Fluent Essays

For this discussion, choose a topic of interest for which you feel you could create a strong argument on both sides or choose from one of the following topics: [See above for List of suggested topics].In your initial post: (250 to 300 word)Present the strongest argument you can on two different sides of your topic. Make sure to put both arguments in standard form, with the premises listed above the conclusion.Without taking sides on the issue, consider and discuss two of the following questions: Do these arguments represent the best arguments on each side of the question? What more can we do to better understand those on the both sides of important questions? In what ways can this kind of exercise can help you to look at issues more objectively and fairly? What more can people do to understand the views of those with different perspectives on this and other topics? Do you think that understanding issues as strongly as possible from multiple points of view could promote a better life?For additional resources :Watch the following videos:Identifying Premises and Conclusions (Links to an external site.)What Is an Argument? (Links to an external site.)What (Links to an external site.) Is a Good Argument? (Part I) (Links to an external site.)What Is a Good Argument?: The Logic Condition (Links to an external site.)The Value of Using Standard Form assignment_topics_list.2019__2_.docx fm_hardy_reason.pdf ch_hardy_reason.pdf ch_hardy_reason.pdf Unformatted Attachment Preview Here is the list of options from which to choose your paper topic. The idea is to use the same topic for all three papers in this course. If you want to switch topics between papers or if you want to choose a topic not on this list, it is best to consult with your instructor first. Your paper topic is a particular question that you will attempt to resolve using logic and critical thinking. Choose a question from the list below that interests you and about which you feel that you will be able to conduct scholarly research and construct logical arguments on both sides. Feel free to modify the question into something more concrete and specific if it would allow for a stronger or more interesting paper. Here are the topics from which to choose (they are organized into categories to make it easier to narrow down your choice): Ethical Questions: • Is it permissible to use capital punishment on persons convicted of certain crimes? • Is physician assisted suicide morally acceptable when a person is suffering from a painful, incurable, terminal condition? • Is abortion morally acceptable when the woman’s life is not in danger due to the pregnancy? • Is it acceptable to purchase clothing made by underpaid and poorly treated workers in other countries? Legal/Political Questions: • Should a photo ID be required for voting? • Should legal marriage be available to couples of the same sex? • Should marijuana be legal for recreational use? • Should vaccinations be required for all children of certain ages? Economics: • Does federal assistance for college education for people with low incomes help the economy in the long run? • Are government subsidies (e.g. for agriculture, oil exploration, etc.) generally good for the economy? • Would shifting to alternative sources of energy (wind, solar, etc.) be likely to benefit or harm our economy in the long run? Daily Life: • Does the use of Social Media tend to improve or harm relationships? • Are video games (or is pornography, TV, etc.) addictive (or harmful)? Education: • Is online education ‘as good as’ on ground education generally? • Is it unwise to major in the arts or humanities (given debt to employment ratios, etc.)? • Should the government shift to funding charter schools rather than public schools? Health/Medicine: • Is the use of therapy (or yoga, meditation, religion, etc.) effective in improving one’s long term well-being? • Are psychiatric drugs beneficial for (or detrimental to) long term mental health? • Do vaccines cause autism or other harmful diseases? • Does alternative medicine (e.g. acupuncture, homeopathic medicine, etc.) work better in many cases than standard western (allopathic) medicine? Environment • Should the government regulate the emissions of greenhouse gas emissions? • Is our current rate of rainforest clearing (or ocean fishing, etc.) sustainable? • Should wolves (or bison) be allowed to roam free in certain areas in the western states? Animal Ethics: • Which types of animals possess consciousness (or reasoning, language, emotion, etc.)? • It is ethically acceptable to raise animals for food on factory farms? • Should people be required to spay/neuter pets? Science and Reality: • Is there evidence for non-physically explainable phenomena being real (ESP, auras, astrology, ghosts, etc.)? • Is intelligent design science? Parenting: • Is the ‘cry it out’ method good for babies? • What methods of discipline have been shown to be best for child development? • Is breast feeding better than formula in all cases? • Are children raised with opposite-sex parents better off in general than those raised with same-sex parents? • Should ‘junk food’ be allowed in public school vending machines? • Should sex education be taught in public schools? With Good Reason: A Guide to Critical Thinking James Hardy Ashford University Christopher Foster Ashford University Gloria Zúñiga y Postigo Ashford University © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 1 4/9/15 1:42 PM James Hardy, Christopher Foster, and Gloria Zúñiga y Postigo With Good Reason: A Guide to Critical Thinking Editor in Chief, AVP: Steve Wainwright Executive Editor: Anna Lustig Development Editor: Rebecca Paynter Assistant Editor: Jessica Sarra Editorial Assistant: Lukas Schulze Production Editor: Catherine Morris Media Production: Amanda Nixon, LSF Editorial Copy Editor: Lauri Scherer, LSF Editorial Photo Researcher: Amanda Nixon, LSF Editorial Cover Design: Bambang Suparman Ibrahim Printing Services: Bordeaux Production Services: Lachina Permission Editor: D’Stair Permissions Agency Cover Image: juuce/iStock and espiegle/iStock ISBN-10: 1621785661 ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-566-8 Copyright © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: The copyright owner of this material hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 2 4/9/15 1:42 PM Brief Contents Chapter 1: An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 2: The Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Chapter 3: Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Chapter 4: Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Chapter 5: Inductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Chapter 6: Deduction and Induction: Putting It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Chapter 7: Informal Fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Chapter 8: Persuasion and Rhetoric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Chapter 9: Logic in Real Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 3 4/9/15 1:42 PM © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 4 4/9/15 1:42 PM Contents About the Authors xiii Acknowledgments xv Preface xvii Chapter 1 An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Logic 1 1.1 What Is Critical Thinking? 2 The Importance of Critical Thinking Becoming a Critical Thinker 6 1.2 Three Misconceptions About Logic Logic Is for Robots 7 Logic Does Not Need to Be Learned Logic Is Too Hard 10 1.3 3 What Is Logic? 7 9 11 The Study of Arguments 11 A Tool for Arriving at Warranted Judgments 12 Formal Versus Informal Logic 14 1.4 Arguments Outside of Logic 14 Arguments in Ordinary Language 14 Rhetorical Arguments 15 Revisiting Arguments in Logic 16 1.5 The Importance of Language in Logic 1.6 Logic and Philosophy 19 17 The Goal of Philosophy 20 Philosophy and Logical Reasoning 20 Summary and Resources 21 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 5 4/9/15 1:42 PM Contents Chapter 2 The Argument 25 2.1 Arguments in Logic 26 Claims 29 The Standard Argument Form 2.2 Putting Arguments in the Standard Form Find the Conclusion First 34 Find the Premises Next 36 The Necessity of Paraphrasing Thinking Analytically 39 2.3 31 38 Representing Arguments Graphically 42 Representing Reasons That Support a Conclusion Representing Counterarguments 45 Diagramming Efficiently 46 2.4 33 42 Classifying Arguments 47 Deductive Arguments 48 Inductive Arguments 49 Arguments Versus Explanations 50 Summary and Resources 53 Chapter 3 Deductive Reasoning 59 3.1 Basic Concepts in Deductive Reasoning 60 Validity 60 Soundness 62 Deduction 63 3.2 Evaluating Deductive Arguments 66 Representing Logical Form 66 Using the Counterexample Method 3.3 68 Types of Deductive Arguments 70 Mathematical Arguments 70 Arguments From Definitions 71 Categorical Arguments 72 Propositional Arguments 72 3.4 Categorical Logic: Introducing Categorical Statements 73 Clarifying Particular Statements 76 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. 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Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 6 4/9/15 1:42 PM Contents Clarifying Universal Statements 76 Accounting for Conversational Implication 78 3.5 Categorical Logic: Venn Diagrams as Pictures of Meaning 80 Drawing Venn Diagrams 81 Drawing Immediate Inferences 84 3.6 Categorical Logic: Categorical Syllogisms Terms 91 Distribution 91 Rules for Validity 93 Venn Diagram Tests for Validity 3.7 91 94 Categorical Logic: Types of Categorical Arguments 111 Sorites 111 Enthymemes 112 Validity in Complex Arguments 113 Summary and Resources 115 Chapter 4 Propositional Logic 4.1 Basic Concepts in Propositional Logic The Value of Formal Logic Statement Forms 122 4.2 119 Logical Operators 120 121 123 Conjunction 124 Disjunction 126 Negation 128 Conditional 129 4.3 Symbolizing Complex Statements 133 Truth Tables With Complex Statements 135 Truth Tables With Three Letters 137 4.4 Using Truth Tables to Test for Validity 140 Examples With Arguments With Two Letters 141 Examples With Arguments With Three Letters 144 4.5 Some Famous Propositional Argument Forms 149 Common Valid Forms 149 Common Invalid Forms 152 Summary and Resources 158 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. 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Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 7 4/9/15 1:42 PM Contents Chapter 5 Inductive Reasoning 165 5.1 Basic Concepts in Inductive Reasoning 166 Inductive Strength 167 Inductive Cogency 170 5.2 Statistical Arguments: Statistical Syllogisms Form 172 Weak Statistical Syllogisms 5.3 171 173 Statistical Arguments: Inductive Generalizations 174 Representativeness 175 Confidence Level 179 Applying This Knowledge 180 5.4 Causal Relationships: The Meaning of Cause Sufficient Conditions 181 Necessary Conditions 182 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Other Types of Causes 184 Correlational Relationships 184 5.5 181 183 Causal Arguments: Mill’s Methods 186 Method of Agreement 187 Method of Difference 188 Joint Method of Agreement and Difference 189 Method of Concomitant Variation 190 5.6 Arguments From Authority 5.7 Arguments From Analogy 192 193 Evaluating Arguments From Analogy Analogies in Moral Reasoning 197 Other Uses of Analogies 198 194 Summary and Resources 203 Chapter 6 Deduction and Induction: Putting It All Together 207 6.1 Contrasting Deduction and Induction 208 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. 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Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 8 4/9/15 1:42 PM Contents 6.2 Choosing Between Induction and Deduction 211 Availability 211 Robustness 212 Persuasiveness 214 6.3 Combining Induction and Deduction 216 6.4 Reasoning About Science: The Hypothetico–Deductive Method 218 Step 1: Formulate a Hypothesis 219 Step 2: Deduce a Consequence From the Hypothesis 219 Step 3: Test Whether the Consequence Occurs 220 Step 4: Reject the Hypothesis If the Consequence Does Not Occur 6.5 Inference to the Best Explanation Form 228 Virtue of Simplicity 229 How to Assess an Explanation A Limitation 232 220 225 231 Summary and Resources 236 Chapter 7 Informal Fallacies 7.1 Fallacies of Support 239 241 Begging the Question 241 Circular Reasoning 242 Hasty Generalizations and Biased Samples 243 Appeal to Ignorance and Shifting the Burden of Proof Appeal to Inadequate Authority 246 False Dilemma 248 False Cause 249 7.2 245 Fallacies of Relevance 251 Red Herring and Non Sequitur 251 Appeal to Emotion 252 Appeal to Popular Opinion 255 Appeal to Tradition 256 Ad Hominem and Poisoning the Well 257 7.3 Fallacies of Clarity 261 The Slippery Slope 261 Equivocations 262 The Straw Man 264 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. 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Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 9 4/9/15 1:42 PM Contents Fallacy of Accident 267 Fallacies of Composition and Division 268 Summary and Resources 273 Chapter 8 Persuasion and Rhetoric 8.1 279 Obstacles to Critical Thinking: The Self 280 Stereotypes 280 Cognitive Biases 282 8.2 Obstacles to Critical Thinking: Rhetorical Devices 289 Weasel Words 290 Euphemisms and Dysphemisms Proof Surrogates 293 Hyperbole 294 Innuendo and Paralipsis 295 8.3 291 The Media and Mediated Information Manipulating Images 301 Advertising 302 Other Types of Mediated Information 8.4 300 306 Evaluating the Source: Who to Believe 308 Reputation and Authorship 309 Accuracy and Currency 312 Interested Parties 312 Summary and Resources 314 Chapter 9 Logic in Real Life 9.1 319 The Argumentative Essay 320 The Problem 321 The Thesis 322 The Premises 323 9.2 Strengthening the Argumentative Essay 327 Clarification and Support The Objection 329 The Rebuttal 330 Closing Your Essay 331 327 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 10 4/9/15 1:42 PM Contents 9.3 Practical Arguments: Building Arguments for Everyday Use 333 The Claim 333 The Data 334 The Warrant 334 Comparing the Models 9.4 335 Confronting Disagreement 338 Applying the Principle of Accuracy 339 Applying the Principle of Charity 340 Balancing the Principles of Accuracy and Charity Practicing Effective Criticism 342 9.5 341 Case Study: Interpretation and Criticism in Practice 346 Examining the Initial Argument 347 Examining the Objection 347 Examining the Wording 348 Drawing a Conclusion 349 9.6 Other Applications of Logic 349 Symbolic Logic 350 Computer Science 350 Artificial Intelligence 350 Engineering 351 Politics (Speech Writing) 351 Summary and Resources 351 Glossary 355 References 363 © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 11 4/9/15 1:42 PM © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 12 4/9/15 1:42 PM About the Authors James Hardy, Ashford University Dr. James Hardy is part of the core faculty of the Humanities & Science department at Ashford University. He obtained a PhD in philosophy from Indiana University, a master’s degree in philosophy from the University of Washington, and bachelor’s degrees in philosophy and psychology from Utah State University. He has taught philosophy at multiple universities since 1998 and has had the opportunity to teach across the general education spectrum, including courses in algebra, speech, English, and physics. Dr. Hardy’s favorite part of teaching is watching students get excited about learning, helping them achieve their dreams, and seeing their excitement as new worlds of knowledge open up to them. Dr. Hardy loves spending time outdoors hiking, backpacking, and canoeing—especially when he can do so with family members. He has lived all over the United States and has always found beauty and natural wonders wherever he has lived. The only time he is happier than when he is in nature is when he is spending time with his family. Christopher Foster, Ashford University Dr. Christopher Foster is lead faculty of the Humanities & Science department at Ashford University. He holds a PhD in philosophy with a specialization in logic and language and a master’s degree in philosophy from the University of Kansas (KU). His undergraduate work was completed at the University of California–Davis, where he earned bachelor’s degrees in mathematics and philosophy. Dr. Foster began his career as a graduate teaching assistant at KU and went on to teach at Brigham Young University and Utah Valley University. Dr. Foster has a passion for philosophy and believes that digging deeply into life’s ultimate questions is often the best way to improve students’ critical thinking and writing skills. He lives in Orem, Utah, with his wife, Cherie, and two daughters, Avery and Adia. Gloria Zúñiga y Postigo, Ashford University Dr. Gloria Zúñiga y Postigo is lead faculty of the Humanities & Science department at Ashford University. She earned a PhD in philosophy from the University at Buffalo, specializing in ontology, ethics, and philosophy of economics. Her previous studies are in philosophy at the University of California–Berkeley and economics at California State University–East Bay. Dr. Zúñiga y Postigo’s present research interests include examinations of the affect in our experiences of moral, aesthetic, and economic phenomena; and value in the Brentano School, the Menger School, and the Göttingen Circle scholars. Teaching philosophy is one her greatest passions. She especially enjoys teaching informal logic, because it empowers students with a tool for distinguishing truth from the mere appearance of truth, thereby making it possible for them to achieve fulfilling lives with greater efficacy. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 13 4/9/15 1:42 PM © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 14 4/9/15 1:42 PM Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the people who made significant contributions to the development of this text: Anna Lustig, executive editor; Rebecca Paynter, development editor; Jessica Sarra, assistant editor; Lukas Schulze, editorial assistant; Catherine Morris, production editor; Amanda Nixon, media production; and Lauri Scherer and LSF Editorial, copy editors. Additional thanks go to Justin Harrison and Marc Joseph for their work creating and accuracy checking the ancillary materials for this text. The authors would also like to thank the following reviewers, as well as other anonymous reviewers, for their valuable feedback and insight: Justin Harrison, Ashford University Mark Hébert, Austin College Marc Joseph, Mills College Stephen Krogh, Ashford University Renee Levant, Ashford University Andrew Magrath, Kent State University Zachary Martin, Florida State University John McAteer, Ashford University Bradley Thames, Ashford University Finally, but not least importantly, the authors would like to acknowledge their respective spouses—Teresa Hardy, Cherie Farnes, and Jacob Arfwedson—for their loving understanding of the long hours that this project demanded, as well as all characters in popular culture (for example, Sherlock Holmes, Mr. Spock, and Dr. House) who have kept logic present in everyday conversations. The rewards of our work are enriched by the former and reassured by the latter. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-xviii.indd 15 4/9/15 1:42 PM © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. har85668_00_fm_i-x ... Purchase answer to see full attachment