Fluent Essays

Contrast social classes with respect to life chances. Consider nutrition, living conditions, education, and healthcare when comparing these. Identify unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response in classical conditioning in an original example of a classically conditioned behavior.  Requirements. Provide title/reference page and citations. Double-spaced, 12-point font, 1-inch margins in APA Format. Word count: 200-250. Reference: Lifespan Psychology. Authored by: Laura Overstreet. Located at: http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/. License: CC BY: Attribution Varying Definitions of Online Communication and Their Effects on Relationship Research Elizabeth L. Angeli State University Author Note Elizabeth L. Angeli, Department of Psychology, State University. Elizabeth Angeli is now at Department of English, Purdue University. This research was supported in part by a grant from the Sample Grant Program. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth Angeli, Department of English, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 55555. Contact: [email protected] The running head cannot exceed 50 characters, including spaces and punctuation. The running head’s title should be in capital letters. The running head should be flush left, and page numbers should be flush right. On the title page, the running head should include the words “Running head.” For pages following the title page, repeat the running head in all caps without “Running head.” The title should be centered on the page, typed in 12- point Times New Roman Font. It should not be bolded, underlined, or italicized. The author’s name and institution should be double- spaced and centered. The running head is a shortened version of the paper’s full title, and it is used to help readers identify the titles for published articles (even if your paper is not intended for publication, your paper should still have a running head). The title should summarize the paper’s main idea and identify the variables under discussion and the relationship between them. Green text boxes contain explanations of APA style guidelines. Blue boxes contain directions for writing and citing in APA style. Running head: VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 1 The author note should appear on printed articles and identifies each author’s department and institution affiliation and any changes in affiliation, contains acknowledgements and any financial support received, and provides contact information. For more information, see the APA manual, 2.03, page 24-25. Note: An author note is optional for students writing class papers, theses, and dissertations.. An author note should appear as follows: First paragraph: Complete departmental and institutional affiliation Second paragraph: Changes in affiliation (if any) Third paragraph: Acknowledgments, funding sources, special circumstances Fourth paragraph: Contact information (mailing address and e-mail) VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 2 Abstract This paper explores four published articles that report on results from research conducted on online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships and their relationship to computer-mediated communication (CMC). The articles, however, vary in their definitions and uses of CMC. Butler and Kraut (2002) suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective than CMC, defined and used as “email,” in creating feelings of closeness or intimacy. Other articles define CMC differently and, therefore, offer different results. This paper examines Cummings, Butler, and Kraut’s (2002) research in relation to three other research articles to suggest that all forms of CMC should be studied in order to fully understand how CMC influences online and offline relationships. Keywords: computer-mediated communication, face-to-face communication The abstract should be between 150-250 words. Abbre- viations and acronyms used in the paper should be defined in the abstract. The abstract is a brief summary of the paper, allowing readers to quickly review the main points and purpose of the paper. The word “Abstract” should be centered and typed in 12 point Times New Roman. Do not indent the first line of the abstract paragraph. All other paragraphs in the paper should be indented. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 3 Varying Definitions of Online Communication and Their Effects on Relationship Research Numerous studies have been conducted on various facets of Internet relationships, focusing on the levels of intimacy, closeness, different communication modalities, and the frequency of use of computer-mediated communication (CMC). However, contradictory results are suggested within this research because only certain aspects of CMC are investigated, for example, email only. Cummings, Butler, and Kraut (2002) suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective than CMC (read: email) in creating feelings of closeness or intimacy, while other studies suggest the opposite. To understand how both online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships are affected by CMC, all forms of CMC should be studied. This paper examines Cummings et al.’s research against other CMC research to propose that additional research be conducted to better understand how online communication affects relationships. Literature Review In Cummings et al.’s (2002) summary article reviewing three empirical studies on online social relationships, it was found that CMC, especially email, was less effective than FtF contact in creating and maintaining close social relationships. Two of the three reviewed studies focusing on communication in non-Internet and Internet relationships mediated by FtF, phone, or email modalities found that the frequency of each modality’s use was significantly linked to the strength of the particular relationship (Cummings et al., 2002). The strength of the relationship was predicted best by FtF and phone In-text citations that are direct quotes should include the author’s/ authors’ name/s, the publication year, and page number/s. If you are para- phrasing a source, APA encourages you to include page numbers: (Smith, 2009, p. 76). If an article has three to five authors, write out all of the authors’ names the first time they appear. Then use the first author’s last name followed by “et al.” APA requires you to include the publication year because APA users are concerned with the date of the article (the more current the better). The title of the paper is centered and not bolded. The introduc- tion presents the problem that the paper addresses. See the OWL resources on introduc- tions: http://owl.en glish.purdue.e du/owl/resou rce/724/01/ The title should be centered on the page, typed in 12- point Times New Roman Font. It should not be bolded, underlined, or italicized. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 4 communication, as participants rated email as an inferior means of maintaining personal relationships as compared to FtF and phone contacts (Cummings et al., 2002). Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed an additional study conducted in 1999 by the HomeNet project (see Appendix A for more information on the HomeNet project). In this project, Kraut, Mukhopadhyay, Szczypula, Kiesler, and Scherlis (1999) compared the value of using CMC and non-CMC to maintain relationships with partners. They found that participants corresponded less frequently with their Internet partner (5.2 times per month) than with their non-Internet partner (7.2 times per month) (as cited in Cummings et al., 2002). This difference does not seem significant, as it is only two times less per month. However, in additional self-report surveys, participants responded feeling more distant, or less intimate, towards their Internet partner than their non- Internet partner. This finding may be attributed to participants’ beliefs that email is an inferior mode of personal relationship communication. Intimacy is necessary in the creation and maintenance of relationships, as it is defined as the sharing of a person’s innermost being with another person, i.e., self- disclosure (Hu, Wood, Smith, & Westbrook, 2004). Relationships are facilitated by the reciprocal self-disclosing between partners, regardless of non-CMC or CMC. Cummings et al.’s (2002) reviewed results contradict other studies that research the connection between intimacy and relationships through CMC. Hu et al. (2004) studied the relationship between the frequency of Instant Messenger (IM) use and the degree of perceived intimacy among friends. The use of IM instead of email as a CMC modality was studied because IM supports a non-professional Use an appendix to provide brief content that supplement s your paper but is not directly related to your text. If you are including an appendix, refer to it in the body of your paper. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 5 environment favoring intimate exchanges (Hu et al., 2004). Their results suggest that a positive relationship exists between the frequency of IM use and intimacy, demonstrating that participants feel closer to their Internet partner as time progresses through this CMC modality. Similarly, Underwood and Findlay (2004) studied the effect of Internet relationships on primary, specifically non-Internet relationships and the perceived intimacy of both. In this study, self-disclosure, or intimacy, was measured in terms of shared secrets through the discussion of personal problems. Participants reported a significantly higher level of self-disclosure in their Internet relationship as compared to their primary relationship. In contrast, the participants’ primary relationships were reported as highly self-disclosed in the past, but the current level of disclosure was perceived to be lower (Underwood & Findlay, 2004). This result suggests participants turned to the Internet in order to fulfill the need for intimacy in their lives. In further support of this finding, Tidwell and Walther (2002) hypothesized CMC participants employ deeper self-disclosures than FtF participants in order to overcome the limitations of CMC, e.g., the reliance on nonverbal cues. It was found that CMC partners engaged in more frequent intimate questions and disclosures than FtF partners in order to overcome the barriers of CMC. In their 2002 study, Tidwell and Walther measured the perception of a relationship’s intimacy by the partner of each participant in both the CMC and FtF conditions. The researchers found that the participants’ partners stated their CMC partner was more effective in employing more intimate exchanges than their FtF VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 6 partner, and both participants and their partners rated their CMC relationship as more intimate than their FtF relationship. Discussion In 2002, Cummings et al. stated that the evidence from their research conflicted with other data examining the effectiveness of online social relationships. This statement is supported by the aforementioned discussion of other research. There may be a few possible theoretical explanations for these discrepancies. Limitations of These Studies The discrepancies identified may result from a number of limitations found in the materials reviewed by Cummings et al. These limitations can result from technological constraints, demographic factors, or issues of modality. Each of these limitations will be examined in further detail below. Technological limitations. First, one reviewed study by Cummings et al. (2002) examined only email correspondence for their CMC modality. Therefore, the study is limited to only one mode of communication among other alternatives, e.g., IM as studied by Hu et al. (2004). Because of its many personalized features, IM provides more personal CMC. For example, it is in real time without delay, voice-chat and video features are available for many IM programs, and text boxes can be personalized with the user’s picture, favorite colors and text, and a wide variety of emoticons, e.g., :). These options allow for both an increase in self-expression and the ability to overcompensate for the barriers of CMC through customizable features, as stated in Tidwell and Walther Because all research has its limitations, it is important to discuss the limitations of articles under examination . A Level 2 heading should be flush with the left margin, bolded, and title case. A Level 1 heading should be centered, bolded, and uppercase and lower case (also referred to as title case). A Level 3 heading should indented 0.5” from the left margin, bolded, and lower case (except for the first word). Text should follow immediately after. If you use more than three levels of headings, consult section 3.02 of the APA manual (6th ed.) or the OWL resource on APA headings: http://owl.en glish.purdue. edu/owl/reso urce/560/16 / VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 7 (2002). Self-disclosure and intimacy may result from IM’s individualized features, which are not as personalized in email correspondence. Demographic limitations. In addition to the limitations of email, Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed studies that focused on international bank employees and college students (see Appendix B for demographic information). It is possible the participants’ CMC through email was used primarily for business, professional, and school matters and not for relationship creation or maintenance. In this case, personal self-disclosure and intimacy levels are expected to be lower for non-relationship interactions, as this communication is primarily between boss and employee or student and professor. Intimacy is not required, or even desired, for these professional relationships. Modality limitations. Instead of professional correspondence, however, Cummings et al.’s (2002) review of the HomeNet project focused on already established relationships and CMC’s effect on relationship maintenance. The HomeNet researchers’ sole dependence on email communication as CMC may have contributed to the lower levels of intimacy and closeness among Internet relationships as compared to non- Internet relationships (as cited in Cummings et al., 2002). The barriers of non-personal communication in email could be a factor in this project, and this could lead to less intimacy among these Internet partners. If alternate modalities of CMC were studied in both already established and professional relationships, perhaps these results would have resembled those of the previously mentioned research. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 8 Conclusions and Future Study In order to gain a complete understanding of CMC’s true effect on both online and offline relationships, it is necessary to conduct a study that examines all aspects of CMC. This includes, but is not limited to, email, IM, voice-chat, video-chat, online journals and diaries, online social groups with message boards, and chat rooms. The effects on relationships of each modality may be different, and this is demonstrated by the discrepancies in intimacy between email and IM correspondence. As each mode of communication becomes more prevalent in individuals’ lives, it is important to examine the impact of all modes of CMC on online and offline relationship formation, maintenance, and even termination. The conclusion restates the problem the paper addresses and can offer areas for further research. See the OWL resource on conclu- sions: http://owl. english.pur due.edu/ow l/resource/ 724/04/ VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 9 References Cummings, J. N., Butler, B., & Kraut, R. (2002). The quality of online social relationships. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103-108. Hu, Y., Wood, J. F., Smith, V., & Westbrook, N. (2004). Friendships through IM: Examining the relationship between instant messaging and intimacy. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10, 38-48. Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28, 317-348. Underwood, H., & Findlay, B. (2004). Internet relationships and their impact on primary relationships. Behaviour Change, 21(2), 127-140. Start the reference list on a new page, center the title “References,” and alphabetize the entries. Do not underline or italicize the title. Double-space all entries. Every source mentioned in the paper should have an entry. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 10 Appendix A The HomeNet Project Started at Carnegie Mellon University in 1995, the HomeNet research project has involved a number of studies intended to look at home Internet usage. Researchers began this project because the Internet was originally designed as a tool for scientific and corporate use. Home usage of the Internet was an unexpected phenomenon worthy of extended study. Each of HomeNet’s studies has explored a different facet of home Internet usage, such as chatting, playing games, or reading the news. Within the past few years, the explosion of social networking has also proven to be an area deserving of additional research. Refer to Table A1 for a more detailed description of HomeNet studies. Table A1 Description of HomeNet Studies by Year Year  of  Study   Contents  of  Study   1995-­‐1996   93 families in Pittsburgh involved in school or community organizations 1997-­‐1999   25 families with home businesses 1998-­‐1999   151 Pittsburgh households 2000-­‐2002   National survey Begin each appendix on a new page., with the word appendix in the top center. Use an identifying capital letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) if you have more than one appendix. If you are referring to more than one appendix in your text, use the plural appendices (APA only). The first paragraph of the appendix should flush with the left margin. Additional paragraphs should be indented. Label tables and figures in the appendix as you would in the text of your manuscript, using the letter A before the number to clarify that the table or figure belongs to the appendix. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 11 Appendix B Demographic Information for Cummings et al. (2002)’s Review If an appendix consists entirely of a table or figure, the title of the table or figure should serve as the title of the appendix. Developmental Theories The Relationship between and Research  What is a theory? An explanation Suggests what, how, or why In development, it explains change in us over time A guideline for research Helps us understand research  It is not a fact. Theories of Motivation Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychosexual Theory: Background  Freud: (b.1856- d.1939)  Hysteria  “talking cure”  early childhood  Mental illness and reality Defense Mechanisms  Repression  Regression  Rationalization  Denial  Sublimation  Displacement  Projection  Reaction Formation Freud’s Parts of the Self  Id  Ego  Superego Psychosexual Development  Oral Stage  Anal Stage  Phallic Stage  Latency Stage  Genital Stage Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory  Student of Freud’s  Emphasized the Ego  Father of Developmental Psychology Erikson’s First Four Stages  Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy)  Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddlers)  Initiative vs. Guilt (early childhood)  Industry vs. Inferiority (middle childhood) Erikson’s Last Four Stages  Identity vs. Role Confusion (teens)  Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)  Generativity vs. Stagnation (midlife adults)  Integrity vs. Despair (late adults) Test Yourself  Who is the father of developmental psychology?  According to Freud, which part of the self are we born with?  At what age do we establish a basic sense of trust, per Erikson?  Name and describe one defense mechanism.  When does the ego develop?  How would you test Freudian concepts? Learning Theories Focus on how we learn and emphasizes behaviors that can be seen rather than internal motivation Classical Conditioning  Ivan Pavlov  Learning through association  Feelings or emotions  Gut level reactions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems Pavlov’s Dogs One of Pavlov’s Dogs (Robert K. Lawton) Classical Conditioning Terms  Before conditioning  Unconditioned stimulus  Unconditioned response  After conditioning  Conditioned stimulus  Conditioned response WHO CARES ABOUT PAVLOV’S DOGS? Watson and Behaviorism  Watson built on Pavlov’s work  Parenting expert in the 1920s  Kids can be taught to love or hate anything!  Little Albert Who Else Cares? ADVERTIZERS Operant Conditioning  Why repeat actions?  Law of Effect  Reinforcement not criticism Reinforcers  Reinforcer defined  Intrinsic or primary reinforcers  Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers Primary or Secondary? Food College Degree Money Big House Hug Car Job Compliment Award Positive Reinforcers  Adding  An example?  How do you positively reinforce others? Negative Reinforcers  Subtraction  An example?  How do you negatively reinforce others? Punishment  Stopping behavior  Less effective than reinforcers.  Suppresses rather than stops  Doesn’t indicate desired behavior.  Leads to a focus on mistakes. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Social Learning Theory  Learn from others without conditioning  Modeling  Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiment on Aggression How did you learn?  To kiss?  To drive?  To be afraid of the dark?  To do your job? Cognitive Theories How thinking changes over time Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development  “father of cognitive psychology”  how children think and reason  Maturation Piaget’s Principles: Equilibrium Cognitive Equilibrium: A balance between what we see and what we know Piaget’s Principles: Schema Schema: Mental box containing a concept Piaget’s Principles: Assimilation Assimilation: Similarity between what we see and what we already know Piaget’s Principles: Accommodation Accommodation: Changing our mind to adjust to new people, objects, experiences, etc. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development  Sensorimotor (birth to 2)  Preoperational (early childhood)  Concrete operational (middle childhood)  Formal Operational (adolescence or adulthood) Sociocultural Theory: Vygotsky  Cognitive abilities change with guidance  Scaffolding  Zone of Proximal Development: potential Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model A focus on context The Ecological Systems Model  Microsystems  Mesosystems  Exosystems  Macrosystems  Chronosystems Content Attribution Except where expressly noted otherwise, the contents of this course are based on materials published in the Open Course Library by Laura Overstreet. These materials were originally published freely under a Creative Commons Attribution License (you can review the license at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). The original version of the materials as published as Psyc 200 Lifespan Development may be accessed for free at http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/. Lifespan Development Lifespan Development Lumen Learning Lifespan Development Copyright © 2017 by Lumen Learning. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/ CONTENTS Module 1: Lifespan PsychologyModule 1: Lifespan Psychology...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 55 • Introduction to Life Span, Growth and Development ......................................................................................... 5 • The Cohort Effect............................................................................................................................................... 8 • Culture ............................................................................................................................................................. 11 • Periods of Development .................................................................................................................................. 13 • Research Methods........................................................................................................................................... 19 • Video: 49 Up .................................................................................................................................................... 21 • Video: Meet Neil .............................................................................................................................................. 21 • Lecture: Introduction to Life Span, Growth and Development ......................................................................... 21 • PowerPoint: Introduction to Life Span Development ....................................................................................... 25 • Discussion: Life Stages ................................................................................................................................... 26 Module 2: Developmental TheoriesModule 2: Developmental Theories...................................................................................................................................................................................... 2727 • Introduction to Developmental Theories .......................................................................................................... 27 • Psychodynamic Theory ................................................................................................................................... 29 • Psychosocial Theory........................................................................................................................................ 32 • Exploring Behavior........................................................................................................................................... 33 • Exploring Cognition.......................................................................................................................................... 37 • Research Designs ........................................................................................................................................... 39 • Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories................................................................................................... 41 • Slideshow: Developmental Theories ............................................................................................................... 46 • Essay: Lifespan Psychology ............................................................................................................................ 47 Module 3: Prenatal DevelopmentModule 3: Prenatal Development ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 4848 • Introduction to Heredity, Prenatal Development, and Birth.............................................................................. 48 • Prenatal Development ..................................................................................................................................... 54 • Environmental Risks ........................................................................................................................................ 56 • Pregnancy........................................................................................................................................................ 59 • Childbirth.......................................................................................................................................................... 60 • Maternal Mortality ............................................................................................................................................ 63 • Video: Lifes Greatest Miracle ....................................................................................................................... 64 • Lecture: Prenatal Development ....................................................................................................................... 64 • Slideshow: Prenatal Development................................................................................................................... 68 • Study Guide: Introduction and Prenatal Development..................................................................................... 68 Module 4: InfancyModule 4: Infancy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7070 • Introduction to Infancy ..................................................................................................................................... 70 • Physical Development ..................................................................................................................................... 71 • Nutrition ........................................................................................................................................................... 73 • Cognitive Development.................................................................................................................................... 75 • Language Development................................................................................................................................... 77 • Psychosocial Development and Attachment ................................................................................................... 79 • Temperament .................................................................................................................................................. 81 • Psychosocial Development.............................................................................................................................. 81 • Lecture: Infancy ............................................................................................................................................... 82 • Slideshow: Infancy........................................................................................................................................... 86 Module 5: Early ChildhoodModule 5: Early Childhood ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8888 • Introduction to Early Childhood........................................................................................................................ 88 • Physical Development ..................................................................................................................................... 90 • Cognitive Development.................................................................................................................................... 93 • Psychosocial Development.............................................................................................................................. 96 • Family Life ....................................................................................................................................................... 98 • Childhood Stress and Development .............................................................................................................. 101 • Lecture: Early Childhood ............................................................................................................................... 102 • Slideshow: Early Childhood ........................................................................................................................... 106 • Discussion: Labeling and Children ................................................................................................................ 106 • Essay: Childhood........................................................................................................................................... 107 Module 6: Middle ChildhoodModule 6: Middle Childhood ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 108108 • Introduction to Middle Childhood ................................................................................................................... 108 • Physical Development ................................................................................................................................... 111 • Cognitive Development.................................................................................................................................. 112 • Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development ..................................................................................................... 115 • Developmental Problems............................................................................................................................... 116 • Learning and Intelligence............................................................................................................................... 119 • Psychosocial Development............................................................................................................................ 124 • Lecture: Middle Childhood ............................................................................................................................. 130 • Slideshow: Middle Childhood......................................................................................................................... 135 • Study Guide: Childhood................................................................................................................................. 135 • Practice Test: Childhood................................................................................................................................ 136 Module 7: AdolescenceModule 7: Adolescence ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 139139 • Introduction to Adolescense .......................................................................................................................... 139 • Physical Development ................................................................................................................................... 140 • Cognitive Development.................................................................................................................................. 141 • Social Development....................................................................................................................................... 142 • Lecture: Adolescence .................................................................................................................................... 148 • Slideshow: Adolescence................................................................................................................................ 151 Module 8: Early AdulthoodModule 8: Early Adulthood ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 152152 • Introduction to Early Adulthood...................................................................................................................... 152 • Physical Development ................................................................................................................................... 155 • Cognitive Development.................................................................................................................................. 157 • Psychosocial Development............................................................................................................................ 159 • Types of Love ................................................................................................................................................ 165 • Activity: Love Attitude Scale .......................................................................................................................... 168 • Assignment: Love Styles ............................................................................................................................... 170 • Lecture: Early Adulthood ............................................................................................................................... 170 • Slideshow: Early Adulthood ........................................................................................................................... 173 • Essay Assignment: Adolescence and Early Adulthood ................................................................................. 174 • Study Guide: Adolescence and Early Adulthood ........................................................................................... 174 • Practice Test: Adolescence and Early Adulthood.......................................................................................... 175 Module 9: Middle AdulthoodModule 9: Middle Adulthood ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 178178 • Introduction to Middle Adulthood ................................................................................................................... 178 • Physical Development ................................................................................................................................... 181 • Cognitive Development.................................................................................................................................. 184 • Psychosocial Development............................................................................................................................ 186 • Relationships ................................................................................................................................................. 189 • Work and Personality..................................................................................................................................... 193 • Lecture: Middle Adulthood ............................................................................................................................. 194 • Slideshow: Middle Adulthood......................................................................................................................... 198 Module 10: Late AdulthoodModule 10: Late Adulthood .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 199199 • Introduction to Late Adulthood....................................................................................................................... 199 • Physical Development ................................................................................................................................... 203 • Cognitive Development.................................................................................................................................. 210 • Psychosocial Development............................................................................................................................ 211 • Relationships ................................................................................................................................................. 214 • Listen: Treating Delirium................................................................................................................................ 217 • Lecture: Late Adulthood................................................................................................................................. 217 • Slideshare: Late Adulthood............................................................................................................................ 220 • Additional Links.............................................................................................................................................. 221 Module 11: Death and DyingModule 11: Death and Dying ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 222222 • Introduction to Death and Dying .................................................................................................................... 222 • Most Common Causes of Death.................................................................................................................... 224 • The Process of Dying .................................................................................................................................... 226 • Five Stages of Loss ....................................................................................................................................... 228 • Palliative Care and Hospice........................................................................................................................... 228 • Euthanasia..................................................................................................................................................... 231 • Bereavement and Grief.................................................................................................................................. 231 • Lecture: Death and Dying .............................................................................................................................. 233 • Slideshow: Death and Dying.......................................................................................................................... 235 • Additional Links.............................................................................................................................................. 235 • Essay: Middle and Late Adulthood ................................................................................................................ 235 • Study Guide: Middle and Late Adulthood ...................................................................................................... 236 • Practice Test: Middle and Late Adulthood ..................................................................................................... 237 MODULE 1: LIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SPAN, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Learning Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain the study of human development. 2. Define physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. 3. Differentiate periods of human development. 4. Analyze your own location in the life span. 5. Judge the most and least preferable age groups with which to work. 6. Contrast social classes with respect to life chances. 7. Explain the meaning of social cohort. 8. Critique stage theory models of human development. 9. Define culture and ethnocentrism and describe ways that culture impacts development. 10. Explain the reasons scientific methods are more objective than personal knowledge. 11. Contrast qualitative and quantitative approaches to research. 12. Compare research methods noting the advantages and disadvantages of each. 13. Differentiate between independent and dependent variables. Welcome to life span, growth and development. This is the study of how and why people change or remain the same over time. This course is commonly referred to as the “womb to tomb” course because it is the story of our journeys from conception to death. Human development is the study of how we change over time. Although this course is often offered in psychology, this is a very interdisciplinary course. Psychologists, nutritionists, sociologists, anthropologists, educators, and health care professionals all contribute to our knowledge of the life span. We will look at how we change physically over time from early development through aging and death. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over time. We look at how our concerns and psychological state is influenced by age and finally, how our social relationships change throughout life. There are several goals of those involved in this discipline: https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images-archive-read-only/wp-content/uploads/sites/1496/2014/09/04072200/image001.jpg https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images-archive-read-only/wp-content/uploads/sites/1496/2014/09/04072200/image001.jpg 1. Describing changeDescribing change-many of the studies we will examine simply involve the first step in investigation, which is description. Arnold Gesell’s study on infant motor skills, for example. 2. Explaining changesExplaining changes is another goal. Theories provide explanations for why we change over time. For example, Erikson offers an explanation about why our two-year-old is temperamental. Think about how you were 5, 10, or even 15 years ago. In what ways have you changed? In what ways have you remained the same? You have probably changed physically; perhaps you’ve grown taller and become heavier. But you may have also experienced changes in the way you think and solve problems. Cognitive change is noticeable when we compare how 6 year olds, 16 year olds, and 46 year olds think and reason, for example. Their thoughts about others and the world are probably quite different. Consider friendship for instance. The 6 year old may think that a friend is someone with whom you can play and have fun. A 16 year old may seek friends who can help them gain status or popularity. And the 46 year old may have acquaintances, but rely more on family members to do things with and confide in. You may have also experienced psychosocial change. This refers emotions and psychological concerns as well as social relationships. Psychologist Erik Erikson suggests that we struggle with issues of independence, trust, and intimacy at various points in our lives. (We will explore this thoroughly throughout the course.) Our journeys through life are more than biological; they are shaped by culture, history, economic and political realities as much as they are influenced by physical change. This is a very interesting and practical course because it is about us and those with whom we live and work. One of the best ways to gain perspective on our own lives is to compare our experiences with that of others. By periodically making cross-cultural and historical comparisons and by presenting a variety of views on issues such as healthcare, aging, education, gender and family roles, I hope to give you many eyes with which to see your own development. This occurs frequently in the classroom as students from a variety of cultural backgrounds discuss their interpretations of developmental tasks and concerns. I hope to recreate this rich experience as much as possible in this text. So, for example, we will discuss current concerns about the nutrition of children in the United States (for a middle-class boy of 11 years who is 130 pounds overweight and suffering with Pediatric Type II diabetes) as well as malnutrition experienced by children in Ethiopia as a result of drought. Being self-conscious can enhance our ability to think critically about the systems we live in and open our eyes to new courses of action to benefit the quality of life. And knowing about other people and their circumstances can help us live and work with them more effectively. An appreciation of diversity enhances the social skills needed in nursing, education, or any other field. New Assumptions and UnderstandingsNew Assumptions and Understandings I took my first graduate course in life span over 20 years ago. Much time was spent on the period of childhood, less on adolescence, and very little attention was given to adulthood. The message was clear: once you are 25, your development is essentially completed. Our academic knowledge of the life span has changed and although there is still less research on adulthood than on childhood, adulthood is gaining increasing attention. This is particularly true now that the large cohort known as the baby boomers are beginning to enter late adulthood. There is so much we need to find out about love, housing, health, nutrition, exercise, social, and emotional development with this large group. (Visit your local bookstore or search the internet and you will find many new titles in the self-help and psychology sections that address this population.) I was also introduced to the theories of Freud, Erikson, and Piaget, the classic stage theorists whose models depict development as occurring in a series of predictable stages. Stage theories had a certain appeal to an American culture experiencing dramatic change in the early part of the 20th century. But that sense of security was not without its costs; those who did not develop in predictable ways were often thought of as delayed or abnormal. And Freudian interpretations of problems in childhood development, such as autism, held that such difficulties were in response to poor parenting. Imagine the despair experienced by mothers accused of causing their child’s autism by being cold and unloving. It was not until the 1960s that more medical explanations of autism began to replace Freudian assumptions. Freud and Piaget present a series of stages that essentially end during adolescence. For Freud, we enter the genital stage in which much of our motivation is focused on sex and reproduction and this stage continues through adulthood. Piaget’s fourth stage, formal operational thought, begins in adolescence and continues through adulthood. Again, neither of these theories highlights developmental changes during adulthood. Erikson, however, presents eight developmental stages that encompass the entire lifespan. For that reason, Erikson is known as the “father” of developmental psychology and his psychosocial theory will form the foundation for much of our discussion of psychosocial development. Today we are more aware of the variations in development and the impact that culture and the environment have on shaping our lives. We no longer assume that those who develop in predictable ways are normal and those who do not are abnormal. And the assumption that early childhood experiences dictate our future is also being called into question. Rather, we have come to appreciate that growth and change continues throughout life and experience continues to have an impact on who we are and how we relate to others. And we recognize that adulthood is a dynamic period of life marked by continued cognitive, social, and psychological development. Who Studies Human Development?Who Studies Human Development? Many academic disciplines contribute to the study of life span and this course is offered in some schools as psychology; in other …