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Can you type an outline for this chapter 2? Concepts in Biochemistry Chapter 2 Wendy Herndon, BIS, RDH, CDA Introduction  Dental professionals need to have a basic understanding of biochemistry  It is the foundation for understanding and applying the concepts of nutrition What is Biochemistry? It is the study of life at the molecular level A molecule is: The smallest particle of a substance that retains all the properties of the substance A biomolecule is Any molecule that is produced by a living cell or organism https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YO244P1e9QM Metabolism involves Production and use of energy which can come from dietary carbs, proteins, and lipids Bioinformation involves The transfer of biological information from DNA to RNA to protein which carries out all of the processes of life DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid RNA is Ribonucleic acid 3 Fundamentals Atoms are: Made of three tiny particles called: Protons Neutrons Electrons  An atom itself is made up of three tiny kinds of particles called subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and the neutrons make up the center of the atom called the nucleus and the electrons fly around above the nucleus in a small cloud. All matter is made up of atoms. 4 Fundamentals Molecules are: A group of atoms bonded together  An example is when two atoms of hydrogen bond with one atom of oxygen, it forms a water molecule A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together 5 Fundamentals The mass of the human body is made of atoms which form molecules (groups of atoms) Molecules form cells (made up of billions of molecules) Cells form tissues Tissues form organs Organs work together to form systems  Systems form organisms such as a human  Atomic Bonds Ionic  Ionic bonds form between a positively charged metal and a negatively charged non-metal An example of an ionic bond is the hydroxyapatite in enamel which is composed of ionic bonds between calcium and phosphate Atomic Bonds  Covalent  -A covalent bond occurs when two non-metal atoms equally share electrons  -An example of this would be when nitrogen and oxygen bond together to form nitrous oxide -Laughing gas Carbon Element  Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe and is the building block of life on earth Cells are made of many complex molecules called macromolecules These include proteins, nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), carbohydrates, and lipids The carbon atom has unique properties that allow it to form covalent bonds to as many as four different atoms, making this versatile element ideal to serve as the basic structural component, or “backbone,” of the macromolecules (many complex molecules) Main Biomolecules in Nutrition (any molecule formed by a living cell or organism) The four major biomolecules are: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids These biomolecules are characterized by the type of polymer or monomer they contain and by their function A polymer is a large molecule containing repeating units known as monomers A monomer is the smallest repeating unit in the polymer  Carbohydrate Structure and Function Carbs Provide Your Body With Energy. One of the primary functions of carbohydrates is to provide your body with energy. Most of the carbohydrates in the foods you eat are digested and broken down into glucose before entering the bloodstream Glucose is a simple sugar which is an important energy source in living organisms and is a component of many carbohydrates Glucose is a monosaccharide  Monosaccharides, also called simple sugar, are the simplest form of sugar and the most basic units of carbohydrates Carbohydrates Classified Monosaccharides Simplest sugar that cannot be hydrolyzed (broken down) to give a simpler sugar  Disaccharide Any of a class of sugars whose molecules contain two monosaccharides that are joined together Polysaccharide Consist of a number of sugar molecules (monosaccharides) bonded together. Glycogen  A polysaccharide which forms glucose on hydrolysis Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of a compound  It is important for the storage of energy in animals Glycogen is mainly stored in the liver and the muscles and provides the body with a readily available source of energy if blood glucose levels decrease Proteins  Proteins are essential for almost every physiologic (normal) function They are composed of amino acids  Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins Amino acids and proteins are the building blocks of life Proteins When proteins are digested or broken down, amino acids are left. The human body uses amino acids to make proteins to help the body: Break down food Grow Repair body tissue Perform many other body functions  Proteins Polypeptides  Polypeptides are chains of amino acids  Amino acids are linked covalently (non-metal to non-metal atoms bond sharing electrons) by peptide bonds  Remember; proteins are composed of amino acids Enzymes  Enzymes begin the process of digesting a substance and are produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst: Proteases break down proteins Amylases break down carbohydrates Lipases break down lipids  Co-Enzymes  Many enzymes need help completing their biochemical reaction They are non-protein substances that assist enzymes Many vitamins are converted into these important coenzymes Vitamins Vitamins are compounds that are required in the diet, either because the organism cannot synthesize them, or because the rate of usage by the organism typically exceeds the rate of synthesis by the body Vitamins are generally classed as either water soluble or fat soluble The water soluble vitamins generally act as precursors (a substance from which another is formed) to coenzymes (B complex, Folic acid, vitamin C) The fat soluble vitamins have a variety of roles; Vitamin K is the only one that acts as a classical coenzyme Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids store and transfer genetic information DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) The hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms RNA Present in all living cells Act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins The genome contains all the information needed for complete development of a an organism The genome of an organism is the whole of its hereditary information encoded in its DNA The genome is the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism. Nutrigenomics  Nutrigenomics is the scientific study of the interaction of nutrition and genes Eventually this may lead to diets that are personalized based on genetic makeup This may help to prevent or treat disease Lipids  A lipid is a type of organic (derived from living matter)molecule found in living things It is oily or waxy  Fats are made from lipid molecules Lipids act as hormones that regulate body systems They do not readily combine with water (hydrophobic) Fatty Acids Fatty acids are the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the food we eat During digestion, the body breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can then be absorbed into the blood Fatty acid molecules are usually joined together in groups of three, forming a molecule called a triglyceride Fats are made of long chains of carbon atoms Fatty Acids (FA'S) Fatty acids can be classified: Saturated (animal fat products) Long chains of single carbon atoms  Most harmful Unsaturated (avocado, nuts, and soybean, canola, and olive oils) At least one double bond between the carbon atoms  Monosaturated (plant based oils) One double bond and the rest are single bonds of carbon atoms These are the best  Polyunsaturated (nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and oysters) Two or more double bonds Triglycerides  Triglycerides are the storage forms of Fatty Acids Triglycerides are the main constituents of natural fats and oils, and high concentrations in the blood indicate an elevated risk of stroke Triglycerides are stored in adipose tissue or fat Fat cushions or insulates the body Hydrogenation Hydrogenation is a process of adding an additional hydrogen molecules to form a saturated fat (FA) Creates solid unhealthy fats  Partial hydrogenation can be used to create a liquid or semi-soft fat product such as: Spreadable margarine Solid shortening  Steroids  Steroids are lipids  Cholesterol is the most abundant steroid and is important for stabilizing biological membranes  It is found in most body tissues It is synthesized in the body It is also the precursor for the hormones: Progesterone Estradiol Testosterone  Bile acids Lipid soluble vitamin D To Summarize Metabolism is how cells acquire, transform, and store energy This includes the coordination, regulation, and energy requirements needed for metabolism Protein is broken down into amino acids Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides Lipids are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids Carbohydrate Metabolism Digestion begins in the mouth Amylase enzymes hydrolyze polysaccharides into monosaccharides Monosaccharides enter into the bloodstream and are transported to the tissues that need energy Excessive amounts of glucose is store as glycogen in the liver and muscles When blood glucose (sugar) levels decrease and the body needs energy; glycogen is converted to glucose Carbohydrate Metabolism Three hormones regulate carbohydrate metabolism: Insulin Secreted when blood glucose is high; lowers blood glucose levels Glucagon Signal of the starved state Secreted when blood sugar levels are low Epinephrine Fight or flight  Secreted for immediate energy needs Protein Metabolism It is an energy source of last resort The use of amino acids for energy  Ketogenic amino acids Converted to ketone bodies to be used for fuel Glucogenic amino acids  Can be converted to glucose to fuel the body Essential amino acids must be obtained in the diet because humans cannot synthesize all 20 essential amino acids Lipid Metabolism Can be oxidized to produce more energy than carbohydrates or proteins  Lipids can be stored in fat in unlimited amounts When blood glucose is low and glycogen storage in the liver and muscle is depleted, the use of triglycerides stored in the fat tissue is activated which yields free fatty acids and glycerol for energy