Fluent Essays

1. Indicate what you have learned this far in class and how it will relate to your profession. Please identify 4 different terms from any chapter 1-6 and added them into the essay. Illustrate how they are relatable to your profession. One full page size 12 font Times and New romans font 4 terms and the chapter found Introduction Chapter 01 Key Questions What role do movement skills play in human life? What is motor learning? What is motor control? How are motor learning and motor control studied? In what professional fields does knowledge in motor learning and control play a critical role? Why should you study motor learning and motor control? Introduction Motor skills Make life possible Underlie human existence Are ubiquitous Importance of effective instruction Need Ramifications https://youtu.be/n7UcobScnck Acquiring Knowledge Concerning Motor Skills Experience and tradition Sometimes first and only method of acquisition Basis of knowledge Experience as an appeal to authority Practice Most important variable in learning Scientific method https://youtu.be/btHeD_uVLLI Motor Learning Definition Process by which the capacity to produce motor skills is changed as a result of instruction, practice, or experience, and of the influences that the learner, task, and environment play on those processes. Motor Control Working definition The study of the mechanisms that underlie and are responsible for human movement and stability. Factors Influencing the Learning of Motor Skills The Learner Previous skill learning Level of motivation Age and developmental readiness Psychological characteristic Fitness level Bodily constraints on movement Factors Influencing the Learning of Motor Skills Nature of the Skill Performed in isolation or with others Executed rapidly or over time Perceptual demands Stable or changing conditions Rules constraining action Factors Influencing the Learning of Motor Skills Environment Predictability of environment Presence of observers Light, wind, surface conditions, etc. Constraints on movement possibilities Perceptual elements present in environment Occupational Uses of Knowledge in Motor Learning & Control Skill movement and human activity Recreation and leisure Job skills and rehabilitation Sports participation and musical expression Occupational Uses of Knowledge in Motor Learning & Control Athletic coach Structuring practice Understanding performance Athletic trainer Dance instructor Ergonomics designer https://youtu.be/CTp7A5R87II Fitness consultant Teaching of fitness skills Occupational Uses of Knowledge in Motor Learning & Control Occupational therapist Improve ability to perform functions of daily living and work Physical educator Safe and effective instruction Physical therapist Closing Skilled movements encompass a wide range of behaviors making human life possible. Humans adapt to new skills to acquire new ways of living The study of motor learning and control have evolved through the many different forms of research. WHAT IS A SKILL? BY: Lesly Barragan & Isaac Minor The Domains of Skill -Do we use the word skill to mean the same thing, when describing someone who is skilled in baseball as someone who is a mathematician? -Of course some of the meaning is the same, each person performs their respective skills at a high level of proficiency. -Each person is good at what they do but each skill is totally different from one another. - The baseball player expresses his skill physically, like swinging his bat to hit a homerun. - The mathematician cognitively by solving a math equation. The Domain of Skill A mathematician is using their cognitive skills, in order to perform their best skill. A baseball player will use their perceptual skills to execute a double-play. SKILL DOMAIN A skill is initially defined as belonging to one of the three domains. A skill domain is the grouping of skills based upon underlying capacities most essential for accomplishing them. Defining a skill begins with identifying whether it is cognitive, perceptual, or motor skill. https://youtu.be/pgaGa-B_5po COGNITIVE SKILLS A cognitive skill is one in which knowing what to do or how to do it is the most important aspect in accomplishing the skill. Of course perceptual and motor skills make up a part of cognitive skill but understanding and knowing are the most important capabilities for doing the skill well. Example of cognitive skills; crossword puzzles, memorizing lists of names, diagnosing an athlete’s injuries, and computer programming. Riddle me This??? https://youtu.be/C-dvWa-IIG4 PERCEPTUAL SKILLS A perceptual skill is one in which the ability to discern, or to discriminate among, sensory stimuli is of primary importance in accomplishing the skill successfully. The primary goal of the performer is not in possessing the movement capabilities necessary for acting, but in sensing when and how to act. MOTOR SKILLS Motor skills are not performed without perceptual and cognitive components. Both are needed in order to execute a motor skill function. Example: A bowler may know that he has to (knock down the pins with the ball) but actually following through with the movement is a challenge itself. Skills, Movements, and Abilities The term movement, is frequently also used as a synonym for motor skill, as in “She has mastered the various movements required to be good at basketball.” Ability is another term frequently used incorrectly to refer to motor skills. Abilities can be thought of as the building blocks of motor skills, because they underline the execution of movements. Motor Equivalence Humans are highly flexible in the ways they can move to meet environmental demands. Flexibility of action is achieved by using different muscles and joints to achieve the same skill goal. Examples: -Catching a baseball with dominant hand or nondominant hand. -Turning on a light switch using your elbow when your hands are filled with packages. Motor Variability Human action is unique, in the way that no two skills are ever accomplished in exactly the same way. Even a highly skilled performer completing successive repetitions of the same skill. Example: Tennis player hitting balls from a machine but every rep is altered by body positioning, kinematic patterns of limb movements, etc. Motor Modifiability: The Final Step Final characteristic of the motor skills is modifiability, which is the ability for the performer to modify an action once execution has begun. Example: Baseball player who begins to swing at a pitch but then lets up, stopping his swing when he sees the ball is out of the strike zone. Summary: Characteristics listed above and common to all motor skills present challenging problems in the study of motor skills, are achieved with considerable ease. The Serial-Order (Timing) Problem 50 -Consists of how the ordering and timing of the various sub elements that comprise motor skills are controlled. For example: A typist whos finger perform on a keyboard without error, or a choreographer rhythmically linking individual movement into routine, a swimmer perfectly coordinating patterns of arm circles and leg kicks while racing through the water. Skills rely on some sort of stimulus response mechanism so the sensory feedback from one response acts to initiate the following response in a sequence. This is called Linear Chaining The Skill Acquisition Problem What is the Skill Acquisition Problem? An intellectual or research problem arising in attempting to explain how motor skills are learned. However, it is really expressed in a series of subproblems. The following are the most commonly researched: What are the underlying processes responsible for skill learning? How skills are represented in the nervous system? Or are they? Are some skills innate?, or are all skills acquired through experience or practice? Do people pass through i identifiable stages when learning skills? If so, are they the same for everyone? The Classification of motor skills One Dimensional Classification system: the phenomenon of interest are classified on a continuum between two polar opposites. The Classification of Motor Skills Based Upon the Stability of the Environment The Environment refers to the context in which a person performs, as wells as the object/objects upon which the person acts. Closed Motor Skill: A skill in which action occurs in stable and predictable environment. Closed Motor skills are sometimes referred to as Self-Paced Motor Skills. (Ex. Typing) Open Motor Skills: A skill for which the object acted upon or the context in which action occurs varies from one performance to another. Often Referred to as reactive motor skills. POP Quiz !!! How would you classify bowling? Closed or Open? If you consider only the FIRST ball in each frame, it is considered closed because the environment remains constant from one attempt to the next. What about the second ball at frame? Is it Closed or Open? It depend on the bowler, A pro may knock down all the pins every time. A beginner may get a gutter ball every times. For most bowlers, the SECOND ball at frame will present a somewhat different situation than the first ball. Some have the pins have been knocked down, therefore, changing the environment. Although some second balls within frames of bowling may change, more remain predictable. Although the pins may change, the motor skill itself is still self-paced, and the movement patterns do not really change. Continuum ranges from Open to Closed. Bowling is still Classified as a Closed Motor Skill. The Classification of Motor Skills Based upon Temporal Predictability Another way to classify motor skills in a One-Dimensional system is of the the basis of predictability of their beginning and ending points. -Discrete Motor Skills: A motor skill in which the beginnings and ending points are clearly defined. Ex. Batting, Tennis Serve, Flipping a Coin -Continuous Motor Skill: A motor skill which the beginning and ending of action is arbitrary. Ex Walking, Water Skiing, Brushing your teeth, running (Repetitive and rhythmic in nature ) Serial Motor Skills: Are Discrete skills that are linked together, often through a stimulus response connections and performed in a sequence, often so rapidly that they mimic a continuous skill. https://youtu.be/-hELHdIGmpA?t=206 The Classification of Motor Skills Based Upon Movement Precision The 3rd One-dimensional system classifying motor skills based on the precision of the movented required for completing the skill. Fine motor skills: a threading needle that place primary emphasis on the precision of movement rather than on upon muscular effort Gross Motor Skills: are those that require the use of relatively large muscle. Can you Classify skills according to the One-Dimensional Classification System???? For each skill, Decide Whether it is a (1) Open or Closed Skill (2) Discrete, Serial, or Continuous Skill (3) Fine or Gross motor Skill? -Assembling a puzzle ? - Dribbling a yo-yo up and down? - Texting -Punting a football? Gentile’s Multi-dimensional Taxonomy Video #1 - play up to 3:50 The Neurological Bases of Human Movement Chapter 03 Jazmin Ramirez, Megan Wallace & Stephanie Jimenez Key Points How are motor control and learning determined at the cellular level What structures contribute to perception, and how does perception contribute to the learning and control of motor skills What is kinesthesis and what two visual systems control movements and how do they differ What are the major structures of the brain contributing to motor learning and control How does the central nervous system coordinate movements How are muscular contractions organized and controlled by the central nervous system Motor Control & Learning at the Cellular Level At the most fundamental level, the study of motor behavior is the study of connections between the various systems of the body. This vast system of nerve cells is classified within 2 main divisions: the Central Nervous system and Peripheral Nervous System. The CNS includes all nerve cells within the brain and spine, whereas all other nerve cells make up the PNS. Cells originating in the PNS communicate their information to the CNS while those originating in the CNS carry their signals away from the CNS . Neurons A neuron is the basic component of the nervous system. The functional classes of neurons found in the nervous system are sensory, motor, & interneurons. The Basic Anatomy Cell body – contains the nucleus & other organelles that produce cell energy for the cells activities Dendrites – receives messages directed toward the cell Axon – extends from the cells body to carry messages away from the neuron and thousands of terminal branches through to other dendrites The 3 types of Neurons Sensory neurons: convey information about the environment from receptors to the CNS. Motor neurons: form synapses with muscle cells relaying information from the CNS and converting it into movement. Interneurons: connect and transfer signals between sensory and motor neurons. How do neurons communicate? The path of a neural signal traveling toward the CNS (also referred to as the ascending pathway). Motor neurons follow this pathway to send to messages from the CNS to effectors (ie muscles, glands, etc.) The path of a neural signal traveling away from the CNS (also referred to as the descending pathway). Sensory neurons follow this pathway to convey information from both environment & body to the spine and brain. Afferent Efferent The Neural Impulse & Synaptic Transmission The primary function of a neuron is to transmit a signal, called the neural impulse, to another neuron. This is how the messages get across from one place to another. https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/neural-synapses/e/neuronal-synapses-questions https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tNTQVMhYpD0 Kinesthesis What is kinesthesis? A sense of position and movement of the body and limbs and of external forces acting on the body What does the kinesthetic system involve? System composed of muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, joint receptors and the vestibular apparatus Kinesthetic sense provides information which we utilize to perform ordinary high skill activities EX: walking, running, climbing stairs, eating, driving Perception The process by which sensations arising from within or outside of the body bright to conscious awareness Various receptors that allow us to perceive Proprioceptors receptors located in the body that supply information about forces within muscles, joint, limb positioning, movement and general body positioning/orientation Joint Receptor Mechanoreceptors located in capsules of all synovial joints which provide information on joint angle perception- how we interpret, give meaning to and orient ourselves in this world Exteroception Perception of information in the environment external to the body Cutaneous Receptors Receptors located in the dermis and epidermis which stimuli pressure, heat, cold, pain and chemical stimuli Perception (Cont) Visual Systems Focal Visual System Conscious visual system specialized for object identification Attention demanding EX: Texting while walking Ambient Visual system Nonconscious visual system specialized for movement control Activities an individual is not aware of Ex: Movement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0RXZPVjJDw&t=414s 00:55 secs. Ambient visual system is responsible for movement awareness Focal vs. Ambient Vision FOCAL AMBIENT COLOR VISION VISION IN SHADES OF GRAY HIGH VISUAL ACUITY LOW VISUAL ACUITY CENTRAL VISUAL FOCUS PERIPHERAL VISION NEEDS GOOD ILLUMINATION (DAY VISION) GOOD IN LOW ILLUMINATION (NIGHT VISION) CONSCIOUS AWARENESS NON CONSCIOUS PERCEPTION MODERATE DISCERNMENT OF MOVEMENT LIMITED BY CONSCIOUS AWARENESS HIGH MOVEMENT DISCERNMENT UNDER QUICK AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL Optic Flow The patterning of light rays moving across the retina that supplies information concerning the speed and direction of the movement of objects in the movement EX: Car ride (things move) The Human Brain •The brain mediates all mental functions and all behaviors . •It weights no more than three pounds and is comprised of 100 billion neurons that integrates sensory input from somatosensory and visual systems that processes in the brain controlling the action of muscular system . •The brain is composed of the brainstem , cerebellum , and the cerebrum . The Brain Stem •It is a pedestal like structure connecting the spinal cord with the upper brain . It controls autonomic functions such as digestion , sweating , and maintenance of attention levels. • Medulla- part of the brain stem responsible for regulation of blood pressure , respiration , and heart rate. •Pons- responsible for integrating sensory signals and routing them forward to higher brain centers . •Reticular formation – area of the brain stem that acts to filter out unrelated sensory input from further processing activities . • The Cerebellum •Role is to make sure that neural messages are routed correctly and to resolve any that are misdirected. It also involved in motor coordination , muscle tone , balance & learning of motor skills . Cerebrum •Is composed of the large hemispheres comprising most of the brain . It functions as the center of the learning , emotional control, memory & voluntary movement . It consisted of a corpus callosum , hippocampus , diencephalon , hypothalamus , thalamus , basal ganglia . The Limbic System •It plays a critic role in motivation , formation of memories , emotions & control of movements •https://youtu.be/jcrWPo_s6EE Cerebral Cortex •Cerebral cortex: Outer layer of the cerebrum composed of gray matter, and the major site of higher brain functions such as abstraction, reasoning, decision making, and voluntary motor control. •Somatosensory cortex : Sensory perception, routes sensory information to motor centers of cortex, and prioritizes sensory sensitivity of bodily regions. •Motor cortex : Directly controls skeletal muscle contractions, prepares and executes the motor program and prioritizes complexity of motor control available to the bodily regions. •Homunculus: A bodily representation indicating size of body regions as proportional to area devoted to them by either the somatosensory cortex or motor cortex. The Neural Control of the Muscular system •Humans have approximately 600 muscles and 326 skeletal muscles controls all voluntary actions . •Every muscle fiber in every muscle is controlled by a motor neuron . Neurons that supply skeletal muscle is called an alpha motor .Motor unit is an alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers that it supplies . •Then every muscle in the body is controlled by a number of motor unit, which the exact number varies depending on the size & functional requirement . •The number of motor units within a muscles motor unit pool is for movement precision and generation of force . •All – or none law : all the muscle fibers in a motor unit contracts maximally or none contract at all . •Rate modulation refers to the process of varying the rate or frequency . •Motor unit recruitment: activated and deactivated in a sequence or order described by the size principle •They have two different muscle fibers which are slow twitch and fast twitch muscle fibers . •Within the rate modulation a second contraction is added that produces greater tension than a single twitch called temporal summation . Then , with the additional signals the strength of contractions increases and reaches a point called tetany . • The modulation of motor unit activation rates , along with recruitment of motor unit based on specific fibers and characteristic makes graduation of muscular forces necessary for many movement skills in which we engage . CH:4 Theoretical Perspective By: Precious Salazar, Fabian Zamora, and Jaslie Gomez Martinez Questions to focus on What is a scientific theory, and why are theories important in the study of motor skills? What are the relative strengths and weaknesses of each of the major theories underlying the study of motor skills? How can differing theories be useful in explaining motor skill behavior, even when they are based on seemingly contradictory theoretical assumptions? Theory Theory: a coherent statement or set of statements relating a large number of observations into a logical and testable framework; a theory must be open to empirical verification and prediction of future observations within its conceptual area of phenomena Provides a perspective, allows us to see how individual facts are connected to form a single, meaningful picture of human movement How to know if its a good theory? it accounts for a significantly large class of observations on the basis of only a few simple, though powerful, propositions. Second, it makes definite predictions about the results of future observations—it is testable. Two major theories Closed control system: A system in which the mechanisms of control are internal and closed to influences outside of the system itself.( Focuses on the working of the central nervous system) Open control system: A system that interacts with the environment outside of itself and responds to external influences in its mechanisms of control. More than one theory can be correct cognitive-based and dynamical systems perspectives both meet criteria to be good scientific theories both explain in fairly parsimonious yet elegant terms a large and diverse set of observations concerning human movement. Both also have proved successful in predicting new observations, Cognitive Based theory The oldest and probably most intuitive approach to understanding how movement skills are acquired and controlled is to consider them as products of mental activity, or in more psychological terms as products of cognitive processes. motor program: A procedural memory comprised of the rules commanding muscular activity for producing specific skills. The idea of a motor program, taking a good deal of license with the concept, is so immediately intuitive that it goes back at least 25 centuries, to the time of the ancient Greeks and the philosopher Plato. Plato believed that before a movement could be performed, a person first had to form an idea, a mental picture, of the movement. Information Processing Model information processing model: A model of cognitive processes occurring in the central nervous system underlying the production of motor skills; three stages are identified, including the perceptual,decision-making, and programming stages. perceptual stage:The first stage of information processing in which sensory information is detected and identified. Decision Making Stage: the individual uses information transmitted from the perceptual stage to decide upon a course of action. In this stage, information from the perceptual stage is compared to past information to determine an appropriate action Programming Stage: preparing the appropriate motor program to carry out the action decided upon in the decision-making stage. Closed-Loop Systems This is also referred to as a Servo-Mechanism. This is an error detection device that constantly monitors the system for discrepancies between desired and actual conditions and automatically makes adjustments to correct detected errors. In a closed loop control corrections are made on the basis of feedback. Closed-loop systems are believed to underlie the control of movements that are relatively slow and deliberate. (ex. Driving a car, threading a needle, running to catch a fly ball, maintaining one’s balance while standing still) Closed-Loop system (cont.) Closed-loop control does not depend upon detailed movement instructions.It depends on a more general set of controlling guidelines, coupled with task- specific goals, initiate action, and feedback is then used to adjust muscular commands in compliance with task goals. Closed-loop control is a hierarchical system with one important distinction. control centers responsible for initiating, monitoring, correcting, and commanding lower levels of the musculature entail central processes within the brain, information necessary to these central processes is derived through sensory feedback. Advantages & Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Control Advantages especially appropriate when performing unpracticed skills obvious advantage of allowing movements to be corrected once they have begun, rather than having movement errors continue until action is completed constant error detection and correction processes, can result in precise and accurate movement Closed loop systems Disadvantages they are attention demanding so, because of the requirement to monitor feedback and generate new movement commands in response, individuals must use much of their conscious and attentional resources in maintaining the quality of their movements. time required to prepare and execute successive corrections to an ongoing action. This means too little time to allow for the preparation of corrective actions Open-Loop Systems There is no mechanism for monitoring sensory feedback and correcting ongoing movements, as in a closed-loop system. Perceptual sensing mechanisms detect information in the environment and act to determine whether a response is required. FeedForward: Rather than using sensory information as feedback during the performance of a skill, open-loop systems use environmental information in order to prepare the motor system Open-loop control appears to underlie many skills that individuals perform everyday. Skills that are performed quickly (with insufficient time available for attending to feedback) and automatically (with little or no conscious attention paid to them) are excellent candidates for open-loop control Advantages and Disadvantages for Open-Loop System Advantages It is capable of producing quick movements because the commands for action are prestructured and, once initiated, carried out without the need for further major modification. Because movement commands are prestructured, attentional resources can be directed toward other tasks rather than being diverted to the conscious control of ongoing movement. Disadvantages it is not effective for skills which are unpracticed or not well learned. The motor programs for such skills would be either insufficiently developed or absent altogether. It should be remembered that motor programs are a type of memory, and until such memories are sufficiently developed through repetition and practice, sufficient motor commands for effective skill production are unavailable because motor programs anticipate particular environmental conditions, open-loop control is not effective in changing environments. Open-/Closed-Loop Control Continuum Closed-loop theory proposed by Jack Adams at the University of Illinois. A major difference in these two theories was the role accorded sensory feedback in the production of motor skills. Those favoring closed-loop models tended to conduct research investigations utilizing relative slow, self-paced skills such as tracking tasks to demonstrate the explanatory efficacy of closed-loop models. Open-loop theory proposed by Richard Schmidt at the University of Southern California. Supporters of open-loop systems, on the other hand, typically designed their investigations around rapid, discrete tasks, which generally favored open-loop explanations of control. These two types of control can be viewed as describing different ways in which the central and peripheral nervous systems initiate and control actions. Open-/Closed Loop Continuum An example of the symbiotic cooperation between closed-loop and open-loop control processes is observed when considering how individuals balance between speed and accuracy when performing rapid tasks. Examples: Pitching fastball, parry in fencing, speed typing Fast and accurate to be successful. However if done too fast you will have more errors and do poorly Speed–accuracy trade-off: The observation that in the performance of many skills an increase in the speed with which the skill is performed is accompanied by a decrease in performance accuracy, and vice versa. Fitts Law The trade-off between speed and accuracy is described by Fitts’ law, one of the oldest and most important laws of motor control. Fitts’ law: Law expressing the mathematical relationship between speed of movement and accuracy for discrete aiming tasks. Although its original application was to continuous aiming tasks, the predictions of Fitts’ law have been shown to hold for discrete as well as continuous skills, for individuals of all ages, for skills using different effectors (fingers, hands, arms, legs), and for skills performed underwater as well as on land. Fitts Law Attempts to reconcile the implications of Fitts’ law with the notions of open and closed-loop control mechanisms eventually led to the conclusion that both control systems play essential roles when both speed and accuracy are important in achieving task goals. Three phases of control have been proposed. 1st phase (movement preparations): individual evaluates the environmental conditions present, determines that the appropriate action requires a rapid response, selects the appropriate motor program from memory, and programs the needed motor commands. 2nd phase (initial flight/ first movement phase): phase, the preprogrammed motor program is initiated through open-loop control, purpose of this phase is to move the requisite body part toward a target or final location quickly. 3rd phase (termination phase/ happens at end of the movement): under closed-loop control, the individual uses feedback (primarily visual) to assess the accuracy of the initial flight phase and makes any needed final corrections necessary for completing the task successfully. Adams closed loop theory He believed that learning involved the forming and strengthening of neural traces in the brain’s cortex. His conception, a motor program consisting of two separate traces was responsible for the learning and control of all voluntary motor skills. If sensory feedback from the ongoing action does not match the perceptual trace, then new muscular commands are generated to bring sensory feedback into alignment with desired action goals. Adam’s closed loop theory cont. Memory trace: role of the memory trace, according to Adams’ theory, is to select and initiate the desired action. Once initiated, the primary responsibility for the ongoing control of a movement is assigned to a second cortical trace called the perceptual trace. Perceptual trace: evaluates the correctness of the action executed by the memory trace. It continually monitors and compares response-produced feedback from ongoing movement with a reference of correctness representing the feedback qualities expected in a correct response. The theoretical implications of Adams’ closed-loop model supported several conclusions concerning the practice of skills, placing especially considerable emphasis on the roles of practice repetitions and augmented feedback. Problems of novelty and storage Problems of novelty and storage came to be by the one’s involved in the study of motor skills Novelty Problem: was one of the first problems, it is a deficiency of simple motor program theory based on the notion that individuals should be unable to effectively produce unpracticed variations of learned movements because they have not developed specific motor programs for them. Since a memory trace is a result of practice, an unpracticed skill cannot be performed correctly for the first time So, Adam’s theory, the memory trace is nonexistent because it has not been developed through previous practice Novelty Problem Storage Problem This problem can be immediately recognized in everyday situations. Ex: people will have many years of driving experience but suddenly they come across a new situation or road conditions that they have never experienced but they can still easily adapt their driving. Slight differences in how a skill was practiced would require a separate and specific memory or motor program It’s hard to explain how the vast number of individual memory structures are needed because there are so many skills and different types of skill that people are able to perform Schmidt’s Schema Theory A theory of motor programs first proposed by Schmidt in 1975 that assumes that motor programs are made up of an abstract set of rules that can be generalized to control an entire class of actions. Schmidt recognized that there was a problem with contemporary theories, such as that proposed by Adams, thus the problems of novelty and storage. Schmidt’s solution: every unique expression of a skill does not require a separate motor program, but that the motor program is more general in nature and adaptable to a wide variety of different ways in which a specific skill might be performed provided a new and useful framework for studying motor skills It advanced our understanding of how skills are learned and controlled Invariant feature of the GMP (generalized motor program) Ex: Writing a certain phrase in different ways may change the features of your writing those features that did not change from one writing method to another are called invariant features There are 3 sources of invariance in human motor skills: the sequencing of actions or components: writing the phrase in the same order relative timing: the proportion of time used each time to write a letter was always constant relative force: the force used for each phrase was also constant in each scenario GMPs form rules for a “movement class.” Schmidt termed all the different ways a skill might be performed while relying on the same rules of sequence, relative timing, and relative force, as a movement class. All of the possible movements controlled by a single generalized motor program, typically sharing common coordination patterns. Ex: Throwing softballs at various distances can be considered as a movement class This is because regardless of the distance thrown, even to an unpracticed distance, the throwing action is still accomplished by the same rules and so can be effectively accomplished by the GMP. Variant Features of the GMP Variant feature: The aspects of a motor program that change from one performance attempt to another, including bodily states, environmental factors, and task goals. Parameters: Features of a skill that must be added to the invariant features of a generalized motor program to meet the specific demands of a situation. They include overall duration, overall force, and muscle selection. They can be easily modified from one performance to another to improve motor response variations Example: throwing the ball to the third base from different areas of the field Walking up and down stairs from different heights 3 Parameters in Schema Theory 1. The overall duration: can be increased or decreased as a unit according to changes in the overall duration parameter 2. The overall force: the overall force and amplitude (size of the movement) can be modified. 3. The muscle selection: the various effectors that can be used to perform the same movement (hand, foot, mouth in writing) can be modified All of these correspond to the 3 rules of invariance Specifying Parameter Values—The Schema Schema: A set of rules relating the various outcomes of an individual’s actions to the parameter values the individual chooses in order to produce those outcomes Ex: short distance of throw would be the individuals actions Produced outcomes would be the small amount of force Schema theory is based on adapting to previous experiences. Each movement attempt provides the learner with information about the movement that is translated into a relationship which will then be used to guide future attempts. MODERN DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS THEORY Dynamical systems are systems in motion,or systems that change over time. Dynamical systems that act in nonlinear ways share an important characteristic that they are complex. Ex: Neither a rock nor an airplane is a dynamical system, but the geological evolution of rocks and the flight of airplanes are dynamical. Dynamical Systems and Complexity To be complex a system must exhibit all four of these qualities: Diversity (comprised of many elements differing in kind) Connection (form a linked network) Interdependence (a change in one element affects all other elements) Adaptation (capable of change, i.e., of learning) Systems that exhibit complexity, such as human movement, produce bottom-up, emergent phenomena. This is expressed by two essential and cooperating features of dynamical systems theory… Emergence and Self Organization Complexity: A characteristic of systems that are comprised of diverse elements that are connected and interdependent, and capable of adaptation. Examples of complex systems include areas as diverse as weather and climate,economics, biological systems, chemical reactions, bird migration patterns, population growth, highway traffic flow, social fads, and baseball records. Human movement skills also possess the qualities of complexity Self Organization & Emergence Emergence: entails the creation of something new that transcends the parts from which it is produced. Ex: Consciousness does not reside in an individual neuron but when millions of neurons are organized consciousness emerges. With emergence something new is created (the macro (consciousness) differs from the micro(neurons) Self-organization: The tendency for elements within a complex system to synergistically adapt so that new states or patterns emerge. No overall command structure A process whereby the organization of a system spontaneously increases and becomes more stable because of inherent properties within the system itself. Ex: the spontaneous formation of crystals, the homeostatic self-maintaining nature of cells, and the formation of galaxies Self organization Two Characteristics Openness: the system is open to its environment, that it actively seeks information from its environment and makes that information widely available to all parts of the system. Self-reference: deterministic principles inherent within the system itself that guide the organization of the system When information is received by the system concerning changes in the external environment, the system always adapts in a way that remains consistent with its own inherent guiding principles. The Emergence of Motor Skills—A Dynamical Systems Analysis Three premises about the control and learning of all motor skills: Various constraints impose boundaries on movement possibilities. Diverse movement system components self-organize into emergent patterns. Self-organization directs emergence toward preferred, attractor states. State space: All of the possible patterns or states that a system is capable of assuming. The state space for water includes all of the temperatures between 32° F and 212° F. Movement constraints Constraint: Boundaries that limit the possible values or patterns that a system can assume that are imposed by the organism, physical environment, and task itself Ex: water is limited to temperatures between 32° F (ice) and 212° F(steam).Water is therefore constrained, or bounded, by temperature.Temperature is a constraint for water organismic constraint: Characteristics of an individual that act as constraints on movement, including structural characteristics such as height, weight, and body shape, as well as functional characteristics such as intelligence,motivation, and psychological states. Environmental constraint: Features of the physical environment such as gravity, temperature, and light that act to constrain movement patterns; also includes social features such as cultural norms that constrain movement behavior. task constraint: Constraints on human movement imposed by the task performed, including task goals, equipment used, and mandated rules and procedures. Combined effects of constraints Each category of constraints and each individual constraint within those categories imposes its particular boundaries upon movement options. the combined effects of all constraints acting upon the moving person are synergistic. Awareness of the three ways in which movement is constrained and of the interactions among the task, person, and environment is also critical to effective practice and learning Attractors of Phase Shifts Phase shift: In a dynamical system, the spontaneous transition from one organizational pattern to another as a result of self-organization. Ex: sudden breakup of a smooth flowing stream into a rushing turbulence, a kernel of corn popping Attractor: an organizational arrangement that keeps a system’s component parts working in harmony to fulfill the system’s mission A system may have a number of attractors, each one being more effective than the others under given environmental conditions. Relative to human movement systems, attractors are states of spatial-temporal muscular organization that are able to maintain stable movement patterns with the greatest efficiency in specific situations Keslo & Schoner Experiment Subjects were told to move their index fingers in beat to the metronome. Subjects fingers were doing the same movements simultaneously but opposite.This is called antiphase because two fingers are actually out of phase with one another doing opposite things. The speed of the metronome gradually increased This caused a new pattern called Inphase to arise. Inphase: both fingers adducted and abducted at the same time. researchers observed that as the speed of the metronome increased, there was a point at which subjects maintained the antiphase pattern even though it was becoming more and more difficult for them to do so. It was only when a critical speed was finally reached that the new and more effective in-phase pattern spontaneously emerged. Chapter Five:The Learning of Motor Skills By Julie Aguilar and Tomas Pena Performance Performance Definition: qualitative or quantitative assessment of what can be observed during the execution of a skill Performance is Observable Behavior Performance is the execution of a skill at a specific time and in a specific location or situation Examples of Performance: Measurement of Quantitative Performance: a 200-yard drive Measurement of Qualitative Performance: the Bobcats had a poor season Learning Learning Definition: a relatively stable change in performance resulting from practice or experience Learning is the process of when people acquire a new capacity to perform a skill We can determine if learning has occurred or not based on observations or performance Learning is not (and never is) observed directly, but rather is inferred from performance observations Learning Learning has occurred when these three conditions have been met: 1.) Learning is a change in performance or the capacity to perform 2.) Learning results from practice to experience 3.) learning is relatively stable or permanent The Learning-Performance Distinction The major problem with assuming that performance is an accurate reflection of learning is that such thinking leads to further assumption that learning is best facilitated when it is accompanied by good performance Performance is a temporary expression of a learner’s ability to execute a skill Performance variables are the presence of temporary factors that are existing within the practice of performance; it includes instructional, environmental, and learner characteristics Instructional Characteristics Type of practice schedule The order in which various skills are sequenced The relative intensity or restfullness of practice The use of simplification techniques such as part practice Type of instructions provided to learners The amount and type of feedback given to learners Environmental Characteristics The physical characteristics of the practice setting as well as any equipment that is used in executing skills Learner Characteristics Anxiety Fatigue Motivation Physical condition The use of stimulants or drugs Whether practicing alone or in the presence of others Learning-Performance Distinction Finding that performance measures during acquisition may mask the true degree of learning that has occurred Some factors may help or depress a learners capacity to perform but these factors are not permanent Overview of Performance and Learning Assessing Learning-Measuring ART ART (Acquisition, retention, and transfer measurements): acronym used in assessing learning in an experiment Acquisition: those practice experiences of a skill designed to influence the learning of the skill Direct measurement of performance experiences Any changes in performance observed over practice Analogous to practice periods acquisition trials include all practice attempts designed specifically for purposes of skill learning Acquisition measurements are direct, faithful recordings of observed performance Performance Curve: a series of acquisition measures that are graphed to illustrate changes in performance over the course of practice Illustrate effects of various performance variables on skill attainment Retention Test: a measurement of performance conducted subsequent to acquisition trials and after sufficient time has elapsed to allow any effect of performance variables to dissipate Retention: the persistence of improvement in the performance of a skill over a period of no practice; it is interpreted as a measure of learning Retention Interval: the time elapsed between the completion of acquisition trials and a retention test in a learning experiment Retention Learning is a relatively permanent improvement in performance, then performance that has retained over a period of non-practice can be said to have been learned Performance variables may influence performance positively or negatively but their effects are temporary Transfer Test Transfer Test: A type of retention test in which the object is to measure the amount of learning that can be transferred to a similar but different skill, or to the original skill in a new context Transfer tests measure learning effects in terms of the adaptability, or generalizability of learning John Shea and Robyn Morgan (1979) Conducted an experiment to research motor skills Blocked Practice: a practice schedule in which the same skill is rehearsed in repetitive fashion Random Practice: A practice schedule in which different skills are rehearsed in an unpredictable trial to trial order They conducted a transfer test in which subjects from the blocked practice group were transferred to a randomly presented block of six trials as a transfer test, whereas subjects from the random practice group were presented with a block of six trials of the same pattern as their transfer test (with an equal number of each of the three patterns distributed among them). The remaining half of the subjects in both the blocked and random practice groups, those not receiving the retention test, were then transferred to a transfer test of the opposite condition from that under which they had practice. Shea and Morgan concluded that even though skill performance was better under a blocked practice schedule than under a random practice schedule, retention and transfer were better for those practicing under a random schedule of skill order. Based upon these results, Shea and Morgan concluded that random practice results are better for learning than blocked practice, at least for conditions similar to those of their experiment. Blocked Practice and Random Practice https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8SVtPnZ2Xw The Shape of Learning Performance Curve: a two dimensional graph of the changes in performance measures over time as a result of practice Units of performance are measured on the vertical or y-axis and trials on the horizontal or x-axis, once the data is plotted a “line of best fit” can be drawn to represent the general pattern or shape of performance The presence of any number of performance variables may be clouding the true degree of learning, which could be either greater of less than indicated by the performance curve alone The more trials, no longer the acquisition period, the more stable performance appears to become over time, and the more accurately the performance curve can be considered representative of learning Types of Performance Curves Linear Performance Curve: A performance in which equal amounts of time or number of trials during practice correspond to equal increases in performance measures Negatively Accelerating Performance Curve: A performance curve exhibiting diminished improvements in performance measures as a function of time or trials of practice Positively Accelerating Performance Curve: A performance curve exhibiting increasing improvements in performance measures as a function of time or trials of practice S-Shaped Performance Curve: A performance curve exhibiting relatively slow rates of improvement both early and late during acquisition, but accelerated rates of learning during the middle phase of acquisition Types of Performance Curves Is There a “Normal” Performance Curve? The most common learning curve is negatively accelerating curve, when acquiring motor skills most people experience the greatest rate of improvement early on and once the skill has been learned to moderate level the improvements begin to diminish When performance requires difficult skills a positively accelerating or S-Shaped performance curve is more likely to result, early on will be difficult then there is improvement but once the difficult skills are acquired a negatively accelerating curve will typically follow Performance Curves May Represent Only Performance curves are representations of learning patterns only during early and intermediate phases of learning After an intermediate stage of learning has been achieved, all four curves merge into a negatively accelerating pattern What Performance Curves Reveal about the Nature of Learning When learning new motor skills you experience rapid improvements in performance but as practice continued the rate at which you improved slowed down The Law of Practice: improvement in performance continues as long as practice continues, but the rate at which it occurs gradually and predictably diminishes over time or number of practice trials; it can be expressed mathematically as a power function Logarithmic Power Function: mathematical expression exhibiting that performance continues to improve toward an upper limit, but at a progressively diminishing and predictable rate Monotonic Benefits Assumption: the notion that learning occurs at the same rate as long as practice continues, though its manifestations in performance decreases at a predictable rate https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QP4kRV_lsVQ The Asymptotic Nature of Learning Asymptote: theoretical upper limit to learning that is progressively approached with practice but that is never reached Overlearning: the concept that practice of a newly acquired skill beyond the point of mastery benefits long-term retention of the skill Overlearning the concept that practice of a newly acquired skill beyond the point of mastery benefits long term retention of a skill Mastery Level: a predetermined performance level established as the goal of practice Original Learning: The amount of practice required to attain a specific level of mastery How much overlearning is required to maximize retention of learned skills? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwbT8XWeens The Transfer of Learning Transfer: the influence of practicing one skill on the learning of another skill or of the same skill in a new context The practice of any motor skill typically assumes some degree of transfer. Target Skill: The task a person wishes to be able to perform as a result to practice. Target Context: The environmental situation in which an individual wishes to perform a particular skill as a result of practice. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N8QfkT8L9lo Positive Transfer and Negative Transfer Positive Transfer: when learning one skill positively influences the learning of another skill or of the same skill in a new context Negative Transfer: when learning one skill negatively influences the learning of another skill or of the same skill in a new context https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhRL17T28Ho Kahoot Testing https://kahoot.com/ Chapter 6 Memory and Learning By: Jordan, John, Nataly WHAT IS MEMORY? Memory is the process enabling humans to retain information over time. It is the capacity to learn from experiences PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF A MEMORY A memory is housed in the brain through networks of neurons. Those networks of neurons are known as a memory trace. Memory trace: hundreds of thousands of individual neurons joined through millions of synaptic connections forming vast highways of electrochemical patterns representing specific memories.. PAST BELIEVES In the past, they believed that neural networks were located in specific brain centers, but now it is clear that there is no single center for a memory. A memory is compartmentalized into various regions- the hippocampus, frontal lobes, motor cortex, etc.- and they can be retrieved when needed. The big question with memory is whether it’s located someplace or if it’s a process that occurs only when the memory is retrieved. To this day they still don’t know. WHAT IS MEMORY CONTINUED... Any memory system requires 3 things - to encode, store, and retrieve, They form the primary processes describing memory. Encoding : the process involved in originally registering information from the environment into memory. Storage: the capacity to retain encoded information in both active and inactive forms until needed Retrieval: the ability to locate & recall information stored within memory systems COGNITIVE BASED THEORIES OF MEMORY A widely accepted theory among cognitive-based scientist is that the individual components of memory, when retrieved, come together in convergence centers. Convergence Centers is the theory that memories are stored in parts across the brain & only brought together through retrieval processes near the sites where they were initially perceived. Advocates of this approach assume that convergence centers are hierarchical. Meaning they range from low-level centers to high-level centers for specific memory features. FOR EXAMPLE: A lower-level center for all striking skills A somewhat higher-level center for striking skills using a tennis racquet An even higher-level center for returning balls using a backhand striking movement Finally a highest-level center for shot placement in a specific situation using a back handed return So instead of having to store many individual memory elements, the hierarchical arrangements makes both storage space & retrieval processes manageable. DYNAMICAL SYSTEM THEORIES OF MEMORY Most critical to these dynamical theorists is that newly developing views of memory appear to highlight processes of self-organization, adapting networks, and emergence. Dynamical system theorists also point to the fact that memory appears conditioned by specific environmental feature both at the time of formation and later during recall, and by an individual’s previous knowledge, perceptual capabilities, and psychological state.. Point being that many aspects of of the original event encoded within memory must be taken into account Neural processes alone are not sufficient to explain memory; it’s viewed as a bottom- up process in which many systems and subsystems interact and have equally important roles to play in memory & the learning of movement skills MEMORY SYSTEMS Memory is composed of two independent systems, and one of those independent systems is made up of two subsystems. The memory systems that make up the human memory are the declarative system which subdivides into the semantic and episodic system, and the procedural system. DECLARATIVE MEMORY SYSTEM A system containing our memories concerning objective facts and events. It contains the knowledge of which we are consciously aware. When we think about our memories, we are really thinking about declarative memories... SEMANTIC MEMORY (SUBSYSTEM) Includes generalized knowledge about the world . It allows us to make sense of the world; it provides the knowledge we need to organize, interpret, and give meaning to ongoing events.. Semantic memory is also independent of the sequence and context in which information occurs. They are stored independently from where and when they were originally acquired... MEMORY SYSTEMS CONTINUED... EPISODIC MEMORY (SUBSYSTEM) Stores information concerning specific events as related to an individual; holding personal nature and specifying the time and place that events occurred... Episodic memory is autobiographical It’s also context and sequence related, meaning it tells us where and when the events occurred- provides the basis for organizing events into a meaningful time frame... PROCEDURAL MEMORY SYSTEM Story of H.M :https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0Od5DrdPA4 The story of H.M is what lead to discover that a specialized memory system exists for motor skills, but that a separate memory system exists that underlies all skill learning It’s how they discovered the procedural memory system. It’s specialized to store information for skills; it contains memories underlying skills in all 3 domains of skilled behavior- cognitive, perceptual and motor. PROCEDURAL SYSTEM CONTINUED It deals with “how to” perform various skills rather than “knowing about” the skills. It’s a rule based system containing procedures to complete the action... Procedural control of skills is carried out without the need for conscious attention, this is referred to as automaticity. This means that our conscious awareness can be directed toward other activities while still performing skills effectively. Ex: Basketball player dribbling a ball Some degree of declarative knowledge must typically first be developed and is essential before procedural memory can be formed. For example: In learning a motor skill you “think” your way through performing the skill using the conscious facts you encode into declarative memory. Overtime the declarative knowledge fades and you begin to do more and more skill automatically without “thinking” about it. This is an illustration that your knowledge of the underlying skill is being transferred from declarative to procedural memory. Novice and Expert Scientist have two studies that are designed to highlight differences between a beginning and experienced performer based upon how each of them uses memory. One study was conducted under golfers using a cognitive-based assumptions concerning memory Beilock and Carr Conducted an experiment on declarative memory comparing golfers putting performance of experts v novice who could be expected to be differentially relying on declarative and procedural memory in golfing After the putting both groups were asked to produce a “generic knowledge protocol” of how the golf putt should be performed correctly Their answers were compared to interviews with pro golf instructors and an analysis of a “how to book” As expected, expert golfers were significantly better than novices at generating correct lists of steps for putting; their answers were longer, more detailed, and considerably more accurate. This shows that experts had superiorly developed semantic memories of putting compared to the less experienced novices. Beilock and Carr pt.2 Asked both groups “Pretend that your friend walked into the room. Describe the last putt you took, in enough detail that your friend could duplicate the last putt you took in detail” The novice produced longer, more detailed, and more accurate descriptions of their performance than the experts, they displayed a better episodic memory of their attempts. It was hypothesized that the experts’ reliance on well developed, but automatic and nonconscious, procedural memories of putting actually blocked their recall of the performance events as they performed the action The actual putting, experts controlled their actions more through procedural memory structures that effectively blocked access to their episodic monitoring of events as they happened. Highly skilled performances are controlled through automated actions. Expertise-induced amnesia - term used to describe the tendency for highly skilled performers to exclude performers toe exclude episodic monitoring during the execution of skills What does that mean? Overthinking when putting can block a skilled golfer’s access to procedural memory, resulting in “choking” The primary cause of “choking” in athletic or other stressful situations, results when experts attempt to pay too much attention to their external environments vs too little which has sometimes been argued as the cause of choking The cause of choking appears to be thinking about how to do the skill using your declarative memory which have been encoded into your procedural memory. Using declarative memories during your well developed procedural memory disrupts the normal automated and nonconscious fashion This study supports a theory of choking called the expert-monitoring hypothesis, that paying too much attention to well-learned skills may prove detrimental to performance. Stages of Memory We must first, be aware of our environment and more to the point, We decide what to do and in response and how to do it, then if we are to learn or memorise we must be able to retain the lessons of past experiences for use in the future. This is made possible with the three essential functions in three separate stages Sensory Memory - First stage information from environment first enters memory through this stage be aware of our environment and focus what is important Short-term memory - Second stage info that is transferred from sensory for further processing. Only holds a limited amount of info. Long-term memory - Responsible for learning. Info is more or less permanent Sensory memory Takes in everything registered by the body’s various sensory receptors and holds it briefly which then is organized and prioritized and encoded in transferable form for transfer to following stages. Sensory memory is basically the filter or clearinghouse of what is important for further attention and action Capacity of sensory memory is unlimited but only lasts about 1/10 - 1 second https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHwD5Ut0cmE Short Term Memory Is described as the working memory - Temp work space within short-term memory combining incoming perceptions with info from long term memory Responsible for decision making and commanding the musculature to carry out decisions it has a limited capacity in terms of info that it can process at one time. Magic number 7+/-2 representing the chunks of information that can be processed, no more than 5 chunks or 9 chunks of information at any point. STM can be held for 20-30 seconds if it is not used then it is lost and cannot be retrieved for further processing or action https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cnNx9R1At9s Long term memory LTM contains our memories of past experiences and forms basis for learning Includes procedural, semantic, and episodic information encoding in a way that allows for retrieval of memories LTM relies on amount of time or number of trials practicing, attention, and motivation. ( More times you practice the, the greater your attention to it during practice, the greater your motivation/interest. Capacity of your LTM is unlimited and is permanent but takes time to become permanent https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfDpXj67z2I Primacy- recency effect An important factor if you will remember new info and stick in LTM is the order it is presented Is a phenomenon that info presented at the beginning and ending of a session is more readily learned than the info presented in the middle. (also known as the serial order effect) Von Restorft Effect Exception to the Primacy-Recency effect, that some info presented in the middle parts of practice can be encoded into memory as well and sometimes better. This occurs when info is given a special meaning or stands out more than the first and last information presented to you. Priming Effects Is a brief intro of new information prior to the time when it is actually practiced, this can increase the likelihood that the information will be learned when it is later practiced. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Espkj5O7bTs Emphasizing Location Cues In the early stages when learning motor skills- especially limb and body movements, these have priority in the encoding systems. Location of limb and body movements as well as endpoint are remembered before any other movements underlying skill. Memory processes function to encode important location points. By knowing this an instructor could help performance by pointing out critical position points in the skill practiced. Instructors want to work with memory not against it. For example: A therapist working with a patient to regain gait control might point out important hip and leg positions during walking, particularly the positions associated with extreme flexion and extension during gait cycle. Sleeping on it Getting enough sleep is important and there has been many studies so this is well supported by research Sleep especially after motor skill practice helps enhance the learning It has an essential role in the consolidation of memory and especially with procedural memories. This doesn’t mean that more sleep is better. More sleep than your normal rate cycle has no additional benefits. But on the other hand not enough sleep or interrupted sleep (unrestful) has detrimental effects on memory consolidation and resultant learning. There has been a lot of research on this topic. Research is still going on mostly on topics like younger people may benefit more from sleep, regaining skills lost to injury or neurological impairments, and benefits of sleep can be enhanced by short daily naps. Why do we forget learned skill? Information not withheld is lost due to it not being needed or it wasn’t sufficiently learned. Forgetting is the lost of or inability to retrieve information from memory. This does not mean that previously learned information is no longer in the memory, it is just not longer accessible. This occurs due to trace decay or interference Trace Decay Theory This is what most people think about when talking about forgetting. Means the original memory trace stored in one of the memory systems decays before being permanently encoded in LTM. Once the original trace is gone no longer can be retrieved. This can take only a fraction of a second in sensory or between seconds and minutes in STM Some information that originally enters LTM may also be lost due to trace decay if it is not made permanent through sufficient rehearsal and attention although this is still debatable Once memory trace is encoded into LTM the structure and function become immutable so trace decay is no longer an explanation to forgetting. https://youtu.be/IPnzbHYb1fo Interference Theory This is the notion that memories in LTM interfere with or get in the way of another The problem is that a specific memory can’t be retrieved Given the vast number of memories stored in LTM, so many are similar in some respect that finding the correct one becomes a challenge to memories’ retrieval capabilities. The storage of information with respect to the comparative time in which memories are placed into LTM has an effect on the strength of interference, denotes 2 types. Retroactive Inhibition Refers to the interference of new memories with the retrieval of older memories. New learning interferes with old learning When not practiced things we learn and knew well recede in time because the things we learn subsequently affect our ability to recall previous memories. Our memory is structured to make what we are currently learning more readily available to recall and use. Can become problematic relative to skilled performance especially when not continuously practiced. 70\% of information originally recalled in a practice session is forgotten within the first 24 hours after practice 80\% after 48 hours Rate gradually diminishes over longer periods of time with no more than 5-10\% of the original information retained. This can be decreased by following the overlearning practice (as learned in Ch. 5), periodic refresher practice, and using mental rehearsal of skills during periods of non use. Continuous motor skills are considerably more resistant to forgetting than discrete motor skills. Proactive Inhibition Refers to the interference of old memories with the retrieval of newer memories Old learning interferes with new learning Ex: Experienced ballet dancer has issues learning hip hop due to the initial learning of ballet https://youtu.be/cxJg-KNlDV0 Strategies for Reducing Interference and Forgetting Separate similar skills within a practice schedule as far apart as possible in order to reduce effects of interference Prefer proactive rather than retroactive interference when introducing a new skill. Present new skills towards the end or last in practice to reduce interference and give learners best chance of encoding the skill and getting it into memory while its still fragile (introduction at this stage) Encoding Specificity Principles In focusing on memory it is easy to consider only those aspects of practice of which we are consciously aware and seem directly related to skill performance It is what we attend to that is encoding into memory Explicit memory- memories of the things consciously intend to learn and of which we are consciously aware when we retrieve them Although there are other facets of learning environments that encoded and stored along with explicit memory which are considered backdrops (ex: canvas of a painting) -these are called implicit memory These two are usually entwined so that memory are really compositions of both conscious and unconscious learned elements of the practice environment Researchers have observed for years that original conditions of practice change, people tend to have more difficulty in recalling learned information -they call it encoding condition Recall condition- conditions existing later when a person attempts to perform the skill The closer these are together the easier it is to retrieve a memory of a skill and perform it well Encoding specificity principle- observation that retrieval and performance of learned skills are facilitated to the degree that encoding and recall conditions https://youtu.be/jHm3o8659AU Chapter 7 : Stages of learning Presented by: Ahmad Farha, Priscilla Sanchez, and Tatiana Nunez KINE 4100 Key Questions Are there identifiable stages of learning that people pass through when acquiring motor skills? Does everyone go through the same stages of learning when acquiring motor skills? How do cognitive based and dynamical systems theories differ in their conceptualizations of stages of learning in the acquisition of motor skills? What is expertise, and how does someone become an expert at a motor skill? Given sufficient motivation and practice, is everyone capable of becoming expert? Is initial Performance when first learning a motor skill a good indicator of a person’s ultimate potential for learning the skill? The Fitts & Posner three-stage model of motor learning Paul Fitts and Michael Posner created three stage model in 1967 Cognitive Associative Autonomous Stages of learning that people go through Can vary in rate The Cognitive Stage of Learning Learners have an understanding of the goal of the skill but dont know the correct movement pattern Dependent on declarative memory and outside sources for information Information is consciously manipulated and rehearsed “Think” their way through the performance Trying to connect what is learned to how the movement is being performed Experimental Characteristics Frequent major errors Errors vary in type and extent Engage in self-talk All can lead to confusion, frustration, and loss of motivation Instruction In the Cognitive Stage Need to be clear and accurate when giving information Use verbal instructions and demonstrations Help identify appropriate sources of environmental information Show how previous skills and knowledge can be transferred Frequent verbal feedback Maintain their level of motivation The Associative Stage of Learning Intermediate Stage Movement related information gets encoded Not wholly dependent on declarative memory Characteristics Understand the basic goals of the skill Errors and the variability between them become less frequent Errors begin to show a bias Movement is quicker and smoother Being to integrate features of the environment into their performance Movements will be timed more accurately Instruction in the Associative Stage Identify and respond to changes in the environment Use alternations to activities : changing surface, ball, kind of target, etc. Reduce the amount of feedback to get them conditioned to using their own sensory-produced sources The Autonomous Stage Ability to perform the skill without thinking about the mechanics Move from declarative memory to procedural memory People in this stage can make for bad coaches because they forget the declarative knowledge of a skill Characteristics Perform the skill while thinking of something else Don’t need to focus on the movement of the skill but can refine other areas Able to adjust to many different environmental situations Instruction in the Autonomous Stage Improvements take longer to recognize Maintain current levels of performance and motivation Focus of refining movements and adapting them to different situations Progression Progression in every stage depends on the person and instruction given Simple skills take less time than more complex skills Some may not even progress into the autonomous stage Progression is continuous Gradual transitions from one stage to the next Stages Of Learning From A Dynamical Systems Perspective The stages of learning take a different interpretation than that of Fitts and Posner. Dynamical theorists recognize the same behavioral characteristics of learners acquiring motor skills, but they are interpreted in different ways. Constraints, factors that provide the boundaries on the movement possibilities. They set the limits within movement patterns that are possible and they guide patterns of movement toward preferred states called attractors. Three basic constraints: organismic, task and environmental Bernstein, coordination (skill learning) is the process of learning to control the many additional degrees of freedom available within the human movement apparatus. Vereijkens model has three stages: novice, advanced, and expert. The Novice Stage of Learning First stage of learning a motor skill Major challenge that the learner faces is learning how to control the many muscles and joints involved in the movement. In dynamical theorists, the learner “solves” the movement “problem” by manipulating the “dynamics” of the movement task. Movement systems involved in producing a skill is accomplished by freezing the degrees of freedom. Freezing the degrees of freedom: limiting the movement of limbs and joints. Learning occurs as learners engage in a type of trial-and-error experimentation. Through this process learners free degrees of freedom so joints can be controlled in more flexible, independent, and effective ways. The Advanced Stage of Learning Intermediate stage in Vereijkens dynamical systems model of learning. Novice stage is marked by freezing movement possibilities (degrees of freedom) advanced stage is marked by freeing the movement possibilities (freeing the degrees of freedom). Freeing the degrees of freedom: Releasing frozen limbs and joints to move freely. Previously frozen joints were incorporated into large and sophisticated units of action, in dynamical systems terminology, larger action units are called coordinated structures, or synergies. Synergies Synergy: a grouping of joints, muscles, and cells that are temporarily cooperate in acting together as a single collective action unit; can be assembled and unassembled as the need arises; also called coordinators structure. Process of exploration during the novice stage that leads into the advanced stage of learning, as learners acquire ability to control increasingly greater numbers of degrees of freedom. Results in greater coordination among limb segments and between limbs. Movements in this stage are fluid, smoothly coordinated, and relatively effective. The Expert Stage of Learning Final stage in Vereijken’s model is the expert stage of learning. Movement coordination is achieved, but the most effective coordination of movements, complex skills, typically require exploitation of passive and reactive forces in various body systems as well as the environment. “Exploitation” is the best descriptor of the expert stage of learning, the learner continues to release degrees of freedom, and recognize others in order to achieve the most efficient movement patterns. Exploring the degrees of freedom: once basic movement patterns have been developed, this involves learning to exploit the passive and reactive forces generated by kinetic actions of the hip-knee-ankle system. Perceptual Degrees of Freedom and Learning: Attunement of Affordances Role of perception during learning Affordance is a property of an object or of the environment that offers (“affords”) the opportunity for an action. Dynamical systems perspective says affordances are developed as individuals learn to couple perceptions to certain actions, as they are learning different possibilities of moving given specific sensory information. Learning expands degree of perceptual-action coupling for greater movement opportunities. Perceptual degrees of freedom is analogous to the sequence of freezing, freeing, and exploiting degrees of freedom of bodily components. In initial stages, learners will focus on sensory information to control their environment, freezing out other resources. In the expert stage, learners gain ability to exploit the movement environment. An essential key to they dynamical systems theory is learning involves the development of the learners ability to couple perceptual information with appropriate actions, a process called attunement. Instructional Priorities in the Dynamical Systems Model of Learning Learner is an active seeker of information. Those espousing a dynamical system approach learn the advocacy of discovery learning methods. Discovery learning: Practice based upon the theory that learners learn best when they discover through exploratory methods the most effective ways of accomplishing motor skills. Learner will attempt to solve the movement problem through exploring various task solutions. The instructor will introduce the movement problem and the goal that they have to achieve, then facilitates and encourages the learners attempt to discover movement solutions. Instead of the instructor giving specific instructions, the instructor gives a general overview of movement possibilities, that the learner can use for exploration and discovery of what works best. During the discovery learning method the instructor can ask questions that can give cues to the learner and provide feedback, which helps the learner pick up on a pattern once this happens the instructor can then help the learner refine those movements. Constraints change constantly, practices should adapt to changing situations. Self-discovery is the most effective in learning what works best Benefits of Considering Two Approaches to the Stages of Learning The two models of the stages of learning both recognize the same observable changes in performance as individuals acquire motor skills. They are different in the theoretical constructs that are used to explain and interpret observable changes. Fitts and Posner help understand cognitive demand that learners face and increase sensitivity to the limits of human processing capabilities and the need to provide instructional resources in ways matching learners develop process capabilities. Vereijken’s dynamical systems perspective turns our attention to the interaction of learners with changing characteristics of the environment and task, and to a consideration of the unique characteristics of each learner. The acquisition of expertise in a motor skill The study of expertise as a concept places such a great emphasis on the development of cognitive and perceptual elements of skill that motor behavior researchers either failed to recognize its importance to motor expertise early on or failed to recognize the importance of cognition and perception to highly developed levels of performance for motor skills. Experts are not only better than others at the actual movement patterns of a skill, but also better in their ability to perceive, understand, and respond to the various environments and situations in which the skill is performed. Expertise cannot be measured simply through measures of skilled performance alone, but involves assessing cognitive and perceptual aspects of skill. How Long do you think it takes to become an expert? According to Fitts and Posner it takes 10 years 10-year rule: A rule that comes from observation across several skill domains that it generally requires a minimum of 10 years of deliberate practice to attain expertise in a skill. How to become an expert: -Deliberate Practice: Practice that is effortful, highly structured and organized, and directed toward goals and rewards. Predicting individual success across the stages of learning Correlational Analysis and the Predictive Strength of Learning Potential at Various Stages of Learning:​​ -The relationship of skill performance between early and later stages of learning typically involves the correlation of some performance measure over time. - As one progresses through the stages of learning, however, the correlation between current performance and later performance gradually increases and becomes more predictive. Ackerman’s Explanation of Effects across the Stages of Learning -General cognitive: abilities include reasoning, problem solving, and verbal abilities, among others; broad-content abilities include knowledge about the goals and movements -As individuals progress perceptual speed ability becomes more dominant in accounting for performance success because it strengthens stimulus and response and performance becomes quicker and less prone to error.