Fluent Essays

Deadline -- 10/21/2021 10:00 AM PST Please read the attachment, “The Productivity of the Knowledge Worker,” by Peter Drucker.    The selection ends with the following assertion by Drucker:  “Each of these requirements—except perhaps the last one—is almost the exact opposite of what is needed to increase the productivity of the manual worker.”  If one considers that Drucker held the Scientific Management view of job design, this could be true.    But now, consider the Jobs Characteristics Model (JCM) of Hackman and Oldham (see attachments or Chapt. 8 from the book Essentials of Organizational Behavior (14th Edition) . Pearson Education (US) by Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2017)).    How does JCM differ from the “scientific management approach” of Frederick Taylor?  If factory jobs were designed according to JCM, what attributes of “knowledge work” would apply to them?    Would Drucker’s assertion still be valid?   Are professional degreed individuals the only ones who can be identified as knowledge workers?  Why or why not?   Be sure to read all materials in the attachments carefully before you address this topic.    Your paper should be at least 4 pages long (not including the title page and References). Paper needs to be formatted in proper APA 7th Edition style. Each paper requires a minimum of at least three outside peer-reviewed sources for your references, including at least 2 from the attachments. MGT 501 Lesson 3 Motivation, Job Design, and Implications for the Work of Managing Objectives of This Presentation Motivation Theories Principles of Job Design, and Their Underlying Justification Implications for the Work of Management Motivation Theories From the text (Chapter 7), here are the three key elements of motivation: Intensity: How hard a person tries Direction: What is the person exerting his or her efforts to do? (Is this effort productive or not, relative to an organization’s goals?) Persistence: Given the intensity of a person’s effort, how long can he or she keep it up? If we define productive effort as effort that is directed to the goals of an organization, then we see that “motivation” as defined here is “motivation to supply productive effort.” Motivation Theories Some classical theories of motivation include: Maslow (“hierarchy of needs”) Herzberg (“hygiene” vs. “motivational” needs) McClelland (needs for achievement, power, and affiliation dominate human motivation at work) After reviewing these and some contemporary theories, the authors write (see next slide): Motivating Factors Hygiene Factors Motivation Theories “What does all this mean? For individuals, it means you should choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. For organizations, it means managers should provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives. Managers need to make the work interesting, provide recognition, and support employee growth and development. Employees who feel that what they do is within their control and a result of free choice are likely to be more motivated by their work and committed to their employers.” (Robbins and Judge 2018 105) In the remainder of this presentation, we will focus on what managers need to do to “make the work interesting.” This leads to the issue of job design... Principles of Job Design and Their Justification Once we have taken care of the “hygiene” issues of living, what matters to us as human beings? We want to belong We want to be respected We want our achievements to be recognized Behind these wants is a set of even more basic wants: We want to “look good” (or at least not “bad”) to other people We want to “look good” (or at least not “bad”) to ourselves Principles of Job Design and Their Justification When we give other people praise (or blame) for their actions, we assume that They had the intention to perform the action (that is, they had a plan) They had control over how they executed the action If either planning or control is limited (or removed) from the performer of a task, will he or she be praised or blamed (if the action is a “bad” one)? Why is this important to job design? Principles of Job Design and Their Justification Frederick Taylor and “Scientific Management” In the early 1900s, Frederick Taylor performed experiments and published his ideas on “scientific management.” (Taylor, 1912) Here are the fundamental principles of “scientific management”: There is “one best way” to perform any task But people who do the work are not generally inclined to seek this “one best way” Therefore, the design of work processes should be taken from the worker and handed over to professionals, who specialize in job design They used to be called “efficiency experts,” or “industrial engineers.” Nowadays their work is often called “process engineering.” Principles of Job Design and Their Justification The result of Taylor’s philosophy was the removal, over much of the 20th century, of the “planning” element of the jobs of people who do physical (and even clerical) work Now, in order to be “intrinsically” motivated, we need at minimum to be able to take pride in our work, which means we need to be able to say to ourselves “I am proud of what I just did because I designed and then executed what I just did. I am not just a pair of hands without a brain.” If the planning part of a task is taken from them, they will not be able to claim responsibility for their performance, except for one thing... But before we determine what that “one thing” is, let’s consider an example. Principles of Job Design and Their Justification Example of Taylor’s Principles Gone Too Far: The Automatic Brush Welding Machine Operator* The only decision left for the incumbent of this job is to stay awake! For “over-engineered” jobs, the only decision the person doing the work may have left is that of how much effort to supply. Consider: How could the operator take “pride” in a job like this? Over-engineering jobs will reduce the productive effort supply of workers (as was discovered during the last half of the 20th century); this is illustrated in the next slide... *Note: This is described in the video for this lesson. 10 Principles of Job Design and Their Justification This diagram is from Figure 15-2, Chapter 15 of Robbins and Judge (2018) 11 Principles of Job Design and Their Justification The movie, “Modern Times” (1936), starring the legendary comic, Charlie Chaplin, illustrates what we have been discussing here. For your entertainment and enlightenment, you can follow the link below and watch it for few minutes... https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPSK4zZtzLI The theme of this movie is...?* *Note: What is the “human cost” of Scientific Management? 12 Principles of Job Design and Their Justification Hackman and Oldham’s (1980) Job Characteristics Model (JCM) was an attempt to fix the problems created by too much “Taylorism” by re-designing jobs so they would be more suitable to human beings. Here are their 5 elements of job design (see Ch. 8, section 1, p. 121): Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback Principles of Job Design and Their Justification Comments on Hackman and Oldham’s JCM They at least understood that people need to take pride in their work—that we are not meant to be “just a set of hands” that exist just do the bidding of others And while their model opens up a great conversation, it is possible to find flaws in it (this might be a good exercise for you) Having read the book the year it was published (and then trying to apply to a real factory), here is what I learned about job design: Principles of Job Design and Their Justification A person will be motivated to maximize productive effort if He understands and can explain, if asked, the connection between his daily work routines and the company’s mission, relative to its customers. He believes the company’s products and services are worthy of his best efforts. He understands how his actions affect those of other people who work for the company. He gets to participate, up to his level of competence, in the design of work processes in his work unit.* He sees himself not just as he is, but as what he is “becoming.” These principles, if you think about them, contain almost everything mentioned in Chapter 8. *Note: This can be called the “Fundamental Principle of Engagement.” We will return to this as the course goes on. 15 Implications for Management Work The work of management is to help subordinates to make the connections listed on the previous slide. It involves investment of time and effort on management’s part, but the investment pays off, as is indicated by the Gallup Report of 2013 (see Chapter 7, section 5) In order for this investment to be efficient, management has to have the “trust” of employees (more on this next lesson...) In addition, there are “structural” decisions a management team can make that help attain these objectives: Job rotation The creation of “job families” (Levels of expertise are rewarded by offering higher classifications for employees who attain them)—see Chapter 8 section 5 (8.5) Involvement in continuous process improvement activities (more on this later in the course) 16 Implications for Management Work Every teacher knows this about students: “If you do not care about me, I won’t care about what you teach.” Every manager needs to know this too: “If you don’t care about me, why should I care about your goals?” But if I believe you care,* I will “trust” you. And if I trust that you care, I will provide the gift of “extra” productive effort (by the Norm of Reciprocity). Consider this... To what extent does it apply to you? See you in the next lesson. *Note: If I am a manager and I care about you, then your well-being becomes a factor in my decision-making. That is, if your well-being decreases, I will feel bad. 17 End of Lesson 3—Thank You! References Gallup, Inc. (2013). State of the American workplace. Gallop.com. Hackman, J. Richard, and Greg R. Oldham (1980). Work redesign. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Krone, Charles G. (1975). Open systems redesign. From John D. Adams (ed.) (1975). New Technologies in Organizational Development: 2. La Jolla. California: University Associates. Mead, George Herbert (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. (2018). Essentials of organizational behavior. New York, NY : Pearson Taylor, Frederick Winslow (1912). Scientific Management. Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth College. Essentials of Organizational Behavior Fourteenth Edition Chapter 8 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. After studying this chapter you should be able to: Describe how the job characteristics model (JCM) motivates by changing the work environment. Compare the main ways that jobs can be redesigned. Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can motivate employees. Describe how employee involvement measures can motivate employees. Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can increase employee motivation. Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators. Identify the motivational benefits of employee recognition programs. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Motivating by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model Job characteristics model: jobs are described in terms of five core dimensions: Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The job characteristics model looks at describing any job in terms of five core job dimensions. These job dimensions include skill variety, which is the degree to which the job incorporates a number of different skills and talents. Task identity is another dimension that looks at the degree to which the job requires the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. Task significance is included and looks at how the job impacts the lives of others. Autonomy, the fourth dimension, identifies how much freedom and independence workers have over their jobs. And finally, feedback is how much the job generates direct and clear information about the worker’s performance. 3 The Job Characteristics Model Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Much evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics—variety, identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback—does generate higher and more satisfying job performance. 4 Designing Motivational Jobs JCM-designed jobs give internal rewards Individual’s growth needs are moderating factors Motivating jobs must: Be autonomous Provide feedback Be meaningful Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. JCM creates motivational jobs, as they are designed to give internal rewards. Positive outcomes are moderated by individual growth needs, as each individual will respond differently. In order for the jobs to increase motivation, there should be a high degree of autonomy, feedback, and a least one meaningfulness factor such as significance, identity, or variety. Note that because the JCM is relatively individualistic, job enrichment strategies might not have the same effect in collectivistic cultures as they do in individualistic cultures like the United States. 5 Redesigning Jobs: Job Rotation Job Rotation The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another Also called cross-training Increases job satisfaction and organizational commitment Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. There are some helpful ways to redesign a job to increase the motivation of the employees. In job rotation, which is also called cross-training, an organization will shift the employee to different tasks with similar skill requirements but all at the same organizational level. Research shows that job rotation increases job satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, it can decrease the efficiency of decision making, increase training costs, reduce overall productivity, and require more involvement from supervisors. 6 Redesigning Jobs: Relational Job Design Relational Job Design Designing work so employees are motivated to promote the well-being of the organization’s beneficiaries Relate stories from customers who have benefited from the company’s products or services Connect employees directly with beneficiaries Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Contemporary research is focusing on how to make jobs more prosocially motivating to people. In other words, how can managers design work so employees are motivated to promote the well-being of the organization’s beneficiaries – their customers, clients, patients, or employees? 7 Using Alternative Work Arrangements to Motivate Flextime Some discretion over when worker starts and leaves Job Sharing Two or more individuals split a traditional job Telecommuting Work remotely at least two days per week Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. There are some alternative work arrangements that have been successful in helping increase the motivation of workers. These arrangements give workers more control over their work and thereby can increase their level of motivation. An example of this is flextime. Flextime is short for flexible work hours and allows workers to choose what hours they work within a set time period. So, for example, if the worker needs to work 8 hours a day, the manager may say he or she can choose 8 hours between 6am and 8pm. That flexibility may allow a mom to be home when her kids are coming home from school. Flextime has become popular both within and outside the United States. Another alternative work arrangement is job sharing, where two workers split a job and each works part time. This is becoming more popular in Japan where it allows employers to avoid layoffs due to overstaffing. Telecommuting is another alternative work arrangement that has been utilized. This allows employees to work from home at least 2 days a week. 8 Employee Involvement Employee involvement: A participative process that uses the input of employees to increase their commitment to the organization’s success Two types: Participative management Representative participation Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Employee involvement is defined as a participative process that uses employees’ input to increase their commitment to the overall success of the organization. Depending on the country involved, it may be necessary to modify employee involvement programs to reflect the local culture. Some examples of programs that help with employee involvement are participative management and representative participation. 9 Participative Management Participative management: Subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with superiors To be effective: Followers must have confidence and trust in leaders Leaders should avoid coercion and stress organizational consequences of decisions Only a modest influence on productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Participative management occurs when managers include employees in the decision-making process. Participative management has, at times, been considered a panacea for poor morale and low productivity. In reality, for participative management to be effective, followers must have trust and confidence in their leaders. Leaders should refrain from coercive techniques and instead stress the organizational consequences of decisions to their followers. This type of employee involvement program has shown itself to have limited impact on productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction. 10 Representative Participation Representative participation: Workers are represented by a small group of employees who participate in decisions affecting personnel Works councils Board membership Redistribute power within an organization Does not appear to be very motivational Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Representative participation tries to redistribute power by putting labor on a more equal footing with the interests of managers and stockholders. This is achieved by letting workers be represented by small groups of employees who participate in decisions. Nearly every country in Western Europe requires companies to practice representative participation. 11 Using Pay to Motivate Employees Major strategic rewards decisions: What to pay employees How to pay individual employees Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. As we saw in previous chapters, money is not the primary driver for job satisfaction. However, it does motivate individuals, and companies often underestimate its impact in keeping top talent. It is critical to figure out what to pay and to establish a pay structure that makes sense for your industry and organization. Then it is imperative that the organization utilizes this pay system and applies it to the pay of individual employees. 12 What to Pay Establishing a pay structure Balance between: Internal equity – the worth of the job to the organization External equity – the external competitiveness of an organization’s pay relative to pay elsewhere in its industry A strategic decision with trade-offs Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Setting pay levels can be complex and requires a balance of internal and external pay equity. Internal equity looks at the worth of the job to the organization and compares it with what others are making within the organization. External equity looks at external competitiveness of an organization’s pay relative to pay elsewhere. 13 How to Pay Variable-Pay Programs Base a portion of the pay on a given measure of performance Piece-rate pay plan Merit-based pay Bonuses Profit-sharing plans Employee-stock ownership plan (ESOP) Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Some types of variable-pay programs include piece-rate, merit-based, bonuses, profit-sharing, and employee-stock ownership plans. Globally, about 80 percent of companies offer some type of variable-pay plan. 14 Variable-Pay Programs Piece-Rate Pay: workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed Merit-Based Pay: pay is based on individual performance appraisal ratings Bonuses: rewards employees for recent performance Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) – plans in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Some types of variable-pay programs include piece-rate, merit-based, bonuses, and skill-based pay. Piece-rate pay plans pay a fixed amount of money for each unit of production. Merit-based pay plans are similar, paying based on performance. However, it is not necessarily tied to production because in some jobs, output is not as easy to measure. Bonuses are another method that is becoming increasingly popular. Bonuses are a lump sum at the end of a set period of time. The amount of the bonus is typically dependent upon the performance of the individual or the organization or some combination of both. Finally, ESOPs are a method used to motivate the employees toward the organizational goals. As part of their benefits package they are able to earn or purchase company stock, often at below-market rates. This encourages them to work toward the overall profitability of the organization, as they have ownership in it and will gain as the company gains. It is important to remember that while it is often thought that pay increases productivity, it is not true that everyone responds positively to variable-pay plans. 15 Using Benefits to Motivate Benefits are both an employee provision and an employee motivator Individual employees value the components of benefits packages differently A flexible benefits program turns the benefits package into a motivational tool Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Flexible benefits allow employees choices between different benefits. This allows them to customize their options and create a plan that best meets their needs and situation. This increases their motivation because they realize the organization has their best interest in mind. 16 Using Intrinsic Rewards to Motivate Employee recognition programs Can be as simple as a spontaneous comment Can be formalized in a program Recognition is the most powerful workplace motivator – and the least expensive – but fairness is important Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. A method of motivation that has been highly successful is employee recognition programs. This idea recognizes the importance of coupling extrinsic and intrinsic methods to help motivate employees. Recognition is an intrinsic motivation technique that can range from giving an employee the proverbial pat on the back to a more public recognition ceremony. Recognition programs are highly effective and cost very little to administer. There are critics of such programs, however, who say that they can be politically motivated and if the perception is that they are applied unfairly, they can cause more harm than good. 17 Implications for Managers Recognize individual differences Use goals and feedback Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them Link rewards to performance Check the reward system for equity Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The motivational theories presented in this chapter and the last chapter set forth the following overarching ideas. It is important to recognize individual differences when designing and applying motivational programs. Managers will get better results if they use goals and feedback and allow employees to participate in the decisions that impact them. Finally, by linking rewards to performance and making sure the system is equitable, better results will follow. 18 Copyright Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Essentials of Organizational Behavior Fourteenth Edition Chapter 3 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 1 After reading this chapter you should be able to: Contrast the three components of an attitude. Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior. Compare the major job attitudes. Identify the two approaches for measuring job satisfaction. Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction. Identify three outcomes of job satisfaction. Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 2 Attitudes Attitudes: Evaluative statements – either favorable or unfavorable – concerning objects, people, or events Reflect how one feels about something Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Attitudes are statements that make an evaluation about objects, people, or events. They offer a favorable or unfavorable view that reflects how one feels about something. 3 Three Main Components of Attitudes Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Attitudes are made up of three components. The cognitive component is composed of the belief in the way things are. The affective component is the more critical part of the attitude, as it calls upon the emotions or feelings. The behavioral component describes the intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. These three components work together to aid in our understanding of the complexity of an attitude. 4 Attitudes Follow Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive dissonance: any inconsistency between two or more attitudes, or between behavior and attitudes Individuals seek to minimize dissonance Desire to reduce dissonance is determined by: The importance of the elements creating the dissonance The degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements The rewards that may be involved in dissonance Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Sometimes we observe people who will change what they say so it doesn’t contradict their behavior. When attitudes and behaviors don’t line up, individuals will experience cognitive dissonance. This incongruity is uncomfortable, and individuals will seek to reduce the dissonance to find consistency. People are willing to live with some discomfort, but the degree to which this is true depends upon the importance of the elements, how much influence the individual has in the situation, and the rewards that are available. 5 Behavior Follows Attitudes: Moderating Variables The most powerful moderators of the attitude-behavior relationships are: Importance Correspondence to behavior Accessibility Social pressures Direct personal experience Knowing attitudes helps predict behavior Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Some variables do moderate the relationship between attitude and behavior. These factors include the importance of the attitude, the correspondence of the attitude to the behavior, the accessibility of the attitude, the existence of social pressures on behavior and the personal and direct experience of the attitude. These variables will impact the ability to estimate how a certain attitude will predict behavior. 6 Major Job Attitudes Job satisfaction Job involvement Psychological empowerment Organizational commitment Affective commitment Continuance commitment Normative commitment Perceived organizational support Employee engagement Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The field of organizational behavior focuses on how attitudes will influence the work place. There are several major job attitudes we will look at throughout the book. The first is job satisfaction, which is the positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. The second is job involvement. Job involvement looks at the degree of psychological identification with the job. An additional job attitude is psychological empowerment, the belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence in the job, and job meaningfulness. A very important job attitude is organizational commitment or identifying with a particular organization and its goals. There are three dimensions to this job attitude – affective, continuance, and normative. Organizational commitment has been found to have some relationship to performance and in particular for new employees. Over the years this may be losing importance as people are tending to be more loyal to their profession than to a given employer. Employees also respond to how they perceive the organization supports them or POS. The more support they believe they are receiving, the more positive their job attitude will be. Engagement is beginning to be linked to many positive work outcomes. Evidence suggests these attitudes are highly related, perhaps to a troubling degree that makes one wonder whether there are useful distinctions to be made among them. There is some distinctiveness among attitudes, but they overlap greatly for various reasons, including the employee’s personality. If you as a manager know someone’s level of job satisfaction, you know most of what you need to know about how that person sees the organization. Recent research suggests that managers tend to identify their employees as belonging to one of four distinct categories: enthusiastic stayers, reluctant stayers, enthusiastic leavers, and reluctant leavers. 7 Measuring Job Satisfaction (1 of 2) Job satisfaction: a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics Measuring job satisfaction: Single global rating method Only a few general questions Remarkably accurate Summation score method Identifies key elements in the job and asks for specific feeling about them Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Discussing job satisfaction is intuitively a good thing in an organization, as it is a concept people understand, and it is important to recognize because of its bottom line impact. However, job satisfaction is something that is not easy to measure. One method for measure is the Single Global Rating method. This method asks one question such as “How satisfied are you with your job?” and gives options such as extremely satisfied to extremely dissatisfied. It does not go into the many facets of a job, so it does not help the organization break down where the problems are. The Summation Score Method is more sophisticated in that it asks about the various job components and breaks down how employees are specifically feeling about the different aspects of the job; thus it offers a more comprehensive look at job satisfaction. 8 Measuring Job Satisfaction (2 of 2) Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Average Job Satisfaction by Facets 9 Job Satisfaction by Country Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Evidence suggests that employees in Western cultures have higher levels of job satisfaction than those in Eastern cultures. 10 What Causes Job Satisfaction? The Work Itself – the strongest correlation with overall satisfaction Social Component – there is a strong correlation with how people view the social context of their work Pay – not correlated after individual reaches a level of comfortable living Corporate Social Responsibility – it’s good for the planet and good for people Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The type of work people do and their desire to do that type of work has the strongest correlation with job satisfaction. There is also a strong link between the social context of the work place and how people view their work. The more they enjoy the social aspects of their job, the more satisfied they are with the job. Pay has an influence on job satisfaction but not as much as one might think. Typically, once a worker exceeds $40,000 a year, pay has limited impact on the level of satisfied workers. Corporate social responsibility also plays a role in job satisfaction, especially for millennials. In general, if an employee’s personal values fit with those of the organization, the employee is usually satisfied. 11 Impact of Job Dissatisfaction Exit: directs behavior toward leaving the organization Voice: includes actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions Loyalty: passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve Neglect: passively allows conditions to worsen Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. When employees are dissatisfied with their jobs, they have four basic responses they can utilize. These options are divided into active and passive choices. The active options are exit and voice. If employees select to exit, they choose to leave or move in a direction of leaving the organization. In voice, the employees will work toward active and constructive attempts to improve conditions. The passive options are neglect and loyalty. Employees may choose to neglect their work and just allow conditions to worsen, or they may choose to remain loyal to the organization and just wait for change. 12 Counterproductive Work Behavior CWB: deviant behavior in the workplace, or simply withdrawal behavior Job dissatisfaction predicts CWB Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Managers can try to mitigate CWB, using techniques such as polling to find out about employee attitudes. Avoiding mismatches between the job and the employee’s abilities and values should increase job satisfaction. 13 The Benefits of Satisfaction Better job and organizational performance Better organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB – Discretionary behaviors that contribute to organizational effectiveness but are not part of employees’ formal job description) Greater levels of customer satisfaction Generally lower absenteeism and turnover Decreased instances of workplace deviance Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. When employees are satisfied with their work, there are many positive outcomes in the workplace. However, the inverse is true as well; if employees are dissatisfied in their work, these same job outcomes will be negatively impacted. Satisfied workers tend to have stronger performance and are more in tune with the organization’s mission and goals. As a result of that they tend to serve customers better, which translates into strong customer satisfaction. Satisfied workers remain in the job for a longer period of time than dissatisfied workers. However, as we have seen recently, workers are willing to stay in jobs where they are not satisfied because the job market is tight due to tough economic conditions. Dissatisfied workers are more likely to cause problems in the workplace by stealing, absenteeism, limiting productivity, and other negative work outcomes. 14 Implications for Managers Pay attention to your employees’ job satisfaction levels as determinants of their performance, turnover, absenteeism, and withdrawal behaviors. Measure employee job attitudes objectively and at regular intervals in order to determine how employees are reacting to their work. To raise employee satisfaction, evaluate the fit between the employee’s work interests and the intrinsic parts of the job to create work that is challenging and interesting to the individual. Consider the fact that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work environment. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Attitudes are important components of the workplace and definitely influence behaviors. Managers should be aware of job attitudes and their influence on job satisfaction. The most effective way to do this is to focus on making work challenging and interesting, especially at higher-level jobs where pay is not enough to satisfy workers. 15 Copyright Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 16 Essentials of Organizational Behavior Fourteenth Edition Chapter 7 Motivation Concepts Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 1 After studying this chapter you should be able to: Describe the three key elements of motivation. Compare the early theories of motivation. Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and goal-setting theory. Demonstrate the differences between self-efficacy theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory. Identify the implications of employee job engagement for managers. Describe how the contemporary theories of motivation complement one another. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 2 What Is Motivation? Motivation: The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining an organizational goal Intensity: the amount of effort put forth to meet the goal Direction: efforts are channeled toward organizational goals Persistence: how long the effort is maintained Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. It is easy to see that some individuals are more motivated than others. However, the reasons for that motivation are more difficult to determine. When defining motivation, it is important to look at the interaction between the individual and the situation. There are three key elements that help us define motivation. The first is intensity, or how hard the person tries to accomplish the task. The second is direction, or the effort that is channeled toward organizational goals. The final element is persistence, or how long a person can maintain the effort. 3 Early Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory McClellan’s Theory of Needs (Three Needs Theory) Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. There are a number of theories of motivation that help us gain a better understanding of the concept. Some of the earlier theories are not entirely valid anymore, but they are still used by many managers. 4 Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1 of 2) Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Hierarchy of Needs Theory was developed by Abraham Maslow in the 1950s. His theory states that with every individual there is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is met or satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. His theory posits that individuals are stuck in their existing need level until it is satisfied, and then they can move on to the next level. For example, until their safety needs are met they will not be able to move on to the social level. The organization of these need levels may vary across cultures. 5 Two-Factor Theory Not Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Not Satisfied Quality of supervision Pay Company policies Physical working conditions Relationships Job security Hygiene Factors Promotional opportunities Opportunities for personal growth Recognition Responsibility Achievement Motivation Factors Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is another one of the earlier developed theories. This theory sets forth that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites, but two separate ideas. There is a set of factors that when present will help to avoid dissatisfaction in workers. This elements of this group are called hygiene factors and include such things as salary, working conditions, and company policies. There is another set of factors that will help to cause satisfaction in workers. The elements of this group are called motivators and include things such as growth, responsibility, and achievement. These sets are distinct, and the presence of hygiene factors does not cause satisfaction; it just helps avoid dissatisfaction. 6 Hierarchy of Needs Theory (2 of 2) Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction,” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no satisfaction.” 7 McClellands Theory of Needs Need for Achievement (nAch) The drive to excel Need for Power (nPow) The need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise Need for Affiliation (nAff) The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The final earlier theory of needs we will look at is McClelland’s need theory. He bases his theory on the idea that people are motivated in the workplace by three main needs. The first need is the need for achievement or the drive to excel in relation to a set of defined standards. The second is the need for power, to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The final need addressed in this theory is the need for affiliation. Affiliation looks at the relationship aspect and the desire for close relationships. People will have varying levels of these needs, which makes this theory difficult to measure. 8 McClellands High Achievers High achievers prefer jobs with: Personal responsibility Feedback Intermediate degree of risk (50/50) High achievers are not necessarily good managers High nPow and low nAff is related to managerial success Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The need that has received the most attention by researchers is the need for achievement. Achievers will carefully measure the odds and try to take on activities that are challenging, but not too high risk. They tend to be motivated in jobs that are more individualistic in nature and provide regular and effective feedback. Achievers tend to not make good managers because they have more of a personal focus. Strong managers have a higher level of need for power and a lower level of need for affiliation as they are trying to motivate a team to move toward a given direction. The view that a high achievement need acts as an internal motivator presupposes two cultural characteristics – willingness to accept a moderate degree of risk and concern with performance. This combination is found in Anglo-American countries such as the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, and much less in more collectivistic societies like Chile and Portugal. Of the early theories on motivation, McClelland’s theory has the best research support, but it has less practical effect than the others. 9 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Self-Determination Theory Goal-Setting Theory Management by Objectives Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. There are a number of contemporary theories of motivation that have utilized the older theories to provide us with a deeper understanding of motivation in the workplace. 10 Self-Determination Theory Self-determination theory: People prefer to have control over their actions so when they feel they are forced to do something they previously enjoyed, motivation will decrease Cognitive evaluation theory: Proposes that the introduction of extrinsic rewards for work (pay) that was previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall motivation Self-concordance: Considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The self-determination theory states that people prefer to have control over their actions. So, anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will diminish their motivation. Cognitive evaluation theory sets forth that in the workplace intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent of one another. In fact, the presence of extrinsic rewards may decrease the intrinsic rewards. In addition to extrinsic rewards, managers need to realize the importance of using goal setting and verbal rewards as a method to increase motivation. Self-concordance considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. Across cultures, if individuals pursue goals because of intrinsic interest, they are more likely to attain goals, are happier when they do, and are happy even when they do not. 11 Goal-Setting Theory Goals increase performance when goals are: Specific Difficult, but accepted by employees Accompanied by feedback: self-generated feedback is best Contingencies in goal-setting theory Goal commitment: public goals better Task characteristics: simple and familiar is better National culture: Western culture suits best Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Edwin Locke developed what is called the goal-setting theory. The idea behind this theory is that goals that are specific and effectively difficult can lead to higher performance if they include self-generated feedback. A difficult goal will help the individual to focus and direct attention as well as energize them to work harder. The difficulty of the goal will increase persistence and force people to be more effective and efficient. The relationship between goals and performance depends on how committed the individual is to the goal as well as how specific the tasks are. Most of the research has been done in the United States so the applicability of this theory to other cultures is suspect. 12 Management by Objectives Management by objectives (MBO): Converts overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for work units and individuals Common ingredients: Goal specificity Explicit time period Performance feedback Participation in decision making Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. An implementation of the goal-setting theory is Management by Objectives, better known as MBO. MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting theory in which goals are set jointly by managers and employees. The goals must be tangible, verifiable, and measurable in order to be effective. The manager helps to break down the organizational goals into smaller, more specific goals for the employee. In order for MBO to be effective, the goals must be specific, the employees must participate in the goal setting, there must be a defined time period, and feedback must be incorporated into the process. 13 Cascading of Objectives Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. This exhibit shows the organization’s overall objectives translated into specific objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, individual). 14 Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation Self-Efficacy Theory Reinforcement Theory Equity Theory Organizational Justice Expectancy Theory Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 15 Self-Efficacy Theory (1 of 2) Self-efficacy theory: An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task Also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory Self-efficacy increased by: Enactive mastery: gain experience Vicarious modeling: see someone else do the task Verbal persuasion: someone convinces you that you have the skills Arousal: get energized Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Another theory of motivation is the self-efficacy theory developed by Albert Bandura. This theory is based on an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. This theory is a complement to the goal-setting theory, as it incorporates goals into the process. Higher efficacy is related to greater confidence, greater persistence in the face of difficulties, and responding to negative feedback by working harder, not shutting down. 16 Self-Efficacy Theory (2 of 2) Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory don’t compete; they complement each other. As this exhibit shows, employees whose managers set difficult goals for them will have a higher level of self-efficacy and set higher goals for their own performance. Why? Setting difficult goals for people communicates your confidence in them. 17 Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory: Behavior is a function of consequences Operant conditioning theory Behaviorism Social- learning theory and reinforcement Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. In contrast to goal setting, reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is a function of consequences. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the chances it will be repeated. The most relevant component of reinforcement theory, is operant conditioning theory which argues that people learn to behave a certain way to either get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want. The view that we can learn by observing and direct experience is called social-learning theory. 18 Equity Theory (1 of 2) Equity theory: Employees weigh what they put into a job situation (input) against what they get from it (outcome) They compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of relevant others Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Adam’s equity theory utilizes the perception theory that we looked at in previous chapters. The idea is that employees compare their ratios of outcomes to inputs of others they see as relevant. When they see the ratios as equal, there is a perceived state of equity and no tension arises. However, when they perceive the ratios to be unequal, they may experience anger or guilt depending on the result of the equity analysis, and then tension can arise. This tension can motivate people to act in a way that brings the situation into a more equitable state. 19 Equity Theory (2 of 2) Equity theory suggests employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices: Change inputs Change outcomes Distort perceptions of self Distort perceptions of others Choose a different referent Leave the field Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Some of these propositions have been supported, but others haven’t. First, inequities created by overpayment do not seem to significantly affect behavior in most work situations. Second, not everyone is equity-sensitive. 20 Model of Organizational Justice Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Increasingly, we think of equity as organizational justice, a larger perception of what is fair in the workplace. Employees perceive their organizations as just when they see that what they receive matches what they have put in. One key element of organizational justice is distributive justice. Employees tend to perceive their outcomes are fairest when they are distributed equitably. Procedural justice examines the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Beyond outcomes and procedures, research shows that employees care about two other forms of fairness that have to do with the way they are treated during interactions with others. The first type is informational justice, which reflects whether managers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important organizational matters. The second type is interpersonal justice, which reflects whether employees are treated with dignity and respect. These three components make up an individual’s view of justice within the organization. Equity theory is popular in the United States because U.S. style reward systems assume that employees are highly sensitive to equity in reward allocation. Research shows, however, that in other cultures inputs and outputs may be valued differently. Managers need to determine what is considered “fair” in a particular culture. Managers need to be transparent, consistent, and unbiased in their decision making. 21 Expectancy Theory (1 of 2) Three key relationships: Effort-performance: perceived probability that exerting effort leads to successful performance Performance-reward: the belief that successful performance leads to desired outcome Rewards-personal goals: the attractiveness of organizational outcome (reward) to the individual Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The most commonly used and widely accepted theory of motivation is Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. This theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way is dependent on the strength of the expectation that they will receive a given outcome and that the outcome is desired. Employees are willing to work harder if they believe that their actions will get them an outcome they desire. For example, employees are willing to work long and hard hours if they know that they will be rewarded through promotion, recognition, or pay in response to their hard work. 22 Expectancy Theory (2 of 2) Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t motivated on their jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by. Questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is to be maximized: If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me? 23 Job Engagement Job Engagement: The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance Organizations where employees are highly engaged have: Higher levels of productivity Fewer safety incidents Lower turnover Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Research shows that highly successful organizations tend to have more engaged employees than average organizations. Highly engaged employees believe it is meaningful to work, are inspired by their leaders, and have similar values to those of the organization. 24 Integrating Theories Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. This exhibit integrates much of what we know about motivation. 25 Implications for Managers Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as coercive, but instead provide information about competence and relatedness. Consider goal-setting theory. Clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity. Consider reinforcement theory regarding quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, and accident rates. Consult equity theory to help understand productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables. Expectancy theory offers a powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 26 Copyright Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 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