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Intrapersonal changes – Discuss identity statuses using Marcia’s definition. Provide examples to support your statements  450 words Adolescence, 12e Laurence Steinberg Chapter 8 – identity Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Chapter 8 – identity Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 1 Chapter 8 Overview (1) Identity as an Adolescent Issue Puberty and Identity Development Cognitive Change and Identify Development Social Roles and Identity Development Changes in Self-Conceptions Changes in the Content and Structure of Self-Conceptions Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence Changes in Self-Esteem Stability and Changes in Self-Esteem Group Differences in Self-Esteem Antecedents and Consequences of High Self-Esteem Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2 Chapter 8 Overview (2) The Adolescent Identity Crisis Erikson’s Theoretical Framework The Social Context of Identity Development Problems in Identity Development Research on Identity Development Determining an Adolescent’s Identity Status Studying Identity Development over Time Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 3 Chapter 8 Overview (3) Identity and Ethnicity The Development of Ethnic Identity Discrimination and Its Effects Multiethnic Adolescents Identity and Gender Gender-Role Development Gender-Role Socialization During Adolescence Masculinity and Femininity Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 4 Identity as an Adolescent Issue (1) The way young people view and feel about themselves changes over time. Adolescence marks the first restructuring of one’s sense of self at a time when he or she can appreciate the significance of these changes. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 5 Identity As an Adolescent Issue (2) Puberty and Identity Development Fundamental biological, cognitive, and social changes Fluctuations in self-esteem and self-conceptions Cognitive Change and Identity Development Possible selves: The various identities an adolescent might imagine for him- or herself Future orientation: The extent to which an individual is able and inclined to think about the potential consequences of decisions and choices Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6 Identity As an Adolescent Issue (3) Social Roles and Identity Development Self-conceptions: The collection of traits and attributes that individuals use to describe or characterize themselves Self-esteem: The degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about themselves Sense of identity: The extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are and who they are becoming Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 7 Changes in Self-Conceptions As adolescents mature intellectually, they come to conceive of themselves in more sophisticated and more differentiated ways. More capable of considering abstract concepts than children More able to process large amounts of information More likely to use complex, abstract, psychological self-characterizations Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 8 Changes in the content and Structure of Self-Conceptions (1) Differentiation of the Self-Concept Link traits and attributes describing themselves to specific situations Take into account who is doing the describing Organization and Integration of the Self-Concept Shift toward differentiation in self-conceptions accompanied by better organization and integration Recognition of multifaceted, contradictory personality Initial stress about inconsistencies; recognition of advantages in long run Able to distinguish between one’s self (who one really is), ideal self (who one would like to be), and feared self (who one most dreads becoming) Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 9 Changes in the content and Structure of Self-Conceptions (2) Figure 8.1: During early adolescence, American teenagers increasingly describe themselves with reference to their social and personal characteristics. In contrast, Chinese teenagers use these sorts of descriptions less and less. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 1 10 Changes in the content and Structure of Self-Conceptions (3) False-Self Behavior Adolescents become able to distinguish between their authentic and inauthentic selves. False-self behavior: Behavior that intentionally presents a false impression to others They dislike false-self behavior, but also believe it is sometimes acceptable. Adolescents differ in the degrees of and reasons for presenting false fronts. False-self behavior is linked to increased depression and hopelessness. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 11 Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence (1) The five-factor model: The theory that there are five basic dimensions to personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience There are both genetic and environmental influences on personality, although the environment becomes somewhat more important as people age. Both temperament and personality become increasingly stable as we grow older. Despite popular stereotypes, research does not show that adolescence is a time of tumultuous upheaval in personality. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 12 Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence (2) Figure 8.2: Personality becomes increasingly stable over the course of adolescence. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 1 13 Changes in Self-Esteem (1) Stability and Changes in Self-Esteem Stability: The extent to which individuals’ relative ranking within a group on a particular trait stays more or less the same over time Self-esteem becomes increasingly stable during adolescence. Self-consciousness: The degree to which an individual is preoccupied with his or her self-image Self-image stability: The degree to which an individual’s self-image changes from day to day Self-image fluctuations are most likely between the ages of 12 and 14. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 14 Changes in Self-Esteem (2) Fluctuations in self-image during early adolescence are probably due to several factors: Egocentrism may make young adolescents painfully aware of others’ reactions to their behavior. Adolescents learn that it is not always possible to tell what people are thinking on the basis of how they act or what they say. Adolescents are especially interested in their peers’ opinions of them. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Changes in Self-Esteem (3) The Wrong Question? Studies of age differences in self-esteem hide differences among people of same age. Critics question the study of self-esteem in the general sense because an individual may have varied self-esteem levels in different areas. Components of Self-Esteem Even within broad domains of self-esteem, adolescents often have differentiated views of themselves. Some aspects of self-esteem contribute more to overall self-image than others. Adolescents are often unaware of what contributes most to their self-esteem. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Changes in Self-Esteem (4) Figure 8.3: Adolescents’ self-esteem is more linked to their feelings about their physical attractiveness than anything else. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 2 17 Group Differences in Self-Esteem (1) Sex Differences Boys’ self-esteem is generally higher than girls’ self-esteem. Sex differences become smaller over course of adolescence. Sex differences are more pronounced among White and Hispanic teens. They are less pronounced among Black teens. The sex difference is likely linked to the high concern girls have about physical attractiveness. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 18 Group Differences in Self-Esteem (2) Ethnic differences Black adolescents’ self-esteem is generally higher than White adolescents’, which is higher than that of Hispanics, Asians, or Native Americans. Black adolescents generally have support and positive feedback from adults in Black community. Strong sense of ethnic identity enhances overall self-esteem. Different ethnic groups have different patterns of change in self-esteem. Ethnic diversity has substantial impact on self-image. Those in the minority are more prone to self-esteem problems. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 19 Group Differences in Self-Esteem (3) Figure 8.4: Ethnic differences in patterns of self-esteem over time. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 5 20 Antecedents and Consequences of High Self-Esteem (1) Influences on Self-Esteem Approval of others, especially parents and peers, enhances it. Success in school enhances it. The same influences are found in almost all ethnic and cultural groups. When approval of others has too much power, adolescents are at risk of self-image problems. Self-esteem derived from peers, rather than teachers or parents, leads to more behavioral problems and poorer school achievement. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 21 Antecedents and Consequences of High Self-Esteem (2) Consequences of High or Low Self-Esteem Academic success leads to improvements in how adolescents feel about themselves, but the reverse is not true. High self-esteem enhances adolescents’ well-being. Low self-esteem may lead to mental health, emotional, and behavioral problems, but the relationship is complicated. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Adolescent Identity Crisis Erikson’s Theoretical Framework Erikson viewed the person as moving through eight psychological crises throughout lifetime. Identity versus identity diffusion: According to Erikson, the normative crisis characteristic of the fifth stage of psychosocial development, predominant during adolescence Not until adolescence does one have the mental or emotional capacity to achieve a balanced, coherent sense of identity. Developing an identity is a social and mental process. Adolescent’s identity results from mutual recognition between the young person and society. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 23 Consequences of High or Low Self-Esteem Figure 8.5: Low self-esteem often discourages adolescents from seeking out social support from others, which can lead to feelings of loneliness. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 6 24 The Social Context of Identity Development (1) The course of identity development varies by culture and historical era. The social context also affects whether the search for self-definition will be a manageable challenge or a full-blown crisis. The more alternatives are available, the more difficult it is to establish a sense of identity. Because of the rapid rate of social change, the likelihood of experiencing a prolonged and difficult identity crisis is greater today than previously. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 25 The Social Context of Identity Development (2) The Psychosocial Moratorium Psychosocial moratorium: A period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities. It is necessary due to complications of identity development in modern society, according to Erikson. It is an important prelude to establishing a coherent sense of identity. Some consider it a luxury of the affluent. According to Erikson, loss of psychosocial moratorium means lost potential. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 26 The Social Context of Identity Development (3) Resolving the Identity Crisis Establishes a sense of sameness, continuity between past and future Takes a long time Best viewed as a series of identity crises Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 27 The Social Context of Identity Development (4) Figure 8.6: The process of identity development is a cycle of making commitments, exploring them in depth, reconsidering them, and revising them. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 6 28 Problems in Identity Development (1) Problems in identity development commonly result when someone has not successfully resolved earlier crises. They may also happen when the adolescent is in an environment that does not provide the necessary period of moratorium. Erikson focused on three different problems: Identity diffusion Identity foreclosure Negative identity Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 29 Problems in Identity Development (2) Identity Diffusion Identity diffusion: The incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self characteristic of not having resolved the crisis of identity Mild or severe Disruptions in sense of time Excessive self-consciousness and difficulty making decisions Work and school issues Difficulties forming intimate relationships Concerns over sexuality Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 30 Problems in Identity Development (3) Identity Foreclosure Identity foreclosure: The premature establishment of a sense of identity, before sufficient role experimentation has occurred Some skip exploration and experimentation that leads to sense of identity. Roles adopted in identity foreclosure often revolve around goals set by parents or other authority figures. It interferes with individual’s discovery of full range of potential. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 31 Problems in Identity Development (4) Negative Identity Negative identity: The selection of an identity that is obviously undesirable in the eyes of significant others and the broader community Usually, this is an attempt to forge sense of self-definition when it is difficult to establish an acceptable identity. Most would rather be somebody “bad” than nobody at all. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 32 Research on Identity Development Identity status: The point in the identity development process that characterizes an adolescent at a given time Researchers have used a variety of approaches to determine an individual’s identity status: Exploration and commitment Exploration in “depth” and exploration in “breadth” Dynamic process involving alternating commitment and exploration Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 33 Determining an Adolescent’s Identity Status (1) In identity status research, individuals are assigned one to four identity states based on their responses to questions: Identity achievement: the individual has established a coherent sense of identity. Moratorium: the individual is in the midst of a period of exploration. Identity foreclosure: the individual has made commitments but without a period of exploration. Identity diffusion: the individual does not have firm commitments and is not currently trying to make them. Research employing this approach has supported many aspects of Erikson’s theory. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 34 Determining an Adolescent’s Identity Status (2) Ways of Resolving the Identity Crisis Individuals may take “informational” versus “normative” versus “diffuse/avoidant” orientation. Some studies link classifications based on identity development measures to scores on the five-factor model of personality. Defining characteristic of individuals who achieve a coherent sense of identity is approaching life’s decisions with a strong sense of agency. Agency: The sense that one has an impact on one’s world Generally, individuals whose identity development is healthy are more likely to come from authoritative homes. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 35 Studying Identity Development Over Time Conclusions of cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies: Identity is generally not established before age 18. Identity status changes are less systematic than previously believed. “Identity achievement,” like “foreclosure,” may be temporary. Some adolescents and young adults are perpetually confused about who they are. Some adolescents and young adults constantly explore and experiment. The factors associated with changing from one identity status to another are not well understood. The role of college attendance in identity development is also unclear. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 36 Identity and Ethnicity Ethnic identity: The aspect of individuals’ sense of identity concerning ancestry or racial group membership. Ethnic identity development in America: Generally weakest in White youth White adolescents less likely than Black, Latino, or Asian adolescents to explore their ethnic identity or feel strong commitment to it Among immigrant adolescents, vacillation between identifying as a member of a broad ethnic category or a group defined by country of origin Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 37 The Development of Ethnic Identity (1) The process of ethnic identity development is similar to the process of identity development in general. Unquestioning view of oneself is displaced or upset by a crisis. Period of exploration occurs after crisis. Development of ethic identity is strongly influenced by context. Ethnic socialization: The process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background, also referred to as racial socialization Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Development of Ethnic Identity (2) Ethnic socialization generally focuses on three themes: Understanding and valuing one’s culture Dealing with racism Succeeding in mainstream society Positive mental health among ethnic minority adolescents is associated with biculturalism. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Development of Ethnic Identity (3) Figure 8.7: In the United States, the development of ethnic identity is a far less salient issue for White adolescents than for those from other ethnic groups. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 6 40 The Development of Ethnic Identity (4) Recent Immigrants Report high levels of academic, familial, social, and economic stress Express more positive feelings about mainstream American ideals than counterparts whose families have been in American longer Perform better in school and are less prone toward delinquent behavior or various problems than adolescents from the same ethnic group with U.S.-born parents Immigrant paradox: The fact that on many measures of psychological functioning and mental health, adolescents who have immigrated more recently to the United States score higher on measures of adjustment than adolescents from the same ethnic group whose family has lived in the United States for several generations Identity development influenced by context in which family lives Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Discrimination and Its effects (1) The development of a coherent sense of identity is far more complicated for adolescents who are members of the minority. The social context of minority adolescents often includes the following: Racial stereotypes Discrimination Mixed messages about identifying with majority culture Discrimination has negative psychological effects: Conduct problems Depression Poor sleep Lower school achievement Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Discrimination and Its Effects (2) Figure 8.8: One pathway linking perceived discrimination to antisocial behavior is through the impact of discrimination on depression and alienation, which leads adolescents to affiliate with antisocial peers. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 8 43 Discrimination and Its effects (3) Ethnic identity appears to be an important factor in the following: The extent to which people feel discriminated against The extent to which they are adversely affected by it. Multidimensional model of racial identity: A perspective on ethnic identity that emphasizes three different phenomena: racial centrality (how important race is in defining individuals’ identity), private regard (how individuals feel about being a member of their race), and public regard (how individuals think others feel about their race) The impact of having race as a central part of one’s identity is complicated. Makes adolescents more sensitive to discrimination May make them more able to cope with it Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Multiethnic Adolescents Multiethnic: Having two parents of different ethnic or racial backgrounds Numbers have grown in recent years. Developing consistent ethnic identity is challenging. Many change their racial identity over time. They are more likely to have an ethnic identity that doesn’t match their classmates’ perceptions, which can cause distress and low self-esteem. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Identity and Gender (1) Three different concepts: Gender identity: One’s sense of oneself as male, female, or transgender Sexual orientation: Whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex, or both Gender-role behavior: The extent to which an individual behaviors in traditionally “masculine” or “feminine” ways Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 46 Identity and Gender (2) There is no one set way for people to discover, come to terms with, and disclose their sexual orientation. Concerns about identity, intimacy, and sexuality are common challenges for teenagers, but prejudice and ignorance may cause additional psychological distress for sexual-minority adolescents. Transgender: Having a gender identity that differs from the sex one was assigned at birth Little research has been done on the psychological development and mental health of transgender adolescents. Many experts believe gender identity, sexual orientation, and gender-role behavior should be viewed as fluid rather than fixed. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 47 Gender-Role Development There are far more similarities than differences between sexes. Gender-Role Socialization During Adolescence Many people hold beliefs about sex-appropriate behavior. Gender Intensification Hypothesis: The idea that pressures to behave in sex-appropriate ways intensify during adolescence Beliefs about gender roles become more flexible as individuals move through adolescence. Social pressures may drive teenagers toward more gender-stereotypic behavior. The environment has a much stronger effect on gender-role behavior than biology. Not all studies find an increase in gender-stereotyped behavior in middle adolescence. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 48 Masculinity and …