Fluent Essays

This discussion topic is to be reflective of the course material.  Therefore, use your own words to respond to the following questions: What other topics would you have liked to have covered in this course? What reading did you find most interesting and why? How has this course changed your perspective or outlook moving forward? Any other topic of interest that you would like to add. Organizational Leadership John Bratton 1 Part 3 Managing people and leadership 2 Talent management and leadership Chapter 10 3 Learning outcomes After completing this chapter, you should be able to explain and evaluate: The nature of talent and the complexities and organizational challenges surrounding talent management. Leaders’ and line manages’ roles in talent management and capacity building. The value and limitations of talent collaborations, and. The critical research that challenges the mantra of ‘talent are our most valuable asset’. 4 The nature of talent and talent management (TM) Early conceptualization of TM focused on human resource planning and recruitment activities. Meyers and van Woerkom (2014, p.192), argue that TM comprises ‘the systematic utilization of human resource management…activities to attract, identify, develop, and retain individuals who are considered to be ‘talented’’ – reflects the potential scope of TM, which often extends to HRM practices such as employer branding (to attract talented people), training, rewards, employee engagement designed to motivate and retain talent and, where recognized, engage with trade unions. 5 The nature of talent and talent management (TM) Contemporary definitions of TM encompass a complex range of policies and practices that often pervade every aspect of the ‘employment journey’ from the point of entry – attracting and recruiting talented people – through to ensuring high performance, commitment and retention – and ultimately long-term growth through work. Crowley-Henry and Ariss (2018) depicted that managers must first agree how to define talent in order to create a framework for shaping TM. 6 Who are ‘talent’? The extent to which an organization relies upon its ability to recruit high-quality candidates from its external labour market (Swailes et al., 2014) The extent to which it needs or wishes to grow its own talent and develop employees more organically from within the organization (Swailes et al., 2014) The nature of talent and talent management (TM) 7 Exclusive and Inclusive Talent Management Exclusive – targets people within the organization based on either their current high performance or predicted high potential to fulfil critical roles Inclusive – targets everyone within the organization through providing fair and equal access to career development and progression opportunities to all employees (Swailes et al., 2014) The nature of talent and talent management (TM) 8 Leading and managing talent Avedon and Scholes (2010, p.92) note that ‘Nothing defines success better than when the talent management practices are so ingrained in the organization that they are part of the management culture’. This illustrates the importance of both senior leaders and line managers of mobilizing and managing an organization’s talent, especially through their daily actions. Workforce planning – leaders know what is lacking and required to fill the gap. Talent attraction – quite depending on the reputation of an organization plus a strong employee value proposition (EVP) to attract the people who are likely to perform best within its culture. 9 Leading and managing talent Performance and reward management – a process utilized to identify, rate and reward talent and high potential, and to formulate learning and career development plans that are reflective of performance ratings. Talent development – investing in talent training and development in order to update employee skills, improve job performance, and develop the competencies and dynamic capabilities that employees need to meet the strategic objectives of their organizations. Talent mobilization – to facilitate continuous development and mobilization of talent applicable as required. 10 Collaborative talent management Within an organization (intra-organizational collaboration) or it may span two or more independent organizations (inter-organizational collaboration). Advantages: Facilitate the sharing and generation of new knowledge and innovation Improve the efficacy of working practices through pooling resources such as technology, facilities and finance – indirectly avoiding unnecessary duplication and improving the end-to-end journey of the customer or service user 11 Critiquing the talent management debate Much of HRM research did not adequately emphasize structured antagonisms and contradictions (Thompson and McHugh, 2009). Mainstream HRM and TM researchers have routinely neglected or marginalized those most directly impacted by HR policies and practices – the employees (e.g. Delbridge and Keenoy, 2010; Thunnissen et al., 2013). Many mainstream HRM researchers have largely failed to subject HR practices to a critical scrutiny of unintended consequences and paradox theory (Bratton and Gold, 2017), or the ‘collateral damage’, resulting from their application (Delbridge and Keenoy, 2010, p.803). 12 Critiquing the talent management debate Leaders need to address the question of ‘talent for what?’ (Thunnissen, 2016). There has been a failure to critically scrutinize the ‘unintended consequences’ and, in particular, how the ‘talent paradox’ plays out between the actors (Daubner-Siva et al., 2018, p.75). 13 Organizational Leadership John Bratton Part 3 Managing people and leadership 2 HRM and leadership Chapter 9 3 Learning outcomes After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Define human resource management (HRM) and its relation to organizational leadership. Appreciate the scope and functions of HRM. Explain and evaluate the different theoretical approaches to studying HRM. Assess the contribution of HRM to individual and organizational performance. Critique assumptions found in mainstream HRM literature. 4 Introduction Organizations are dependent on suitably talented people who have knowledge and skills, working with physical and financial resources, which will add value and create a viable business or service. By understanding the role of HRM, it helps to provide a framework understanding subsequent chapters on managing and developing people and leading change (Chapters 12-17). 5 The nature of HRM The early studies exposed ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ versions of HRM (Legge, 1989): ‘Soft’ approach – highly relevant to leadership as it emphasizes human interactions, focusing on motivation, development, communications and thus, the quality of leader-follower relations. ‘Hard’ approach - views people as a commodity or ‘human resource’ that has a price (wage) and needs to be managed in the same way as other factors. 6 The nature of HRM Bratton and Gold (2017) defined HRM as: A strategic approach to managing employment relations which emphasizes that leveraging people’s capabilities and commitment is critical to achieving sustainable competitive advantage or superior public services. This is accomplished through a distinctive set of integrated employment policies, programmes and practices, embedded in an organizational and societal context’ (p. 5). 7 The nature of HRM This definition: emphasises the goals that underpin the processes, that applies organizational behaviour (OB) and leadership knowledge to leverage people’s potential capabilities to enhance individual and organizational performance. conceives HRM as embedded in a capitalist society and its associated ideologies and global structures. remind leaders that human knowledge and skills are a strategic resource that needs investment and adroit management. 8 Scope and functions of HRM Managing employment relationships in the workplace is the core of HRM. 3 major subdomains of HRM knowledge were identified (Boxall et al., 2008): Micro (MHRM) – largest subdomain, managing individual employees and small work groups. Strategic (SHRM) – revolves around the processes of linking HR strategies with business strategies and measures the effects on organizational performance (see Chapter 2). International (IHRM) – focuses on the management of people in global companies operating in more than one country. 9 Micro HRM activities Key MHRM: Workforce planning Recruitment and selection Performance appraisal Training and development Rewards Employee relations HR strategy and leadership 10 Theorizing HRM Models are important because they provide an analytical framework for studying HRM. The Michigan Model of HRM (Fombrun et al., 1984) Focus: selection, appraisal, training and rewards. The Harvard Model of HRM ( Beer et al., 1984) Focus: situational factors, stakeholder interests, HRM policy choices, HR outcomes, long-term consequences and a feedback loop through which the outputs flow directly into the organization and to the stakeholders. 11 Theorizing HRM The Storey Model of HRM (Storey, 2007) Focus: beliefs and assumptions, strategic qualities, critical role of managers and key levers. The Ulrich Business Partner Model (Ulrich, 1997) Focus: strategic partner, change agent, administrative expert, employee champion. 12 HRM & leadership How does HRM contribute to the leadership process? Does HRM make a difference to individual and organizational performance? 13 Critiquing the HRM discourse Ambiguities in the ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ schools of HRM (Legge, 2005). Selection ‘best’ HR practice has tended to be viewed in terms of standardizing and objectifying the selection process (Townley, 1994). Conflict is structured into the management of pay. ‘Trust relationships between managements and workforces are typically lacking’ observes Hutton (2015, p. 181). HR practices have given rise to a shift from long-term ‘relational’ employment contracts between the employer and the employee towards short-term ‘transactional’ and ‘precarious’ contracts, which contradicts the goal of follower commitment and cooperation and relational leadership values. 14 Organizational Leadership John Bratton Part 1 Contextualising leadership 2 Strategic management, innovation and leadership Chapter 2 3 Learning outcomes After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the external and internal contexts of work organizations and the potential implications for leader-followers relations and behaviours; Discuss the proposition that neoliberalism has shaped the role of leadership Analyze the factors driving innovation and the leaders’ roles in facilitating the process 4 Introduction Until recently, academic interest in the role of context has been ‘limited’ to examining the links between economic-political crises and charismatic leadership (Conger, 2011). This is because few leadership scholars have a ‘macro’ or political economy background and, further, any contextual investigations are complicated by the fact that individual leaders and followers will perceive the relative importance of any contextual changes differently. The aim of this chapter is to provide a sketch of the contexts that affects leadership dynamics. But we also have to bear in mind that corporate leaders attempt to change the external context. The chapter proceeds to examine innovation, its drivers and the role of leadership in promoting innovation. 5 Strategic management Whether in private or public sector organizations, a successful strategy is consistent with the organization’s environment and with its internal goals, resources, capabilities and shared values. But an important antecedent is corporate ideology that influences strategic decisions by senior executives. Strategic management is best defined as a continuous process that requires the constant adjustment of three major, interdependent poles: the values of senior management, the resources available and the environment (Figure 2.1). 6 Strategic management 7 Strategic management Environment operates at macro (external to an organization, i.e. industry level, economic) and micro level (specific environment, i.e. processes within the organization). Elements in the macro environment constantly penetrate into the micro environment, and affect an individual organization. Conventional Strategic Management Process: Mission and Goals Organization’s direction and outcomes to be accomplish Environmental Analysis Macro – STEEPLE Micro – SWOT or PRIMO-F 8 Strategic management Strategic Formulation Evaluation of factors and choices made to meet goals Strategy Implementation Leadership – adaptation and development of a strategy, and gaining support and commitment of those who are expected to carry it out Strategy Evaluation Activity that determines whether the actual change and performance matches what has been planned to what extent 9 Strategic management However, this process only shows how strategic management should be done rather than describing what is actually done by senior managers. Again, strategy is a political process undertaken by people with power and who are influenced by ideology. 10 Macro environment Socio-cultural, Technology, Economic, Ecology, Politics, Legal, Ethical Micro environment People, Resources, Innovation, Marketing, Operations - Finance & Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats A framework for studying strategy and leadership 11 A framework for studying strategy and leadership A hierarchy of strategy Corporate-level strategy Business-level strategy Functional-level strategy Team-level strategy Levels of leadership Organizational performance 12 A framework for studying strategy and leadership 13 The nature of innovation Innovation can be defined as the process of coming up with good, new ideas and making them work technically and commercially (Tidd and Bessant, 2018). Innovation therefore only counts as innovation, if it produces something that ultimately will be sold to customers, or, in the public sector, that will result in ‘more for less’ (Parker, 2018, p. 30). Incremental innovations enable organizations to ‘do things better’. Over time, and in cumulative form, incremental innovations can produce significant changes. Breakthrough innovations enable organizations to ‘do things different’ (Bessant, 2003). 14 The nature of innovation Product innovation Process innovation Disruptive innovation is a common pattern of innovation (Christensen, 2016). 15 The external and internal contexts driving or disables innovation External Globalization Market opportunities Competitive pressures Changes in laws and regulations Changes in available technologies Internal Available knowledge and resources Positive innovation strategies Organizational cultures and practices 16 The leaders’ roles in innovation processes 17 The leaders’ roles in innovation processes Individuals in leadership roles therefore need to be able to work well together in order to exercise shared leadership (Bolden and O’Regan, 2016). Leadership of different types is thought to be needed at different stages of the innovation process. There need to be a balance of exploration (search for new knowledge and ideas) and exploitation (of what is already known), also known as ambidexterity to realize an innovation process. E.g. Transformation and transactional leadership 18 Evaluation and criticism Neoliberalism has been criticised as not just as something that has created the atomization of labour through strict regulation and strengthen management’s ‘right to manage’; it is also emphasized to be more than just the economic system – it has a political and ideological agenda. This leads to corporate ideology where the major beliefs and values provided by leaders form the frame of reference for decision-making and action (lets us to understand how the employment relationship is managed). 19 Evaluation and criticism This idea continues to be aided by other organizations such as business schools, ‘think tanks’ and the media as “apparatus of justification” to continue spreading and formulation of these neoliberal ideas, such as shareholder value – illustrating that this is the way to do things and how the world is viewed. Power blind becomes an important matter in discussion of the strategy literature. Charismatic leaders also are romanticized as innovation enablers, while other key variables such as employees with creativity or the state is being ignored or downplayed. 20 Organizational Leadership John Bratton Part 1 Contextualising leadership The nature of leadership Chapter 1 3 Learning outcomes After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the nature of leadership and the apparent difference between leadership and management Explain the essence of classical and contemporary trends in leadership theories Discuss how the trends in leadership theories are connected to changes in global capitalism competing theories of organizational design 4 Introduction Many of today’s challenges are complex and the public look upon leaders for solutions or for someone to blame when crises present themselves. With organizational change seems near-constant and necessitates leadership, this book critically examines the role of leaders in managing organizational change and people across different contexts in both private and public organizations and, in an area which is less frequently studied, in promoting innovation and pro-environmental change in the context of managerial rationales, constraints and opportunities. 5 Defining leadership 2000 years ago, The first serious attempt to develop a theory of leadership can be found in Plato’s The Republic (Grint, 1997). 16th- century, Machiavelli’s The Prince attached great importance to the role of leaders in shaping societal events. Over the centuries, Examples illustrating the central role of individual leaders is repetitively found in English history such as Winston Churchill in the Second World War. 6 Defining leadership This continuous interest in leadership is the very common assumption that ‘great’ leaders profoundly shape events in society. Plus, the growth of industrial capitalism give rise in the studies of organizational leadership. 20th century, Leadership research is further driven by both the military and manufacturing demands of two world wars, the development of the capitalist global economy and the preoccupation of organizations and government with competitiveness. 7 Defining leadership 8 Competing Definitions of Organizational Leadership Behaviour Leadership may be defined as the behaviour of an individual while he [sic] is involved in directing group activities (Hemphill and Coons, 1957, p. 7). Leadership… acts by persons which influence other persons in a shared direction (Seeman, 1960, p. 53). Power Leadership is a particular type of power relationship characterized by a group member’s perception that another group member has the right to prescribe behaviour patterns for the former regarding his [sic] activity as a member of a particular group (Janda, 1960, p. 358). Process Leadership is the reciprocal process of mobilizing by persons with certain motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources, in a context of competition and conflict, in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by both leaders and followers (Burns, 1978, 425). Leadership is a formal or informal contextually rooted and goal-influencing process that occurs between a leader and a follower, groups of followers, or institutions (Antonakis and Day, 2018, 5). Traits / Attributes Interaction Interaction between specific traits of one person and other traits of the many, in such a way that the course of action of the many is changed by the one (Bogardus, 1934, p. 3). Defining leadership For the purposes of this book, we use the following definition: Organizational leadership is a process of influencing within an employment relationship involving ongoing human interaction with others wherein those others consent to achieve a goal. 9 Defining leadership The definition captures the following information: Organizational leadership is a dialectical process (act) embedded in a context of both cooperation and structural conflict, which may affect the style of leadership adopted. Process also implies that a leader affects and is affected by the ‘psychological contract’, a metaphor for a perceived set of expectations and understandings between employees and employers, an important concept in people management (Rousseau, 1995). 10 Defining leadership Leadership is an influencing process occurring both directly and indirectly among others within formal employment relations. The influence process may involve only a single leader, such as a CEO, or it may encompass numerous leaders in the organization. It is ultimately concerned with achieving a particular goal, and goal achievement will be a measure of its effectiveness. 11 Leadership and management Questions like what do managers do and what do leaders do helps us to understand their roles. A manager therefore can undertake a diverse range of roles within an organization. It is important to note here that more than one individual can perform a leadership role. That is, leadership can be shared or distributed in the organization. The opportunity to perform certain roles will depend on the manager’s position in the organization’s hierarchy, the nature of the work undertaken and the level of education of her or his co-workers. 12 Leadership and management Role of Managers Central to achieving control and decision by mainstream management literature Deal with uncertainties, resistance and conflicts by critical studies Analysing and designing work systems that minimized skill requirements while maximizing management control over the workforce by Frederick W. Taylor (1911) 13 Leadership and management Classic Fayolian Management Cycle (PDOC) by Henry Fayol Three set of behaviours by Mintzberg (1989) Interconnected Three Dimensional Model by Squires (2001) It is also note that critical studies studies have challenged the universality of managerial behaviour, and have emphasized the importance of factoring into the analysis of management diversity: including gender, race, sexuality and consideration of cultural mores that prevail. 14 Leadership and management Roles of Leaders Although both ‘managing’ and ‘leading’ can potentially coexist in the same individual, mainstream leadership scholars since Zaleznik’s (1977) have argued that managers and leaders are in fact different and that leadership and management are different. 15 Leadership and management Role of Managers Role of Leaders Acting as the figurehead Establishing direction Liaising with other managers Communicating direction Developing subordinates Encouraging emotion Planning Empowering others Handling conflicts Influencing Negotiating Challenging status quo Monitoring information Motivating and inspiring others Directing subordinates Modelling the direction Allocating resources Building a team Produces potential predictability Produces radical change Based on Hales (1986), Kotter (2012) and Kouzes and Posner (2017). 16 Leadership and management Leaders create a vision and the strategy to achieve vs Managers choose the means to implement the vision created by the leader. Leaders operate at an emotional level, seeking to appeal to followers’ emotions vs Managers operate logically and value rationality. Leaders encourage empowerment vs Managers encourage compliance. Leadership is a value-laden activity vs Management is not. 17 Leadership and management Leaders are change agents associated with ‘episodic’ (Weick and Quinn, 1999) / ‘revolutionary’ (Burke, 2014) / vuja de (never seen before) (Grint, 2006) vs Managers are associated with ‘continuous’ or ‘evolutionary’ change / déjà vu (seen before). Kouzes and Posner (1997), also mentioned that exemplary leadership entails ‘challenging the process’. Bernard Bass (1990) observed that not all managers lead and not all leaders manage, and an employee, without being a formal manager, may be a leader. 18 Mapping the changing study of leadership Literatures about what leaders should do – contains theories for leaders – primarily normative, providing how to prescriptions for improving leadership effectiveness. Literatures about what leaders actually do – contains theories of leadership – primarily analytical, directed at better understanding leadership processes, explaining why they vary in different circumstances and the ‘platforms’ (ship) that leaders create to enable others to act as leaders (Antonacopulou and Bento, 2011; Dinh et al. 2014; Ford, 2015) 19 Mapping the changing study of leadership 5 Major Categories of Leadership Research (Bryman, 1996) Trait Behaviour Contingency Charismatic/Transformative Shared/Distributed 20 The trajectory of leadership theory is not linear, but, rather, follows endless swings between leader-centric and follower-centric models often based on new thinking about work design and organizational change. Thus, theories of leadership and disruptive organizational change are inseparably intertwined (Parry, 2011). Leader-centred perspectives Contingency and situational perspectives Follower-centric perspectives Mapping the changing study of leadership 21 Critical leadership studies (CLS) It has always been the case of assuming functionalist approach to leading people as functionalism assumes that organizations are unitary wholes, characterized by compliance, consensus and order. However, CLS critiques mainstream orthodoxies and the power relations through which leadership dynamics are frequently rationalized, often reproduced and sometimes resisted – viewing organizations as arenas of domination, inequality, tension and conflict. The focus is on power, subordination and exploitation (Tadajewski et al. 2011) and to ‘decolonise’ (Gopal, 2017) prevailing stories, to ask difficult questions of society and ourselves – addressing the intersection of class, gender and race in work, organizational design and power structures that is the reality of organizational life. Power, leadership and ideology Gender and leadership 22 The employment relationship Constructed within work organizations. A mutually advantageous transaction in a free market, a partnership of employers and employees with shared interests, a negotiation over ‘wage-effort’ between parties with competing interests, or an unequal power relation embedded in complex socio-economic inequalities (Budd and Bhave, 2013). Ongoing actor relationships ‘Paradox of consequences’ Balance of power between actors Organized life is recognized as an arena of complex reciprocal human relations 23 Organizational Leadership John Bratton 1 Part 1 Contextualising leadership Power and leadership Chapter 3 3 Learning outcomes After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Recognise and explain the types of power within leadership processes Understand and explain the different perspectives on power Describe the evolution of studies of power and leadership as a field of learning Understand and explain the concept of organisational politics, its relationship to power and leadership Identify contemporary challenges around power and leadership 4 Introduction What is power? Power is generally defined as the capacity or the potential to influence others in relation to their beliefs, attitudes or activities. Critical leadership scholars contend that orthodox leadership theories (trait, behavioural, contingency, charismatic) adhere to traditional hierarchical and bureaucratic control systems and take the asymmetrical power relationship within the leader-follower dyadic as natural and unproblematic (Collinson, 2011; Gordon, 2011; Hardy and Clegg, 1996). 5 Introduction The literature on non-traditional follower-centric and team theories of leadership espouses the sharing of power between leaders and followers. Critical organization scholars, however, contend that non-traditional approaches ‘blur’ power relations and generally continue to adopt an apolitical perspective to power. 6 Conceptualizing power Karl Marx The making of history is made not just in relation to the physical world but also through the struggles that some social groups engage against others in circumstances of domination. He argued that “class interests” – capitalist versus workers – follow from the social relations concerning the ownership and control of the means of production, and there conflict and power is structured into organization design. 7 Conceptualizing power Max Weber The probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests. Theory of legitimate domination through legally enacted policies and regulations, found in modern bureaucracies, with two central elements: the legitimacy of the organizational leader’s power, and the perception by followers that the leader’s authority was legitimate for those who were subject to it. the creation of an “administrative apparatus” in which followers carry out the commands of the leader. 8 Conceptualizing power Max Weber The treatment of ‘power’ as ‘authority’ to mean institutionalized ‘authority’ (from the mistranslated ‘Herrschaft’) became the basis for orthodox studies of power, in which power relates to authority, as a phenomenon informally rather than formally developed in the organization. The ‘formal-informal’ distinction thus becomes the focus where “authority is the potentiality to influence based on a position, whereas power is the actual ability to influence based on a number of factors including, organizational position” in the hierarchy. 9 Conceptualizing power Orthodox studies of ‘power’ in work organizations have located the bases of power in some relationship with, such that they enable ‘power’ to be ‘exercised’ or in specific socially authorized ‘resources’ that a worker may control. E.g. , ‘A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do’ (Dahl, 1957, pp. 202–3). Power ‘over’, whether individually or collectively, refers to the control of one agent over others, and power ‘to’ is the capacity to realize ends. Tendency to focus on ‘power over’ by critical scholars due to the concentration of its oppressiveness and injustice. However, Hearn (2012) argues that ‘power over’ and ‘power to’ are “inextricably bound together … it is the increase in power over, in ever more extensive and complex forms of hierarchic social organization, which has yielded massive increases in our power to”. 10 Conceptualizing power French and Raven Focuses on the potential ability of one individual to influence another within a certain social situation. This theory assumes that the particular ‘resource’ possessed by the individual that will have a utility in one situation, will have that usefulness in all situations. It also assumes perfect knowledge on the part of all concerned being able to judge correctly the utility of the all resources in all situations (Clegg and Dunkerley, 1980). 11 Conceptualizing power Five bases of power – referent, expert, legitimate, reward and coercive Giddens (1985) notes that all individuals may “have power”, but in an organizational context, power is influenced and constrained by the distribution of different types of resource. E.g. “allocative resources” – control over physical things such as monetary reward, and “authoritative resources” – involve control over management practices. 12 Conceptualizing power Stephen Luke Power is a “three-dimensional” phenomenon. The one-dimensional view of power focuses on the individual’s ability to enact commands in observable conflicts. A two-dimensional view of power extends the analyses by examining the ability of the social actors to control the agenda, which is a source of power overlooked in the pluralist model, one-dimensional perspective. The three-dimensional view is the social processes in which those with power induce the powerless to behave or believe as the former wish, without coercion. This is achieved by a complex infrastructure of persuasion or justification. 13 Different perspectives on power Foucault Power operates at all social institutions, at all levels of social interaction and through all individuals. Power does not intrude from powerful individuals; it exudes from within. Followers are not the victims of others’ power; rather, they are both the perpetrators and the victims of the very power that constrains their behaviour. Power is associated with the web of policies, practices and procedures found within organizations. 14 Different perspectives on power Conceptualizing power as a relational activity, rather than as a possession, widens the focus of attention from the ‘who’ and the ‘why’ to ‘how’ of power, HR policies and practices, for instance, by which it operates. Power also prevents some behaviours while at the same time positively encouraging others, both at the broadest political and historical levels and at the deepest level of individual identity. Power constitutes what we know as a society, including, of course, how we think about work organizations – emphasizing that power and knowledge are closely interconnected, serving to reinforce each other. Power is all-pervasive. 15 Different perspectives on power Gramsci ‘Hegemony’ that acknowledges the complexity and mixture of consensus and conflict, and hence power relations in a broad sense. This term expresses two types of power relations: A group’s domination over other groups. A group’s leadership. 16 Different perspectives on power It expresses the relationships of leadership and domination that produce a general sense of coordinated reality for most people. Besides that, it also represents an active, social process in which alternatives resistance against incorporation. No leader can guarantee that followers will follow and any discussion of power and leadership has to acknowledge that leader-follower relations are inevitably characterized by structured power, cooperation and conflict. 17 Different perspectives on power Weber’s & Lukes’s concepts of power Foucault’s and Gramsci’s concepts of power Power is possessed by the individual Power is relational & pervasive Power resides in social elites Power is found in everyday social practice Powerful dominates powerless, resistance is futile People build their own web of power, resistance challenges elites Power is negative and repressive Power is creative & contributes to social order 18 Different perspectives on power Table 3.1 Traditional and Non-traditional Conceptualizations of Power Source: Source: Adapted from Buchanan, D.A. and Badham, R.A. (2008) Power, Politics and Organizational Change: Winning the Turf Game, London: Sage. Weber’s & Lukes’s concepts of power Foucault’s and Gramsci’s concepts of power Power is visible, exercised when needed Power is imperceptible through everyday routines Knowledge of power sources is empowering Knowledge buttresses the web of power 19 Power and management Obedience is central to an analysis of the construction of power in leader-follower relations (Clegg, 1998). In organization situations, French and Raven’s coercive power commonly implies the ability of a leader to inflict on subordinates feared penalties for disobedient behaviour or control over subordinates. Crucially, it is the subordinate’s dependency for coercion to be effective. However, uses of power imbalance to coerce may involve bullying behaviours that undermine a subordinate’s dignity and self-esteem (Bolton, 2005). 20 Power and management Bassman (1992, p. 2) observes, “one common thread in all abusive relationships is the element of dependency. The abuser controls some important resources in the [target’s] life; the [target] is dependent on the abuser”. There are also research evidences that suggest that leader-coercive behaviour and bullying behaviours occur in workplaces because of the inability of the victim to defend her or himself due to a power imbalance (Branch et al., 2013). It is the analysis of dependency, the processes of social interaction, the minutiae of everyday work experience and the often misogynistic norms that informs its conduct that provide a more cognizant understanding of leader-coercive and bully behaviours in organizations. 21 Power and management This also serves as a reminder that not all of leader-follower social interactions rest upon charismatic appeal or the ritual of deference or adulation. They also remind us that leaders perpetrate coercive-bully acts and too often this is interpreted as representing a “few bad apples”, as though socio-cultural influences are of no importance. But they are embedded within organizational cultures and processes, which in turn form part of wider societal processes (Bolton, 2005). Bolton also highlighted that the vagueness of the employment contract gets intensified within the cauldron of coercion and abuse. 22 Power and management The effect of leader-coercive behaviour and bullying on recipients: can range from psychological stress-related symptoms to physical harm (Hogh et al., 2011). can also affect employees’ loyalty, commitment, and performance (Rayner, 1997). affect organizational performance through an increase in absenteeism, high turnover and the cost of recruitment and training interventions, as well as loss of productivity (Salin and Hoel, 2011). E.g. Tesco executives Chris Bush and John Scouler 23 Power and management Gordon (2002; 2011) found that power in leadership is generally debated in two perspectives: Traditionally, power is seen as a phenomenon within hierarchical structures and control systems of organization. Second focus is on the role of dispersed leadership theories and their emphasis on the promotion of empowerment through the transfer of leadership responsibilities to lower levels with post-bureaucratic organizations (Bryman, 1996). 24 Power and management Orthodox Theories Presents leaders with dualistic position of privilege within organisations – considered to be superior to other followers either through natural ability or particular attributes. The historical nature of power is deemed to be ‘natural’ and ‘unproblematic’ – leading to limitations to reflections of surface-level issues and occurrences. Gordon (2011, p. 200) added on that the theme describes of what is occurring or what ‘ought’ to occur and lacks of abundant insight into the problematic interplay between leadership and power. Power is assumed to be legitimate for leadership figures but illegitimate for organizational followers or for trade unions challenging managerial prerogative. 25 Power and management Dispersed Leadership Theories Focus primarily on self-leadership and team-based leadership approaches: Self-leadership – employees take responsibility for their own work processes and direction. Team-leadership – centres around autonomous work teams, each of which has their own leader. 26 Power and management The sharing of leadership responsibilities ensures that the emphasis is put on the process of leadership rather than the attributes or behaviours of the ‘leader’. However, this also assumes that power must also be shared and that the process of sharing power will be unproblematic. Power is something that is embedded historically and socially in the structures around organisational actors; it is closely related to the concept of dependency and therefore pervades activity and impacts on attempts to disperse leadership. 27 Power and management Flemming and Spicer (2014) illustrated that there is a clear distinction in the literature between episodic theories of power (where power is directly exercised) and systematic forms of influence (where power is concealed within often enduring institutional structures), through identification of four sites of organizational power: Power ‘in’ organisations Power ‘through’ organisations Power ‘over’ organisations Power ‘against’ organisations They also recognized that there are roles of other types of authority within organizational leadership, how they interlink and overlap or contrast within. 28 Power and management Weberian social theory, the bureaucratic organization is viewed as a ‘social tool’ and an expression of rational thought and action. Any follower in a large organization will encounter a complex flow of power down, up and across organization hierarchies (Clegg, 1998). Power is part of the ‘rules of the game’ that both enable and constrain social action in the workplace (Clegg, 1975). McKinlay and Starkey (1998), found that Foucault’s conception of power is that it is most potent and efficient when it operates through bureaucratic rules rather than coercion or ‘force majeure’. Power is associated with practices and procedures – control of human capability rather than coordination of resources. 29 Power and management Townley (1994), discovered that following Foucault, for individuals to be manageable, they must be known and to be known, they must be rendered visible – thus conceptualizes human resources management (HRM) is designed to close the gap between the expectation of performance and what is realized. 30