Fluent Essays

How does the media influence adolescent behavior?  300 words. Adolescence 12e Laurence Steinberg Chapter 6 – schools Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Chapter 6 – schools Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 1 Chapter 6 Overview (1) The Broader Context of U.S. Secondary Education The Origins of Secondary Education School Reform: Past and Present What Should Schools Teach? Education in the Inner Cities The Social Organization of Schools School Size and Class Size Age Grouping and School Transitions Tracking Ethnic Composition Alternatives to Public Schools Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2 Chapter 6 Overview (2) Classroom Climate The Best Classroom Climate for Adolescents Teacher Expectations and Student Performance The Importance of Student Engagement School Violence Beyond High School The College-Bound The Non-College-Bound Schools and Adolescent Development Characteristics of Good Schools The Effects of School on Adolescent Development Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 3 Secondary Education (1) Secondary education: Middle schools, junior high schools, and high schools Almost all American adolescents are enrolled in school. Enrollment varies in developing countries. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 4 Secondary Education (2) Figure 6.1: The proportion of male and female adolescents in selected countries who are enrolled in secondary school. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 1 5 The broader context of U.s. Secondary Education (1) Virtually all adolescents 14 to 17 are enrolled in school. In 1930, only half of this group were students. In 1900, only 1 in 10 adolescents were students. Adolescents spend more days in school each year. Adolescents remain in school for more years than in previous eras. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6 The broader context of U.s. Secondary Education (2) Figure 6.2: The proportion of the 14- to 17-year-old population enrolled in school increased dramatically between 1910 and 1940, continued to increase until 1970, and then leveled off. Today, more than 95\% of individuals this age are in school. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 7 The Origins of Secondary Education (1) The rise in secondary education in American was the result of several historical and social trends that converged at the turn of the twentieth century: Industrialization Urbanization Immigration Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 8 The Origins of Secondary Education (2) Before compulsory secondary education, high schools were for the elite. By 1920s, educators called for curricular reform to match changes in social composition of schools. Focus on intellectual training New focus on preparing youth for life in modern society (roles of work and citizenship) Comprehensive high school: General education, college preparation, and vocational education all housed under one roof Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 9 School Reform: Past and Present (1) Many school reforms occurred over the years, such as focus on math and science during the 1950s in response to the former Soviet Union’s perceived superiority in those areas. No Child Left Behind The law mandates that all states ensure that all students, regardless of economic circumstances, achieve academic proficiency on standardized annual tests. Schools that repeatedly fail face losing funding and closing. Social promotion: Promoting students from one grade to the next automatically, regardless of their school performance Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 10 School Reform: Past and Present (2) Problems with No Child Left Behind: Not enough resources Teaching to the test—subjects and skills not on the test at risk for being cut or ignored Impossible to assess critical thinking through standardized tests Critical thinking: Thinking that involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information, rather than simply memorizing it No common set of standards—“Gaming the system” through low standards Reporting school-wide average scores without revealing the huge gaps between low- and high-performing students Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 11 School Reform: Past and Present (3) The Obama administration attempted to fix many of the problems of No Child Left Behind. Stressed the need to have high standards for all students Stressed the need for a common set of standards across all 50 states “Race to the Top” competition, which had little more impact on high school student achievement than No Child Left Behind Encouraged schools to develop better ways of evaluating teachers, helping teachers to improve their classroom skills, and replacing poor teachers with better ones Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. School Reform: Past and Present (4) The Trump administration appointed a Secretary of Education who is focused on giving parents more ability to choose their child’s school. Wants to force schools to improve to compete for students Government-funded education vouchers for use at conventional, charter, private (including religious) schools Critics of this approach worry it will drain money from public school districts and create wider gaps in quality between schools for affluent children and schools for poor children. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 13 What Should Schools Teach? (1) Standards-based reform: Policies designed to improve achievement by holding schools and students to a predetermined set of standards measured by achievement tests Common core: Proposed set of standards in language arts and mathematics that all American schools would be expected to use Difficult to establish the standards Problems when a large proportion of high school seniors do not pass standardized graduation examinations Economic, social, and political costs of holding back large numbers of students Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 14 What Should Schools Teach? (2) Increasing numbers of parents began to look at other options: Charter schools: Public schools that have been given the autonomy to establish their own curricula and teaching practices Home schooling School vouchers: Government-subsidized vouchers that can be used for private school tuition Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 15 Education in the Inner Cities The education crisis is particularly urgent within inner-city public schools. 10 percent of U.S. high schools produce 50 percent of dropouts. One-third of Black and Latino students attend these schools. Only one-sixth of students are proficient in science. Concentration of poverty has produced a population of students with problems few schools are equipped to handle. Administrative bureaucracies impede reform. Students report less of a sense of “belonging” to their schools. Fewer inner-city job opportunities have left students with little incentive to remain in school or put effort into academic pursuits. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 16 The Social Organization of Schools (1) School Size and Class Size Large schools have a more varied curriculum and more diverse extracurricular activities. Student achievement is higher in more intimate schools. Schools within schools: Subdivisions of the student body within large schools created to foster feelings of belongingness Smaller school size encourages participation, thus developing skills and abilities. Smaller school students are more likely to hold leadership positions, do things that make them feel confident and diligent. Academically marginal students are outsiders in bigger schools. More inequality of educational experiences exists in larger schools. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 17 The Social Organization of Schools (2) Variations in Class Size Research findings have been misinterpreted by politicians who began emphasizing importance of small classes. Adolescents learn as much in classes of 20 to 40 students. Tutoring and highly individualized instruction is exception. The Problem of Overcrowding It interferes with the delivery of high-quality education. Nearly 15 percent of secondary schools are overcrowded. An additional 8 percent are severely overcrowded. Attempts to reduce the adverse effects have had mixed results. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 18 Age Grouping and School Transitions (1) Early twentieth century Most school districts separated students into an elementary school (6 or 8 grades) and a secondary school (4 or 6 grades) Junior high school: educational institution designed during the early era of public secondary education, in which young adolescents are schooled separately from older adolescents Late twentieth century Middle school: educational institution housing 7th- and 8th-grade students along with adolescents who are 1 or 2 years younger More recent years Return of a two-school model (usually K through 8 and 9 through 12) Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 19 Age Grouping and School Transitions (2) The Transition into Secondary School As children move into middle school or junior high, school grades, school engagement, and academic motivation drop, but scores on standardized achievement tests do not decline. The drop in grades may reflect changes in student motivation and grading practices, not in student knowledge. The drop in academic motivation and achievement could be due to school transition itself or to the nature of the differences between elementary school and middle or junior high school. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 20 Age Grouping and School Transitions (3) How Secondary Schools Differ from Elementary Schools Compared to elementary school teachers, middle school/junior high teachers have the following characteristics: They are less likely to trust their students, more likely to emphasize discipline. They are more likely to believe that students’ abilities are fixed. They are less likely to feel confident about their teaching ability There is a developmental mismatch between what adolescents need and what they get from teachers. Bureaucratic organization and anonymity of junior high schools may have negative effect on teachers. Cultural stereotypes may have negative influence on teachers. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 21 Age Grouping and School Transitions (4) Individual Differences in the Extent of Transitional Problems Not all students experience the same degree of stress. Students who have more academic and psychosocial problems before making a school transition have more problems coping with it. Poor, inner-city adolescents may be particularly at risk for the negative effects of school transitions. Boys, ethnic minority students, and students from poor families are more likely to become disengaged from school. Parental support and involvement are associated with better adjustment during school transitions. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Tracking (1) Tracking: Practice of separating students into ability groups, so that they take classes with peers at the same skill level Schools that use tracking may be more exclusive or more inclusive regarding the highest track, or they may be “meritocratic.” Pros and Cons of Tracking Allows teachers to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to students’ abilities Account for mastery of certain basic skills Remedial track students generally receive poorer quality education, not just different education Socialize only with peers from same track May discriminate against poor and ethnic minorities Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 23 Tracking (2) On the Wrong Track Early track placements result in a difficult-to-change educational trajectory. Tracking in one class may lead to tracking in others due to scheduling. More advanced tracking has more challenging instruction, better teaching, critical thinking classroom activities. Net effect is an increase in preexisting academic differences. Some exceptions exist, with lower tracks taught by exceptional teachers. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 24 Tracking (3) The Effects of Tracking on Student Achievement Studies of the effect of tracking have produced a complicated answer with variety of shown effects. Both implementation and “detracking” are controversial. Teachers may sort based on ability without formal tracking; this results in raised expectations and evaluations for high-ability students and lowered expectations and evaluations for low-ability students Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 25 Tracking (4) Students at the Extremes Gifted students: Students who are unusually talented in some aspect of intellectual performance Learning disability: Difficulty with academic tasks that cannot be traced to an emotional problem or sensory dysfunction Dyslexia: Impaired ability in reading or spelling Dysgraphia: Impaired ability in handwriting Dyscalculia: Impaired ability in arithmetic Mainstreaming: The integration of adolescents who have educational handicaps into regular classrooms Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 26 Tracking (5) Students at the Extremes, continued There are pros and cons of mainstreaming for both gifted adolescents and students with special needs. Big fish-little pond effect: The reason that individuals who attend high school with high-achieving peers feel worse about themselves than comparably successful individuals with lower-achieving peers Adolescents with a specific learning disability may benefit from extra instruction in study skills, note-taking, and proofreading. They may also need help with motivation and dealing with social and emotional difficulties and coping with self-esteem issues. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 27 Tracking (6) Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A biologically based psychological disorder characterized by impulsivity, inattentiveness, and restlessness, often in school situations In 50 to 70\% of cases, ADHD persists into adolescence. Three subtypes exist: predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive/impulsive, and combined. ADHD is a biological disorder with a very strong genetic component. It is frequently treated with stimulant medication. One concern is that medication is shared with nonafflicted friends. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 28 Ethnic Composition (1) Landmark U.S. Supreme Court rulings legally ended segregation of schools (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 1954; 1955). Effects of Desegregation Desegregation has little impact on achievement levels of either minority or White adolescents. Minority youngster’s self-esteem is higher when they attend schools in which they are in the majority. Students feel stronger attachment to schools that draw directly from the local community and where more of their classmates share an ethnic group. Students feel more engaged, safer, less lonely, and less harassed in relatively more diverse multiethnic schools than less balanced schools. Cross-ethnic friendships are more common among male than female students, in part because males are more likely to be involved in athletics. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 29 Ethnic Composition (2) Figure 6.3: Students who are part of a very small racial minority in their school (few than 15\% of the students) are less likely to feel attached to school, which increases depression and substance use. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 30 Figure 4 Alternatives to Public Schools To encourage better schools and competition among schools for better students, some policy makers want parents to have more choices of where to send their children. Government-subsidized school vouchers allow parents to “purchase” education at a school of one’s choosing—private or public. States may allow development of more independent charter schools. Private schools are not necessarily more effective than public schools. Homeschooled adolescents with weak religious ties are three times more likely to be behind grade level, half as likely to do extracurriculars. Family background is more powerful influence than quality of schools. Social capital: The interpersonal resources available to an adolescent or family Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 31 Classroom Climate (1) Various aspects of the school climate have important effects on youngsters’ learning and achievement: How teachers interact with students How class time is used The standards and expectations teachers hold for students All of these aspects are more important than school size, ethnic composition, approach to ability group, or age group combination. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 32 Classroom Climate (2) The Best Classroom Climate for Adolescents Responsive and demanding Positive with supportive and demanding teachers Moderate degree of structure Cooperation, not competition, between students Respectful and caring teachers Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 33 Classroom Climate (3) Figure 6.4: A recent study of Colombian students found that a positive school climate contributes to, and results from, students’ positive outlook on life, and that both increase adolescents’ prosocial behavior. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 34 Figure 4 Classroom Climate (4) School Climate and Bullying Bullying is more likely in schools with unsupportive, harsh teachers, disorderly climate, and little respect for students. The role of school climate has raised legal questions about schools’ legal responsibility for failing to take steps to prevent bullying. Experts recommend implementing evidence-based, anti-bullying programs, mental health services referrals, training for personnel, policies that make it easier to report bullying, and prompt investigations of bullying. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 35 Teacher Expectations and Student Performance (1) Strong correlation exists between teacher expectations and student performance because teachers’ expectations: Are often accurate reflections of their students’ abilities (which explains approximately 80\% the relation) Create self-fulfilling prophecies (which explains approximately 20\% the relation) Might be stronger for academically weaker students Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Teacher Expectations and Student Performance (2) Teachers may do the following: Consciously and unconsciously base their expectations in part on students’ ethnic and socioeconomic background Call on affluent or White students more Have lower expectations and hold stereotypes about minorities Give undeserved positive feedback to minority students who have done poor work Make it difficult for minority students to attain academic accomplishment that permits upwards mobility High achievement expectations from parents helps protect students from the impact of low teacher expectations. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Teacher Expectations and Student Performance (3) Figure 6.5: When asked to evaluate a second instance of student misbehavior, teachers were more likely to be troubled by it and to recommend harsh discipline when they were led to believe that the student was Black. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 5 38 The Importance of Student Engagement (1) Students and teachers influence each other. Effective teachers can engage and excite their students, and engaged and excited students can motivate their teachers to be more effective. Student engagement: The extent to which students are psychologically committed to learning and mastering the material rather than simply completing the assigned work Student disengagement comes in different forms, including behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Importance of Student Engagement (2) Table 6.1: Typology of Engagement Engagement Type Enjoy Affective Put in effort Behavioral See value Cognitive Example Purposefully engaged No yes Yes A student studies hard for a calculus test because he knows that understanding the material and doing well on the test are important to achieving his future goals; he does not enjoy the studying however. Fully engaged Yes Yes Yes A student enjoys creating a documentary film project with her peers because she cares deeply about the topic, and she sees the assignment as a worthwhile use of her time. She spends a lot of time and effort working on this project. Rationally engaged No No Yes A student sees the importance of learning about global warming in Earth Science class, but he is not willing to exert effort required to concentrate and take notes because he finds the teacher’s lecture to be excruciatingly boring. Busily engaged No Yes No A student works hard to get her homework completed accurately, though she does not particularly care about the material or the questions. Nor does she see their relevance to her interests and aspirations. She finds the prefabricated worksheets she must complete to be boring and monotonous. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Importance of Student Engagement (3) Table 6.1: Typology of Engagement, continued Engagement Type Enjoy Affective Put in effort Behavioral See value Cognitive Example Pleasurably engaged Yes No No A student enjoys listening to his teacher relay stories about World War I; however, he does not value this topic or see it as relevant. He does not take notes, he does not concentrate on the details the teacher shares, and he allows his mind to wander occasionally. Mentally engaged Yes No Yes A student enjoys working on her project in art class and she cares about mastering the technique; however, it is the day before spring break and she is not putting a lot of thought or effort into her project. She is just trying to get it done quickly so the class can have a party Recreationally engaged Yes Yes No A student works hard to help his group-mates score more points than any other group during a game in class; he is thinking hard and reviewing his notes carefully to find the correct answers, and he is having fun with his peers, enjoying the game and the friendly competition; however, when asked if he values either the material the class is reviewing or the skills he may be developing by playing the game, he says, “No. They are not connected to my larger goals.” Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Boring Classes, Bored Students (1) Figure 6.6: Only about one-sixth of students are highly engaged in high school. About one-third are disengaged either behaviorally, emotionally, or cognitively. Access the text alternative for these images. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 6 42 Boring Classes, Bored Students (2) Students frequently say that they are bored while in school—especially among high school students, who find school more boring than do middle school students. The make-work, routinized, rigid structure of most classrooms, with teacher lecture rather than student discussion, alienates many adolescents from school and undermines their desire to achieve. Student boredom is also found in high-achieving schools. Research shows that students are engaged when teachers provide opportunities for students to genuinely display their competencies, when schools facilitate students’ feelings of belonging to their school, and when students are assigned work that is “authentic.” Copyright © 2020 …