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Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjrl20 The Journal of Psychology ISSN: 0022-3980 (Print) 1940-1019 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20 An Exploratory Study of Perceived Discrimination and Homesickness: A Comparison of International Students and American Students Senel Poyrazli & Marcos Damian Lopez To cite this article: Senel Poyrazli & Marcos Damian Lopez (2007) An Exploratory Study of Perceived Discrimination and Homesickness: A Comparison of International Students and American Students, The Journal of Psychology, 141:3, 263-280, DOI: 10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 Published online: 07 Aug 2010. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 1854 View related articles Citing articles: 59 View citing articles http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjrl20 http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=vjrl20&show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=vjrl20&show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280#tabModule http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280#tabModule An Exploratory Study of Perceived Discrimination and Homesickness: A Comparison of International Students and American Students SENEL POYRAZLI Pennsylvania State University–Harrisburg MARCOS DAMIAN LOPEZ Northern Illinois University, DeKalb ABSTRACT. The authors examined group differences in perceived discrimination and homesickness in a sample of 439 college students (198 international and 241 U.S. stu- dents) from 2 campuses of the same university. Within the international student group, the authors also examined relationships between homesickness, discrimination, age, English proficiency, and years of residence in the United States. Results indicated that interna- tional students experienced higher levels of discrimination and homesickness than did U.S. students. Age, English proficiency, and perceived discrimination predicted home- sickness among the international students. Younger students, students with lower levels of English proficiency, and students with higher levels of perceived discrimination reported having higher levels of homesickness. Also, years of residence and race or ethnicity pre- dicted international students’ level of perceived discrimination. Being a European inter- national student predicted lower levels of perceived discrimination than did being an inter- national student from other regions of the world. The authors discuss implications for higher-education institutions and counseling personnel. Keywords: discrimination, homesickness, international students, U.S. college students HOMESICKNESS, A COMPONENT OF CULTURE SHOCK, is a major prob- lem for college students, particularly those new to the university system (S. Fisher & Hood, 1987; Tognoli, 2003). Homesickness is a psychological reaction to the absence of significant others and familiar surroundings (Archer, Ireland, Amos, Broad, & Currid, 1998). The effects of homesickness are typically negative and can include loneliness, sadness, and adjustment difficulties for students entering the university environment (Constantine, Kindaichi, Okazaki, Gainor, & Baden, 2005; Address correspondence to Senel Poyrazli, Penn State Harrisburg, W-311, Middletown, PA 17057; [email protected] (e-mail). 263 The Journal of Psychology, 2007, 141(3), 263–280 Copyright © 2007 Heldref Publications 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 263 Stroebe, van Vliet, Hewstone, & Willis, 2002). Another problem faced by college students is ethnic and racial discrimination, which still seems to be prevalent on U.S. university campuses (Biasco, Goodwin, & Vitale, 2001; D’Augelli & Hersh- berger, 1993; Hodson, Dovidio, & Gaertner, 2002; Hurtado, 1992; Rankin & Rea- son, 2005). Although university officials have tried to reduce ethnic and racial dis- crimination, researchers have not found significant reductions (McCormack, 1995, 1998; Phenice & Griffore, 1994). This combination of ethnic and racial discrimi- nation and homesickness can produce feelings of loneliness, alienation, depression, and anxiety for college students, particularly non-White students (S. Fisher & Hood, 1987; Leong & Ward, 2000; Stroebe et al.; Zheng & Berry, 1991). Howev- er, non-White students are not the only students at risk for experiencing ethnic and racial discrimination and culture shock. International students are also at great risk (Ying, Lee, & Tsai, 2000; Zheng & Berry). Our main purpose in the current study was to determine if international students perceived more discrimination and expe- rienced more homesickness than did U.S. students. We also examined differences in levels of homesickness and perceived discrimination, age, gender, race or eth- nicity, grade point average (GPA), years of residence in the United States, and Eng- lish proficiency among international students. Homesickness and Culture Shock Homesickness in college students is usually discussed as a byproduct of cul- ture shock, which can induce feelings such as alienation, anxiety, depression, homesickness, rejection and loss, hopelessness, and low self-esteem (Pedersen, 1995; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). Homesickness is a longing and desire for familiar environments and can sometimes take the form of depressive symp- toms (Pedersen; Van Tilburg, Vingerhoets, & Van Heck, 1996, 1997). Many researchers have found that homesickness affects individuals’ behav- iors and physical and psychological well being. S. Fisher and Hood (1987) found that college students who were homesick received low scores on adaptation to the college environment and higher scores on physical complaints, anxiety, and absentmindedness. Tognoli (2003) found that college students who lived farther away from their families experienced more homesickness and visited their fam- ilies more often than did students whose families lived closer. Students who were homesick received lower scores on self-esteem measures and internal locus of control measures as compared with students who were not homesick. Depression is also a common side effect. Several researchers (e.g., Beck, Taylor, & Robbins, 2003; Stroebe et al., 2002) found a positive correlation between homesickness and depression. Furthermore, Van Tilburg, Vingerhoets, Van Heck, and Kirschbaum (1999) reported that people who were homesick had more physical complaints, exhibited poorer mood (e.g., greater depression and anxiety), and experienced greater cognitive failures (e.g., difficulty with memory and concen- tration) than did people who were not homesick. 264 The Journal of Psychology 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 264 Evidence indicates that age and gender are related to homesickness; that younger people tend to experience more homesickness than do older people (e.g., Kazantzis & Flett, 1998); and that women experience more homesickness than do men (Stroebe et al., 2002). However, other researchers found that age and homesickness do not have a linear relationship, but that particular age groups are more likely to experience homesickness than are others (Eureling-Bontekoe, Brouwers, & Verschuur, 2000). Another factor related to homesickness is social support. Van Tilburg et al. (1997) indicated that individuals with plenty of social support are less likely to suffer from homesickness than are individuals who lack social support. Urani, Miller, Johnson, and Petzel (2003) conducted a path analysis and similarly found that social support was negatively related to homesickness in undergraduate stu- dents from a U.S. university. Although culture shock and homesickness seem to affect the majority of col- lege students, some groups seem to be affected more than others. For instance, Loo and Rolison (1986) postulated that non-White U.S. students entering the university environment in the United States would experience feelings such as alienation and isolation because of their entrance into a new culture where White, middle-class values are the norm. They concluded that the academic difficulty and alienation experienced by non-White students in the university setting stemmed, in part, from culture shock (Loo & Rolison). Nora and Cabrera (1996) hinted at the same conclusion but also indicated that the level of perceived dis- crimination would likely affect the adjustment process for non-White U.S. stu- dents, increasing the difficulty of adjustment. If culture shock does occur in non- White U.S. students, as the literature suggests, then international students may experience more culture shock because of the transition into a new country that may be far from home. This is important to note because, if culture shock and discrimination elicit similar emotions (e.g., homesickness, depression, anxiety, alienation; Ward et al., 2001), they may work in conjunction with compound feelings of negativity. International students have trouble adjusting to their new surroundings, pri- marily because of culture shock, which stems from confusion about the norms of the new culture (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Pedersen, 1995; Ward et al., 2001). Chapdelaine and Alexitch determined that international students experi- enced more culture shock, or a greater sense of social difficulty, than did host stu- dents. In addition, students who experienced greater cultural differences had less social interaction with host students, and lower levels of social interaction with host students intensified culture shock. Chataway and Berry (1989) found the same result in a population of Chinese, French Canadian, and English Canadian students studying in Canada. They determined that Chinese students, the major- ity of whom was international, experienced the greatest cultural difference, poor- est mental and physical health, and highest acculturative stress and tended to have less social interaction with host students. Poyrazli & Lopez 265 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 265 Homesickness may be more pronounced depending on the country of origin of the sojourners. Greater differences between one’s culture and the host culture will result in more homesickness experienced (Eurelings-Bontekoe et al., 2000). Yeh and Inose (2003) found that European students reported less stress from culture shock than did Asian, African, and Latin American students. Students who were more fluent in English and had more social support also experienced less stress. Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Researchers have studied racial and ethnic discrimination in the United States, particularly on college campuses, since the civil rights movement (Hur- tado, 1992). Results indicate that, although the United States has become a more multicultural society, large disparities exist between White and non- White individuals’ perceptions of discrimination, its effects, and those affected by it (e.g., Biasco et al., 2001; D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Hodson et al., 2002; Hurtado; Rankin & Reason, 2005). Gossett, Cuyjet, and Cockriel (1998) found that, compared with White stu- dents, African American students perceived significantly more discrimination from the administration, their peers, and faculty. Ancis, Sedlacek, and Mohr (2000) found that African American students perceived significantly more racial tension and separation than did White and Asian American students. African American, Asian American, and Latino participants reported more pressure than did White participants to conform to their racial and ethnic stereotypes, as well as to reduce any physical differences to gain acceptance by the campus culture. African American and Asian American students were also more likely to perceive faculty racism than were White students (e.g., faculty promoting unfair treatment toward a group of individuals or promoting a hostile and racist atmosphere). Ancis et al. (2000) also found that African American and Latino students were more comfortable with both racially similar and racially diverse situations than were White students. McCormack (1995) studied changes over time in discrimination at a north- eastern American university. She found that about one in four non-White students experienced a direct incident of discrimination on campus. She also found that the percentage of discrimination over time increased, particularly for African American and Latino students. Other researchers have obtained similar results (e.g., McCormack, 1998; Phenice & Griffore, 1994). The major factors involved in someone being a victim of discrimination were (a) belonging to a group that has historically been discriminated against, (b) spending more time at the uni- versity, and (c) living on campus. In another longitudinal study, McCormack (1998) found that limited lan- guage fluency in Latino participants resulted in more perceived discrimination than in participants with greater language fluency and that limited language flu- ency in Asian American participants resulted in more self-segregation than in 266 The Journal of Psychology 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 266 participants with greater language fluency. B. J. Fisher and Hartmann (1995) also found that discrimination may lead non-White students to segregate themselves from White students. The effects of discrimination or perceived discrimination on victimized racial and ethnic minorities are varied but are typically negative. Cabrera and Nora (1994) found that in-class discriminatory experiences (e.g., being singled out in class and treated differently from other students or being discouraged to partici- pate in class discussions), prejudiced faculty and staff, and racial climate were related to alienation in African American, Latino, and Asian American students. Suen (1983) found that alienation in African American students was significantly correlated with their dropout rates. Other effects of discrimination are lower self- esteem (Phinney, Madden, & Santos, 1998; Romero & Roberts, 2003), higher lev- els of stress (Pak, Dion, & Dion, 1991), higher levels of anxiety and depression (Phinney et al.), higher levels of identity problems (Leong & Ward, 2000), and chronic medical health problems (Williams, Spencer, & Jackson, 1999). Similar to non-White U.S. students, immigrant and international students experience discrimination. Some researchers have suggested that both of these groups experience or perceive more discrimination than do non-White U.S. stu- dents (e.g., Ying et al., 2000). Ying et al. compared Chinese immigrant students with Chinese American students. They found that Chinese immigrant students were more likely to be separated or alienated from mainstream culture and more likely to experience discrimination than were Chinese American students. These results do not hold true only for immigrants; international students are also at risk for experiencing discrimination. Sodowsky and Plake (1992) found that Asian and South American international students spoke less English than did European international students, and Asian, African, and South American international stu- dents perceived more discrimination than did European international students. Constantine, Kindaichi, et al. (2005) found that Asian international students experienced prejudice and discrimination. In some cases, discrimination experi- enced by international students is brought on by non-White students from the host nation or other international students (e.g., Constantine, Anderson, Berkel, Caldwell, & Utsey, 2005). Discrimination experienced or perceived by international students can be harmful to their identities. Schmitt, Spears, and Branscombe (2003) found through path analysis that, in international students, perceived discrimination led to lower self-esteem and higher identification with other international students. They also found that identification with other international students led to an increase in self-esteem, which suggests that, under the stress of feeling discrim- inated against, international students seek out identification with other interna- tional students to counteract the negative effect of discrimination on their self- esteem. Pak et al. (1991) found that discrimination was correlated with self-esteem, group attitudes, and stress; experiencing more discrimination led to lower levels of self-esteem, higher levels of in-group pride, and higher levels of Poyrazli & Lopez 267 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 267 stress. They also found that women had lower self-esteem than did men when they experienced discrimination. Study Objectives Although international students are important to the academic field for the different perspectives they offer, few services are typically provided to them by their host university. This situation is unacceptable because international students are very susceptible to culture shock. In a study of international students in 11 countries, Klineberg and Hull (1979) found that about 70% of international stu- dents either experienced or knew someone who experienced discrimination. Loneliness, a component of homesickness, seemed to be related to perceived dis- crimination because those who perceive more discrimination also feel lonelier. Few researchers have focused on the level of homesickness and perceived dis- crimination international students experience while in the host nation. Our main purpose in this study was to explore discrimination and home- sickness among a group of international and U.S. college students and examine within-group differences in the international student group. We asked three research questions: (a) What are the group differences between international and U.S. students in homesickness and discrimination? (b) What are the relationships between age, English proficiency, length of residence in the United States, per- ceived discrimination, and homesickness among international students? and (c) What are the predictors of homesickness and discrimination for international stu- dents? On the basis of the literature on discrimination, culture shock, and home- sickness, we formed four hypotheses (H): H 1 : International students would report higher levels of homesickness and perceived discrimination than would U.S. students. H 2 : International students who have lived in the United States longer would report higher levels of perceived discrimination than would international students who have lived in the U.S. for less time. H 3 : Level of perceived discrimination would predict the level of homesickness that international students experience. H 4 : Race or ethnicity would predict the level of discrimination that international stu- dents experience. Method Participants College students (N = 429; 198 international and 241 American) studying at two different campuses of one university participated in this study. In the U.S. 268 The Journal of Psychology 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 268 group, 29% were men and 71% were women. Their ages ranged from 18 to 48 years (M = 23.38 years, SD = 5.33 years). The majority (81%) of students reported that they were White, 10% were African American, 4% were Asian or Pacific Islander, 2% were Latino, and 3% reported that they belonged to anoth- er racial or ethnic group. In the international group, 58% were men and 42% were women. Ages of these students ranged from 18 to 46 years (M = 26.1 years, SD = 4.78 years). Sixteen percent of the students were undergraduates, 41% were master’s students, and 42% were doctoral students. In regard to race and ethnicity, 19% were European, 65% were Asian or Pacific Islander, 4% were Middle Eastern, 3% were African, 5% were Latino, and 4% belonged to another racial or ethnic group. Procedure We selected random courses and advanced English-as-a-second-language courses from which to collect data. American and international students received separate survey packages. To achieve more equal samples, we contacted the pres- idents of international student clubs and asked them to distribute the survey to a randomly selected group of their members (i.e., every third person on the list of student members). We also instructed them to make sure that students had not previously received the survey through a class. Each survey packet contained a copy of the measures and a self-addressed, stamped envelope for the students to send us the completed surveys. All students had the opportunity to enter a gift certificate drawing, regardless of their decision to participate in the study. We dis- tributed 400 surveys to U.S. students and 360 surveys to international students; return rate for U.S. students was 60%, and for international students it was 55%. Measures Demographics. We prepared a demographics questionnaire to ask the partici- pants about several variables, including age, gender, ethnicity, grade point aver- age (GPA), and the length of time they had lived in the United States. The ques- tionnaire also contained a single item asking the students to rate their English proficiency on a scale ranging from 1 (poor) to 4 (excellent). Homesickness. We used the Homesickness Questionnaire (Archer et al., 1998) to measure level of homesickness. Participants answer 33 items on a 5-point Likert- type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The survey mea- sures homesickness among adults and young adults. Possible scores range from 33 to 165, with higher scores indicating higher levels of homesickness. Items include, “I dream about my friends at home” and ”I get really upset when I think about home.” S. Fisher and Hood (1987, 1988) used factor analysis and found the scale to be valid and reliable. The correlation between the scale scores and a single-item Poyrazli & Lopez 269 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 269 measure of homesickness was r = .58, and internal consistency (α) of the measure was .88 (S. Fisher & Hood, 1987, 1988). In our study, internal consistency of the scale was .90 for U.S. students and .84 for international students. Discrimination. To measure perceived discrimination experienced, we asked students to indicate their response, on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), to the statement, “I feel that I receive unequal treatment because of my race or ethnicity.” Higher scores indicated higher levels of perceived discrimination. Results Group Differences in Discrimination and Homesickness We conducted an analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine if international and U.S. students differed significantly on the demographic variables of age, gen- der, and GPA. We found a significant difference between international and U.S. students in age, F(1, 431) = 30.48, p < .001; gender, F(1, 434) = 40.58, p < .001; and GPA, F(1, 370) = 62.27, p < .001. Thus, we used an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to partial out the variables of age, gender, and GPA. To answer our first research question and test H 1 , we conducted an ANCOVA to examine group differences between international and U.S. students. We found a statistically sig- nificant difference between these groups for homesickness, F(1, 335) = 57.59, p < .001, and discrimination, F(1, 364) = 26.57, p < .001. The following statistics are means and standard errors that we adjusted to account for the partialed-out demo- graphics variables. International students reported higher levels of homesickness (M = 81.26, SE = 1.52) than did U.S. students (M = 65.55, SE = 1.19). They also reported higher levels of perceived discrimination (M = 2.09, SE = .07) than did their U.S. counterparts (M = 1.59, SE = 0.06). Correlational Analysis for the International Student Group To answer our second research question and test H 2 , we conducted a Pear- son product-moment correlational analysis for international students to examine bivariate correlations among gender, age, GPA, years of residence in the United States, English proficiency, and level of perceived discrimination and home- sickness (see Table 1). Discrimination was positively correlated with age (r = .15, p < .05), years of residence in the United States (r = .17, p < .05), and home- sickness (r = .27, p < .01). Older students and students who had lived in the United States longer reported higher levels of perceived discrimination. Stu- dents who reported higher levels of discrimination also reported higher levels of homesickness. We also found that homesickness was negatively correlated with age (r = −.23, p < .01). Younger students reported higher levels of homesickness 270 The Journal of Psychology 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 270 Poyrazli & Lopez 271 T A B L E 1 . C om p ar is on o f th e U .S . an d I n te rn at io n al S tu d en t S am p le s in A ge , G ra d e P oi n t A ve ra ge ( G P A ), P er ce iv ed D is cr im in at io n , an d H om es ic k n es s In te rn at io na l st ud en ts a U .S . st ud en ts b V ar ia bl e M S D S E R an ge M S D S E R an ge A ge 26 .1 0 4. 78 — 18 –4 6 23 .3 8 5. 33 — 18 –4 8 G PA 3. 62 0. 35 — 2. 24 –4 3. 26 0. 46 — 2– 4 P er ce iv ed d is cr im in at io nc 2. 09 — 0. 07 1– 4 1. 59 — 0. 06 1– 4 H om es ic kn es sc 81 .2 6 — 1. 52 41 –1 16 65 .5 5 — 1. 19 37 –1 20 a N = 1 98 . b N = 2 41 . c W e ad ju st ed m ea ns a nd s ta nd ar d er ro rs f or p er ce iv ed d is cr im in at io n an d ho m es ic kn es s to a cc ou nt f or p ar ti al ed -o ut d em og ra ph ic va ri ab le s. 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 271 than did older students. English proficiency was correlated with gender (r = .22, p < .01), age (r = −.19, p < .01), GPA (r = .31, p < .01), and discrimination (r = −.16, p < .05). Female students, younger students, and students who had higher GPAs reported higher levels of English proficiency. Students with lower English proficiency reported higher levels of perceived discrimination. Multiple Regression Analyses for the International Student Group To answer our third research question and test H 3 and H 4 , we performed two separate, simultaneous multiple regression analyses. We regressed age, years of res- idence in the United States, English proficiency, and level of perceived discrimina- tion onto the level of homesickness for international students. Table 2 presents the results of this regression analysis for variables predicting homesickness. The model predicted 15% of the variance in homesickness, F(4, 160) = 6.92, p < .001, R2 = .15. Length of residence in the United States was not a significant predictor; however, age, English proficiency, and level of perceived discrimination significantly con- tributed to the variance. Examination of the beta signs indicated that younger stu- dents, students with lower English proficiency, and students who perceived higher levels of discrimination reported higher levels of homesickness. Next, we regressed age, years of residence in the United States, English pro- ficiency, and race or ethnicity onto the level of perceived discrimination (Table 3). The model predicted 19% of the variance in perceived discrimination, F(8, 178) = 4.83, p < .001, R2 = .19. Age and English proficiency were not significant predictors, but years of residence and race or ethnicity significantly contributed to the variance. Students who lived in the United States longer reported experi- encing higher levels of discrimination. In addition, compared to the other stu- dents, European students reported less perceived discrimination (see Table 4). Discussion The results supported H 1 , that international students would report higher lev- els of homesickness and perceived discrimination than would American students. Because of cultural and language differences, international students may have a harder time adjusting to their new environments, and this could lead them to think about and miss their family and friends in their home countries. We found that, compared with their U.S. counterparts, international students are at greater risk of perceiving or experiencing discrimination. International students may per- ceive more discrimination because of their non-American status, because they may speak English with an accent, and because they may belong to a visible racial or ethnic minority group. Regardless of the reason, it is important to note that a higher level of perceived discrimination could impede students’ accultura- tion or adjustment into their new environment and negatively affect students’ mental health (e.g., lower their self-esteem). 272 The Journal of Psychology 263-280 Poyrazli May 07 4/28/07 10:41 AM Page 272 Poyrazli & Lopez 273 T A B L E 2 . C or re la ti on al A n al ys is o f D em og ra p … ● “Perceived Discrimination” (Poyrazil & Lopez,2017) Response should assume an interested academic reader who is unfamiliar with the original reading but has some interest in the topic. In the Response, provide a general overview of the reading and then highlight a few points from the reading to discuss in more detail. For example, choosing to agree with a point made by the author, disagree with a point, or discuss why a particular point is interesting, important, or problematic. Be sure to support ideas with explanations or examples. Assessment Criteria: ● Response includes an appropriate and accurate summary of the original source. ● Response identifies interesting points from reading to discuss and possibly agree or disagree with, demonstrating evidence of critical engagement with the text. ● Claims are supported with sufficient explanation and/or examples. ● Response appropriately uses or adapts conventional features of summaries and critiques, such as reporting verbs, verb tense, evaluative language, APA citation to the source, and proper use of quotations. ● Response meets the assignment guidelines including all drafts submitted.