on campus have less disciplinary issues since they dont have to deal with conflicting standards of behavior at home or at school. A students ability to succeed 10 academically and socially depends on his or her ability to maintain good discipline in school. Riverside Military Academy may be a good option for your family if you want a school that will make your kid responsible for his behavior (Gregory, 2017). Discipline is a crucial personal quality for everyone to possess. In other words, its a collection of guidelines or guidelines to be followed while doing anything. When doing any job, it is a method to be truthful, hardworking, inspired, and encouraging at the same time. Its a personality characteristic that makes it easier for people to finish projects on time. A disciplined approach to life helps us establish orderliness and concentrate on our goals while also ensuring that we are efficient and on time. Its been said that life without discipline is like sailing without a compass. As a result, the significance of personal discipline in ones life simply cannot be overstated. If youre organized, youll have enough time to accomplish all of your chores before the deadline. This is due to the fact that they are laser-focused and have mastered the art of time management. Its not something they believe in to waste time on. They are cognizant of the importance of time and are aware that time that has passed cannot be recovered. Because of this, they plan out their schedule and stick to it. This also aids in their ability to remain focused and motivated. As a result, they are less likely to procrastinate, which aids in the development of mental serenity and wellness. Keeping a strict schedule is essential for long- term happiness. Great leaders dont just appear out of thin air. Most of them adhere to a strict schedule and practice self-discipline in order to develop into strong leaders. A favorable attitude toward society is generated by having good discipline. Instilling confidence and a desire to achieve greatness is a powerful motivator. Discipline aids individuals in developing a positive outlook, which is essential for their future success. They may serve as role models for the rest of the community (Polkinghorne, 2021). 11 Conclusion Stakeholders must comprehend diversity before it can be effectively implemented in education. To begin to understand this somewhat difficult idea, keep in mind that many civilizations today are composed of individuals from a variety of various cultures. Multiculturalists see this as a positive development for society, one that should be embraced rather than resented. When it comes to public policy and legislation, multiculturalists are certain that the many cultures that make up our society need to be recognized and respected. As a result of multicultural education, instructors are better equipped to prepare their pupils for life within todays multi-cultural society. Learner performance is heavily influenced by traits like personality and social context. Many different motivating factors drive students to pursue an education. Extrinsically motivated people are more likely to employ learning methods such as excellent planning and organization. People with a high degree of these characteristics use a variety of learning tactics based on their views. Given this, as well as the critical role motivation plays in student success, educators must devote time and energy to helping students develop strong self-efficacies by instilling a strong belief in their own talents. Additionally, teachers must have the necessary preparation in order to successfully integrate the learners value system while simultaneously practicing the very same and using a variety of instructional methods. Our ultimate product is a well-prepared dinner, with many components that mix harmoniously together. We each have a role to play without exaggerating or underplaying the contributions of others (Polkinghorne, 2021). Discipline in school is critical for children to make significant academic progress, yet many institutions fall short in this area. One of the advantages of attending a boarding school is the enforcement of strict disciplinary rules. Discover why school discipline is so crucial for Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Level 1 headings in APA format should be Centered and in Bold Font. 12 students success. Discipline is essential in schools if they are to keep their pupils focused and safe. The right kind of school discipline allows children make good choices and remain on track in school. Discipline in school is critical for children to make significant academic progress, yet many institutions fall short in this area. Discipline rules in boarding schools are an advantage of going to a residential school. Heres an in-depth look at why school discipline is so crucial to students success (Downie, 2021). Discipline is a major reason why we send our children to private school. The fact that our children are in big classrooms where instructors spend the majority of their time dealing with disciplinary problems has caused us some worry. As parents, we dont want it for our children. We want kids to attend to school so that they may learn in a supported, safe atmosphere. If youre looking at private schools at whatever level, be sure to look into how they handle discipline. Considering that every private school is a separate organization, the way it handles discipline will differ from one to the next. Prepare yourself for it. Your school selection will be influenced by a variety of variables, including how particular school handles punishment (Gregory, 2017). Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 Is this a new paragraph? 13 REFERENCES Downie, S., Gao, X., Bedford, S., Bell, K., & Kuit, T. (2021). Technology enhanced learning environments in higher education: A cross-discipline study on teacher and student perceptions. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 18(4), 12. Gregory, A., & Fergus, E. (2017). Social and emotional learning and equity in school discipline. The Future of Children, 117-136. Polkinghorne, M., O’Sullivan, H., Taylor, J., & Roushan, G. (2021). An innovative framework for higher education to evaluate learning gain: a case study based upon the discipline of marketing. Studies in Higher Education, 46(9), 1740-1755. Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 The heading should be in bold font but should not be in all caps and does not need to be underlined. Verlyn Evans 143770000000894995 You need to include at least 10 references. EDUC 701 Course Project: Final Paper Draft Grading Rubric Criteria Levels of Achievement Content Advanced Proficient Developing Not present Organization 27 to 29 points • An excellent overview of the paper’s contents is provided by the introduction that includes a clear thesis statement identifying the problem and the research question(s). • An excellent title page, abstract page, body, and reference list are included in the paper. • The body comprises the related literature, learning theories associated with the problem and research question(s), key term definitions, the identification of gaps and inconsistencies, a biblical worldview perspective, and proper headings and subheadings. • An excellent, one-paragraph summary of the issues discussed in the paper is provided by the conclusion. 24 to 26 points • A very good overview of the paper’s contents is provided by the introduction that includes a thesis statement identifying the problem and the research question(s). • A very good title page, abstract, body, and reference list are included in the paper. • The body comprises the related literature, learning theories associated with the problem and research question(s), key term definitions, the identification of gaps and inconsistencies, a biblical worldview perspective, and somewhat proper headings and subheadings. • A very good, one-paragraph summary of the issues discussed in the paper is provided by the conclusion. 1 to 23 points • A good overview of the paper’s contents is provided by the introduction that includes a thesis statement identifying the problem and the research question(s). • A good title page, abstract, body, and reference list are included in the paper. • The body comprises the related literature, learning theories associated with the problem and research question(s), key term definitions, the identification of gaps and inconsistencies, a biblical worldview perspective proper headings and subheadings are missing. • A good, one-paragraph summary of issues discussed in the paper is provided by the conclusion. 0 points Not present Content 18 to 20 points • The problem and research question(s) are clearly addressed. • Excellent insight is provided regarding best practices/strategies to address the problem, improve the learning environment, and improve student achievement/motivation. • Excellent differing viewpoints are considered. 17 points • The problem and research question(s) are somewhat addressed. • Good insight is provided regarding best practices/strategies to address the problem, improve the learning environment, and improve student achievement/motivation. • Good differing viewpoints are considered. 1 to 16 points • The problem and research question(s) are minimally addressed. • Minimal insight is provided regarding best practices/strategies to address the problem, improve the learning environment, and improve student achievement/motivation. • Minimal differing viewpoints are considered. 0 points Not present Materials/Sources 11 points • The reference page contains a minimum of 10 scholarly sources. • All materials are properly cited and/or quoted in current APA style. • A minimum of 6 sources are published within the last 5 years. 9 to 10 points • The reference page contains 8 to-9 scholarly sources. • All materials cited and/or quoted contain some current APA errors. • A minimum of 5 sources are published within the past 5 years. 1 to 8 points • The reference page contains less than 7 sources. • All materials cited and/or quoted contain several current APA errors. • Four sources or less were published within the past 5 years. 0 points Not present Structure Advanced Proficient Developing Not present Mechanics 10 to 10 points • The body of the paper comprises 3,000–3,500 words. • The paper includes current APA formatting. • The paper includes correct spelling, punctuation, and grammar errors. 8 to 9 points • The body of the paper comprises at least 2,500 words. • The paper includes some errors in current APA formatting. • The paper includes some spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors. 1 to 7 points • The body of the paper comprises at least 2,000 words. • The paper includes several errors in current APA formatting. • The paper includes several spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors. 0 points Not present Running head: PARENTAL ACADEMIC EXPECTATIONS 1 PARENTAL ACADEMIC EXPECTATIONS 8 Parental Academic Expectations, Parental Involvement, and Socioeconomic Status: Applying Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs for a Greater Understanding Author Note Mary Jane I have no known conflict of interest to disclose. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mary Jane Email: [email protected] Abstract Academic achievement is a global concern with local issues. One of the greatest indicators for academic achievement is academic parental involvement, which develops high academic expectations. Due to federal, state, and local demands, schools are mandated to develop parental involvement programs to help bridge the gap from school to home and improve overall academic experiences and achievements. However, parents are faced with limited resources and numerous obstacles, which impede parental involvement and hampers high parental expectations. Numerous programs have been developed to minimize these obstacles. Still, parents have limited resources, and as those resources become less, parents must focus on basic needs. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs explains the decisions parents make regarding academic parental involvements and academic expectations. Keywords: academic parental involvement, academic expectations, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Parental Academic Expectations, Parental Involvement, and Socioeconomic Status: Applying Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs for a Greater Understanding Academic success is the general goal for teachers and schools; however, each year schools find themselves facing students who struggle for unknown reasons. School districts and individual schools use a report card, which typically reports academic achievement within various demographic categories: general education, special education, English learner, gender, ethnicity, and free or reduced lunch. Schools use these groupings as a way to identify where academic success is achieved or underachieved throughout various academic measures: reading, writing, math, etc. According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (2018), the Nation’s Report Card indicates that less than 50\% of students across the United States scored at or above proficient in all areas of academics: civics, geography, mathematics, reading, science, technology, U.S. history and writing. The No Child Left Behind Act required schools to be measured through standardized academic achievement, and the Race to the Top program reinforces excellent teaching through additional funding and support. With the emphasis on education management and measurement, it has become evident that a critical component schools face is parental involvement and high academic expectations. Academic achievement varies significantly by numerous demographics, including one’s socioeconomic status. While all men are created equal, income distribution and educational quality are far from equal. Schools in the United States are funded by federal, state, and local taxes, which means that if a school is located within an affluent community, it is more funded than those in poorer areas, which could provide a discrepancy in the resources and quality of services. In addition, students who attend less funded schools tend to live in homes with a lower socioeconomic status. As a result, these families struggle with the daily obligations of financial woes and resource management. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2016, there were 40 million people in the United States living in poverty and eighteen percent of all children in the United States living in poverty. As a result, these families experience much more than financial hardship; they also suffer from the consequences of limited resources. To make matters worse, there are more families in poverty, who are supported by a female householder without a male present, than there are families in poverty supported by a married couple (US Census, 2018). This means that in addition to having limited financial resources, the majority of these families are functioning with only one adult parent in the household. To meet basic needs, this one parent must typically provide the income of two working parents on a full-time basis, which means time spent at home or other leisure activities is limited. The single parent is responsible for working at least one job, paying for living expenses, grocery shopping, preparing meals, doing laundry, providing transportation and attending to a child’s education. With all the basic demands that daily life requires, there’s little time or energy that’s spent beyond survival. Since children’s education doesn’t fall within the survival category, many children who live in poverty go with less parental involvement or even parental academic expectations, which results in less academic achievement. Considering the tug of war parents face in balancing everyone’s needs, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs model may explain some of the variances with parental academic expectations. This makes one wonder how does a family’s income in the United States influence parental academic expectations? Background Countries around the world have established laws and regulations to enhance parental involvement, which increases academic expectations. According to Hornby (2011), a few of these national programs are: The United States’ No Child Left Behind policy, which encouraged schools to develop parent-school partnerships, The United Kingdom’s the Children’s Plan, which emphasizes the role and importance parents play in academic achievement, and the Schooling Strategy in New Zealand, which identifies improving parent-school relationships as a top-three priority. According to the United States Department of Education (1996), school districts receive direct funding and are mandated to develop and maintain parent partnerships, which bridge the gap from school to home. At this time, 17 states require school districts to develop and facilitate parental involvement policies. In addition, 7 states have required schools to incorporate parent programs and partnerships within their School Improvement Plan. Schools in the United States receive funds from Title I funds, which are federal funds that are in part meant to be used for developing and implementing school-parent partnerships and programs (Title I, 1996). In addition to these funds, many states provide financial support and mandate school-parent partnerships to be included in school improvement plans and still, parental expectations and parental involvement continue to be a challenge for school districts. To understand why these challenges, continue to exist, it’s important to examine the barriers that parents face. Hornby and Lafaele (2011) developed a model to understand the gaps between perceived parental involvement and the barriers parents face. This model identifies barriers to parental involvement in education and categorizes them into four components: individual parent and family factors, child factors, parent-teacher factors, and societal factors. Individual parent and family factors consist of parents’ individual thoughts and perceptions about parental involvement, parents’ present life circumstances and situations, parents’ views of requests or offers for participation and parents’ socioeconomic status, cultural identification and gender identification. Child-specific factors were elements directly related to the specific child: grade level, academic success or struggles, and were child factors such as age, learning talents, difficulties and disabilities, and behavior concerns. Parent-teacher factors related to perceived differences between parents and teachers regarding priorities, perceptions, values, and were parent-teacher factors such as the differing agendas, attitudes and communication gaps. Societal factors included cultural norms within the community such as background, cultures, financial and partisan, which could be perceived as barriers. The combination of the barriers creates a complex concern for teachers and schools to increase parental involvement in the school, which is a well-documented need for academic achievement. Hornby and Blackwell (2018) reviewed the original model to understand current barriers to parental involvement in the classroom. Their motivation was to see if the original barriers applied, and if there has been an improvement, lessening the gaps. They identified that the original gaps continue to exist; however, schools have taken a more active approach to engaging parents and encouraging parental participation. To help schools overcome these obstacles, eight forms of parental involvement have been identified: communication (school-to-parent and teacher-to-parent); liaison (translators and interpreters and parent-teacher associations); education (school and classroom expectations for student learning); support (resources to bridge the gaps and include parents in educational decisions); information (newsletters, emails, updates, and classroom communication); collaboration (parent and administration committees); resources (translated materials, school supplies, access to organizations, etc.); and, policy (regulations to improve and enhance parent participation as a part of school development and improvement). Understanding the historical applications of the model, its weaknesses, and implications help with a holistic perspective of school-parent policies, procedures, and programs. These barriers impact academic involvement, which has a direct impact on academic expectations and academic achievement; conversely, increased parental involvement and parental expectations benefit academic achievement. Hornby (2011) reported that parental involvement benefits children, teachers, and parents. Children were identified to be more successful in the school and have better attitudes toward the educational environment. Teachers reported that improved parent participation led to better parent-teacher relationships, teacher satisfaction, and school culture. The positive results have applied across gender, ethnicity, and grade-level differences. In addition, Wang and Sheikh-Khalil examined the effect parent involvement had on adolescent achievement (2013). As predicted, parental participation was identified to positively impact academic achievement. Since parental expectations increase with developing a relationship and investing time with schools, it has become an integral focus throughout studies and program implementations. As a result, schools are expected to develop parent-school partnerships and programs and close the gap between home and school with the intent of increasing academic achievement. Bowen, Hopson et al., (2012) conducted a longitudinal study and discovered that, “Parental expectations for behavior as students enter middle school was a predictor of academic outcomes three years later.” Another study consisting of 10,681 families with children in grades k-12 identified that, “Parental expectations were positively related….to positive school outcomes” (Froiland & Davison, 2013, p. 6). Loughlin-Presnal and Bierman (2017) reported, “parent academic expectations emerged as a primary mediator of childrens outcomes on measures of emergent literacy skills and teacher-rated self-directed learning” (p. 68). While benefits increased from parental involvement and increased academic expectations, the reverse is also true. Limited parental academic participation or decreased expectations have many causes and are directly tied to academic underachievement. Many researchers have identified various causes for poor academic achievement within schools; however, according to Loughlin-Presnal & Bierman (2017), “A number of prior studies have shown that parent academic expectations serve as a protective factor for child school outcomes in the face of adverse circumstances” (p. 69). Conversely, parents who have lower academic expectations lessen the “protective factor” for the child’s academic results, especially in at-risk groups. However, Robinson et al, (2014) provided a counter approach to parental involvement in education. While it seems natural that academic parental involvement increases academic achievement, the collective data from the National Education Longitudinal Study and the Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, which are both representative of national data collected and analyzed to determine contributions to academic achievement, indicate that academic parental involvement in some cases, improves educational achievement; however, when examining social classes and race differences, the results are not always positive. For example, “Black, Hispanic, Asian, socioeconomically disadvantaged and white parents” are all very similar in communicating the importance of education and encouraging academic growth (p. 2). However, these same groups show differences in the involvement within the schools, which may occur due to limited resources, limited access to the school due to transportation, logistics, and competing responsibilities. Regardless of the barriers, the level of academic achievement is barely influenced by parental involvement in the school; however, academic parental involvement within the home or a setting other than the school had the greatest positive effect. This may be in part due to parents’ overwhelming responsibilities and limited resources, especially parents within a lower socioeconomic demographic. Goss (2017) provided a culturally aware approach to examining barriers parents face while trying to participate in a child’s educational process. He found that Hispanic and African-American parents struggled more with school processes, and they perceive the school as a governmental agency with power, resulting in a power struggle between parent and school (representative). Parents received more acceptance when children were in elementary schools; however, as the grade level increased, so did the level of difficulty. Parents felt that school representatives and teachers perceived parents to have a hidden agenda and had to justify an interest in participating in the school or classroom. Numerous samples were provided that demonstrated perceived resistance from schools, especially if the parents inquired about school policies, procedures, specific student information, or the process to advocate on a student’s behalf. Some parents felt that schools intentionally blocked information and refused to return calls or emails, keeping parents in the dark. While schools provided opportunities for parental engagement, they were limited in scope to topics that were considered school-approved such as parenting. Occasionally, schools provided workshops, but they were generally inconvenient and unhelpful. In addition, Wang, Deng, and Yang (2016) identified strong relationships between family economic status and parental involvement. Since parental involvement has been shown to shield academic challenges, it is particularly needed for families who struggle economically. These families and students already have numerous obstacles to overcome, and this protection provides a buffer for students. Parental involvement can include volunteering at the school, attending pre-scheduled meetings like back-to-school nights or parent-teacher conferences, and participating in the management of the school through committees. Parental involvement benefits students through academic achievement, literacy development, grades, and long-term academic progression. This study recognizes the effects of self-efficacy and parents’ efforts due to perceived abilities. Specifically, low-income parents may perceive educators as experts and feel inadequate to support their children and schools. The perception of limited resources, insufficient knowledge, and communication struggles plays a role in parents’ comfort with academic participation. Whatever the barrier, real or perceived, intentional or accidental, academic parental participation and high academic expectations vary based upon demographics. Learning Theory Association Schunk (2016) provided an overall understanding of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs model. Maslow developed his model to understand the various needs humans have and their holistic motives. For example, if someone steals food, it doesn’t mean they enjoy stealing; instead, their need for food overpowers their need for societal belonging. Maslow’s model indicates that there are five hierarchical needs: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. These needs progress through human development and can be met simultaneously. However, lower-level needs such as physiological and safety must be met before an individual can progress through the high level of needs. The first four needs, physiological, safety, and belongingness are considered deprivational. That is, if one of these needs are not met, individuals will strive to accomplish them. Last, but not least, self-actualization is a much higher need that one can desire once the deprivational needs are met, and the person is in a state where he/she desires greater self-fulfillment. In addition, the first four needs are relatively identifiable; however, self-actualization can vary based on a person’s personal desires: parenthood, career ambitions, spiritual awareness, etc. Prince and Howard (2002) dissected Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and clarified how impoverished children from lower socioeconomic families receive a less adequate education, suffer from insufficient care, and are more likely to develop preventable medical conditions. These foretelling elements are not only predictors of academic achievement, but also indicate the customary care children receive. Poor children attend school with empty bellies, insecure housing, unsafe family arrangements, inadequate nutrition, and deprived wellbeing. As a result, they are not in a psychological condition to accept learning and be motivated to attend to the learning environment. For these children, many cannot even surpass the basic need of physiological demands, and their limited access to healthcare puts them at great risk for illness, disease and regular care, frequently resulting in conditions that could have been prevented with routine medical supervision. Their feelings of safety and security are hampered by their home environment or community; from violence to gangs, children in poverty struggle with feelings of a constant and secure home. Since these basic elements cannot be met, their sense of belonging and love is limited and must be reserved when other basic needs aren’t maintained. Key Terms Wang and Sheikh-Khalil (2013) developed a model to categorize the various types of academic parental involvement. The first type of academic parental involvement is parents participating in the school which could incorporate parent-teacher meetings, attending to extra-curricular or school-sponsored events, and volunteering. Another type of academic parental support is supporting academics in the home. This can be seen by parents developing a specific process for studies and overseeing school grades and assignments. Parental academic support can also be facilitating school-based academic socialization opportunities, which can look like parent to child conversations regarding the value of school and establishing, maintaining, and communicating high expectations for academic achievement. This would also include positive reinforcements, such as verbal praise and supporting long-term employment desires. In addition to understanding parental involvement, it’s important to determine characteristics of academic expectations. Alexander et al., (1994) defined parental academic expectations as, “realistic beliefs or judgments that parents have about their childrens future achievement as reflected in course grades, highest level of schooling attained, or college attendance” (p. 283). Gaps in the Research There is limited research and challenges associated with correlating the complex relationship between parental involvement and socioeconomic status (SES) . Stull (2013) examined the effect a family’s income, which is identified as socioeconomic status (SES) had upon parent expectations and academic achievement. To determine the strength of the relationship between the two, the study attempted to isolate the parental expectation from other indirect factors. This is important because minimal research has been done to identify the specific relationship. However, this study was able to recognize that as a family’s income rises, the parental expectations rise with it. One study considered external factors associated with SES. For example, as SES decreases, and parental involvement decreases, academic progress also decreases. One example of this is that pre-school children from lower SES household tend to have less sophisticated vocabulary than children from higher SES household. One study found that the parent’s SES secondarily correlated to academic achievement through the parent’s academic expectations. Another study identified that as parental income rises, a larger portion of that population expected their children to a graduate from college. Understanding that a parent’s SES is indirectly related to achievement creates the necessity for schools and government agencies to identify resources and provide additional interventions to buffer the educational gap and raise the bar. Some solutions provided include providing professional development for teachers in the area of cultural awareness and sensitivity, limiting the language gap through translation and interpretation services, and providing written school communication in the parents’ native language (Ozurk, 2013). Biblical Worldview Just as there are various levels of participation and expectations for academic achievement, there are different degrees of religious or spiritual beliefs. Sire (2009) presents seven universal questions to help differentiate nine unique perspectives. His questions include, “What is prime reality? What is the nature of external reality? What is a human being? What happens to a person at death? Why is it possible to know anything at all? How do we know what is right or wrong? What is the meaning of human history? What personal, life-orienting, core commitments are consistent with this worldview?” Using these core questions, we can see that Christians believe that Theism states that we are creations of God and are able to think because He has given us that ability, which separates us from all other living beings. In exchange, we are to follow in his word, fulfilling mankind’s purpose, and die, knowing that if we have accepted Him, our eternal salvation will be free of human suffering. Another common belief system is Naturalism, which views human existence through a scientific explanation. Using the cosmos, we are able to use reasoning and develop methods of science to understand the operations of the world. Upon the death of our bodies, which are made of chemical and physical properties, we return to the ground and no longer exist. Even more extreme is Nihilism, which describes human beings as machines, which do not have self-determination nor destiny; the future is pre-determined, and we cannot change or influence anything significant. Still, others have an Eastern belief system, a belief of many Gods (Hinduism), atman and reincarnation (Buddhism), and Allah, which denies the existence or acceptance of other gods. 1 Samuel 3: 13 (NIV) says, “For I told him that I would judge his family forever because of the sin he knew about; his sons blasphemed God, and he failed to restrain them.” Christian parents demonstrate their love for their children by protecting them and teaching them right and wrong, which includes praise and restraint. Parents have an obligation to correct and prevent the direction, beliefs, attitudes, and actions of their children. If parents do not take an active role in actively guiding beliefs, values, and behaviors, children are left to make a path for themselves and receive guidance, potentially misdirected, from others. In addition to spiritual guidance, parents should provide academic guidance and hold their children in the highest regard, expecting greatness and not limiting their potential. Conclusion There have been many programs established to bridge the gap, but the intervention should occur at the early years of education. As children grow older, parents become less involved in school, so establishing a relationship between parents and schools should be part of a normal routine during the lowest grade levels (pre-kindergarten, kindergarten, first grade, etc.). One of the ways schools can develop these relationships is to require parents to participate in classroom activities on a regular basis. For example, parents might need to invest one hour per month in the classroom or ten hours per school year. While this is not always feasible, parents who are unable to participate could contribute in other ways. According to Ðurišić and Bunijevac (2017) there are six models of parental involvement, which are: Protective Model, keeping parents and teachers separate, and parent involvement is considered unnecessary; Expert Model, the teacher is considered the expert and parents are recipients of knowledge; Transmission Model, teachers are still considered experts, but parental input is valuable; Curriculum-Enrichment Model, incorporates parents into the curriculum and instruction, which may cause chaos; Consumer Model, parents are the decision makers, and teachers concede; and Partnership Model, a recognition that teachers are experts for education; and parents are experts for their own children. Each model has its pros and cons, but schools should consider these models when developing future parental involvement programs. Academic expectations vary from individual to individual and from demographic to demographic. Some cultures place a significant value on education compared to others. There are also some who associate education with the government and feel threatened by potential relations with immigration enforcement, Children and Family Services, or other perceived “big brother” organization. There are many reasons why parents may have low academic expectations for their children. They, themselves, may be undereducated. They may lack the resources to support academic growth. They may not value education due to cultural, socio-economic, or familial reasons. Parents may also struggle with balancing family and work obligations and cannot dedicate the time and energy needed to invest in academic achievement. While parents may choose to participate and have high expectations, schools must continue to improve. As part of an organization that receives local, state, and federal funds, schools must maintain accountability. Administration, teachers, and parents need to work together to develop successful programs that support students’ needs, minimize the barriers for all, and enhance academic achievement, so all can be successful. References Alexander, K., Entwisle, D., & Bedinger, S. (1994). When Expectations Work: Race and Socioeconomic Differences in School Performance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(4), 283-299. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2787156 Bowen, G. L., Hopson, L. M., Rose, R. A., & Glennie, E. J. (2012). Students Perceived Parental School Behavior Expectations and Their Academic Performance: A Longitudinal Analysis. Family Relations, 61(2), 175-191. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00695.x Ðurišić, M., & Bunijevac, M. (2017). Parental involvement as an important factor for successful education. CEPS Journal : Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(3), 137-153. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/1952387265?accountid=12085 Froiland, J. M., & Davison, M. L. (2013). Parental expectations and school relationships as contributors to adolescents’ positive outcomes. Social Psychology of Education, 17(1), 1- 17. doi:10.1007/s11218-013-9237-3 Goss, A. C. (2017). Power to Engage, Power to Resist: A Structuration Analysis of Barriers to Parental Involvement. Education and Urban Society, 001312451774736. doi:10.1177/0013124517747363 Hornby, G. (2011). Parental involvement in childhood education building effective school-family partnerships. New York: Springer. doi:https://doiorg.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1007/978-1-4419-8379-4 Hornby, G., & Blackwell, I. (2018). Barriers to parental involvement in education: An update. Educational Review, 70(1), 109-119. doi:10.1080/00131911.2018.1388612 Hornby, G., & Lafaele, R. (2011). Barriers to parental involvement in education: An explanatory model. Educational Review, 63(1), 37-52. doi:10.1080/00131911.2010.488049 Loughlin-Presnal, J. E., & Bierman, K. L. (2017). Promoting parent academic expectations predicts improved school outcomes for low-income children entering kindergarten. Journal of School Psychology,62, 67-80. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2017.03.007 NAEP Nations Report Card - National Assessment of Educational Progress - …