Fluent Essays

Write about 300 words per each paper given below. The paper format should be in APA format.Summarize the article in terms of the research question(how the article is centered around a research topic or set of hypotheses) and how it was researched.Two papers has to be delivered with 300 words each and references with APA format from two research papers given below. digitalborders.pdf monetary_stocks.pdf Unformatted Attachment Preview Digital Borders, Location Recognition, and Experience Attribution within a Digital Geography BRIAN KIMBALL DUNN, NARAYAN RAMASUBBU, F. DENNIS GALLETTA, AND PAUL BENJAMIN LOWRY BRIAN KIMBALL DUNN (brian.dunn@usu.edu) is an assistant professor at the Huntsman School of Business, Utah State University. Following a 10-year career in industry in e-commerce and online marketing roles, he received his Ph.D. in Information Systems from the University of Pittsburgh. His research interests include the effects of human-computer interaction on brand-related outcomes and user behavior within digital content platforms. His work has been published in Information Systems Research, European Journal of Information Systems, AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction (THCI), and other venues. NARAYAN RAMASUBBU (narayanr@katz.pitt.edu) is an associate professor at the Katz Graduate School of Business at the University of Pittsburgh. He received his Ph. D. in Business Administration from the University of Michigan. His research interests include software product development and services delivery; design, implementation, use, and governance of enterprise information systems; information technology-driven innovation; and user behavior within digital platforms. Dr. Ramasubbu serves on the editorial review board of the Journal of AIS and is an associate editor at Management Science and MIS Quarterly. F. DENNIS GALLETTA (galletta@katz.pitt.edu) is an AIS Fellow, a LEO lifetime achievement awardee, and Ben L. Fryrear Faculty Fellow and Professor at the University of Pittsburgh, where he serves as Doctoral Director for the Business School. He has published 51 articles, with 17 in the Financial Times FT50-listed journals (Journal of Management Information Systems, MIS Quarterly, Information Systems Research, and Management Science). He has also published 55 refereed conference papers and four books. Dr. Galletta is an Editorial Board member at JMIS, an MISQ Senior Editor, and has been on several other boards. He served as AIS President, ICIS Treasurer, AIS Council Member, and Editor-in-Chief of AISWorld. He was a founding co-Editor-in-Chief of AIS THCI and established the concept of Special Interest Groups in AIS. PAUL BENJAMIN LOWRY (paul.lowry.phd@vt.edu) is the Suzanne Parker Thornhill Chair Professor in Business Information Technology at the Pamplin College of Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www. tandfonline.com/mmis. Journal of Management Information Systems / 2019, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 418–449. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN 0742–1222 (print) / ISSN 1557–928X (online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2019.1598690 DIGITAL BORDERS, LOCATIONS, AND ATTRIBUTION 419 Business at Virginia Tech. He received his Ph.D. in Management Information Systems from the University of Arizona. His research interests include organizational and behavioral security and privacy; online deviance, online harassment, and computer ethics; human-computer interaction, social media, and gamification; and business analytics, decision sciences, innovation, and supply chains. He has published over 115 papers in Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS), MIS Quarterly, Information Systems Research, Journal of the AIS (JAIS), Information System Journal (ISJ), and others. Dr. Lowry is an Editorial Board member at JMIS, a senior editor at JAIS and ISJ, and an associate editor at other journals. In 2019, he was recognized as the most productive scholar in the world for the top-6 IS journals in the last 5 years. ABSTRACT: During an online session, a user may visit a number of websites, often following hyperlinks from one website to the next or using a search results page to find and visit pages of interest. In doing so, the user can lose track of which sites were visited and which were helpful in meeting the objective. Thus, sites that may have provided value to the user may not receive expected positive effects such as loyalty and intention to return. It is thus crucial to understand if and how an individual website is perceived by users within the context of multi-website online sessions—particularly in predicting desired outcomes, such as user loyalty, trust, brand image, and revisit intentions. To address this problem, we conceptualize the Web as a geography traversed by users who cross digital borders as they move from one website location to another. We introduce the concept of border strength, or the degree to which digital media artifacts mark a transition to a website, and propose a positive effect of border strength on users’ recognition of their locations. We then consider users’ attribution of credit for assistance in successfully completing an online task to those websites and their owners that supported the task. This attribution is a function of border strength and location recognition. We test these hypotheses using experimental data, which show that, indeed, some websites go unrecognized and that stronger borders increase users’ recognition of having visited a website and users’ credit attribution for their experience to the site. Our findings demonstrate the usefulness of the geography metaphor, suggest the need to further study dynamics regarding individual sites within the context of multi-site sessions and show the usefulness of erecting stronger borders to mark the entry into digital locations. KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: digital borders, digital geography, online experience, web experience attribution, space and place theory, memory, website design, web traversal. Introduction Since the World Wide Web became prominent in the 1990s, the way people use the Internet has evolved dramatically. In the early days of the Web, users were more likely to seek specific websites, whether based on recommendations from friends, advertisements that provided the addresses of companies’ websites, or other means. With the global expansion and development of the Web—including the advancement of search engines, social media, and link aggregators—the 420 DUNN ET AL. phenomenon of “destination websites” has begun to wane. Website users have become less likely to seek out specific websites, and instead visit sites based on search engine results or alternative entry points such as social media or e-commerce sites [55]. An internal memo at the New York Times, for instance, states that the company’s homepage witnessed a 50 percent reduction in traffic between 2011 and 2013 [54]. Furthermore, as online business models have matured, content and functions, around which a company may have built an entire website earlier in the Internet’s history, have now been rendered subservient to a larger website: consider e-commerce companies that sell their products through Amazon Marketplace, entertainment content available from and customer outreach occurring through Facebook, or news content found primarily through Google News. Consequently, users are more likely to “jump around” the Internet, follow links wherever they may be found, and conduct online sessions in which they visit dozens or even hundreds of websites and other content owner properties. Thus, users may now be less aware of which website they are visiting at any given time during such sessions. From a user’s standpoint, this usually is not a problem: if desired information is found or a task is accomplished, then users are likely satisfied. However, for the owners of the websites visited, this potential lack of location awareness can be problematic. Research has shown that recognized websites can influence their users to the benefit of the site owner. For instance, feelings of immersion within a given digital content environment have been related to improved user attitude toward a website [45], increased probability of website adoption [36], and increased website loyalty [30]. Feelings of trust and security toward a given website have been related to intent to revisit [15], perceptions of service quality [19], improved brand image [37], and willingness to purchase from the site [e.g., 13, 14, 21, 37], and even willingness to disclose confidential information [37]. Research has also demonstrated the importance of website design quality, the sense of control experienced on a site, and a number of other site- and user-level constructs [e.g., 12, 23, 24, 43, 62]. Although such studies have provided important findings regarding website interaction, they have done so within the context of a particular site, recognized and perceived by the user as a discrete entity. However, if users are unaware of which sites they are visiting during a more typical multi-site online session, it is not clear the extent to which these findings would still hold. Moreover, research has also indicated that the traffic coming primarily from third-party links as opposed to arriving directly via uniform resource locator (URLs) can have a net detrimental effect on websites’ welfare [11]. Given these real-world possibilities, it is imperative to understand the effects of user interactions with a given site within the context of a multi-website online session. To do so, researchers must identify the factors that contribute to a given website’s identity being recognized and to that site’s receiving due credit for helping a user meet whatever requirements prompted the visit in the first place. DIGITAL BORDERS, LOCATIONS, AND ATTRIBUTION 421 The importance of proposing pre-theoretical structures such as analogies, metaphors, and constructs to help foster original theoretical contributions to IS research has recently been emphasized as a way of getting away from research that seeks primarily only to reinforce established reference-discipline theories [17]. Along these lines, and given the lack of theory available in the IS canon to address the associated concerns, we leverage the literature on space and place [31, 48, 59] from the field of experiential geography to provide a theoretical foundation through the use of apt geographical metaphors. This literature, which has already proven useful to IS researchers investigating virtual communities such as Second Life [41, 49], describes how physical locations acquire meaning for an individual and thereby become recognized places. One important tactic in designating the existence and formal boundaries of a place is the erection of clear borders [58]. We propose that users are more likely to recognize a digital content location (e.g., a website) when that location more forcefully expresses its identity through a construct we term border strength. Then, we use perspectives on memory and attribution [e.g., 29, 50] to propose that border strength and location recognition significantly predict the degree to which a user will attribute the success of an online experience to a particular website. These hypotheses were tested using data collected in two parallel experimental data collections in which participants were asked to interact with a purpose-built set of websites to complete two different types of information-gathering tasks—one more goal-directed, the other more experiential—regarding Norwegian parliamentary elections. We also controlled for a number of variables that have previously been shown to affect online experiences to better isolate the effect of our new construct, border strength. Our study’s cognitive focus allows for an immediate test of these concepts and a theoretical basis from which future researchers can investigate subsequent impacts on perceptions and future user behavior (e.g., intent to re-visit, intent to purchase). Results of our study have pressing implications for the design of websites and other digital content repositories. Our analysis demonstrates the importance of border strength in enabling users to recognize online locations during multi-site sessions and increasing attributions of credit to these locations. This supports the usefulness of the geography metaphor for understanding the dynamics of multi-location browsing behavior. Theory and Hypotheses Many key Web concepts have long been referenced through geographical metaphors. A user “visits” (implying physical movement in a geography) a website, websites themselves have “home” pages and can be reached via “addresses”—also referred to as uniform resource “locators” (URLs)—and historically popular Web software packages have borne the names Internet “Explorer” and Netscape “Navigator.” Thus, geography is a natural, intuitive fit as a lens through which to 422 DUNN ET AL. understand multi-website online sessions. Such metaphors are powerful, though in the IS field perhaps underused, instruments of theory development [17, 27, 56]. In the 1970s, experiential geography researchers began formalizing the concepts and theory of space and place [e.g., 2, 7, 16, 32, 48, 57, 59, 60]. According to this body of work, place is defined as a location to which meaning is attached, whereas space refers to locations without specific meaning [32, 48, 60]. Ill-defined space becomes a meaningful place over time for an individual as the result of both sensory and social factors [16, 31, 48]. We thus propose applying these ideas to the Web to help better understand antecedents and consequences of user recognition of online location and attribution of credit for their experience. Place can exist in both a formal and perceptual sense [48]. In the physical world, the formal sense of place refers to a defined location with clear boundaries for which there is general agreement or a generally-accepted definition. For example, consider the Pacific Rim, India, the English Channel, and the Flatiron District. Each of these names references a location with a generally accepted definition making each of the locations a formal place. Conversely, a person’s perception of a place— perceptual place—is idiosyncratic in that it depends on the individual’s experiences with locations and the specific meanings they attach to those locations based on their own experiences. For instance, formally, the city of Los Angeles is defined by its city limits. An individual, however, could consider all suburbs and municipalities in Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and Ventura counties as “Los Angeles”— or perhaps, depending on the person, Los Angeles is perceived in line with the actual city boundaries. We propose that users’ online experiences exhibit a similar dichotomy. That is, online locations can be understood as both formal and perceptual places. Formal places coincide with domain names, rights holders, and general understandings. For instance, mentioning Amazon.com generally results in the common recognition of the e-commerce website hosted on that domain. Conversely, each individual interacts with online locations idiosyncratically and thereby develops a particular perception of such locations. These distinct perceptions may or may not coalesce into recognizing the locations visited (i.e., the websites may or may not become perceived places to the user). Furthermore, users’ idiosyncratic perceptions of locations and, in particular, of where one location stops and another starts, may or may not coincide with the formal places defined by website owners. To better illustrate our borders metaphor, we present two cases. First, consider a user who, during a Facebook session, encounters a link to a story about California wildfires. The link appears to be coming from a known associate, is encountered while browsing Facebook, and if clicked, leads the user to a different website altogether (e.g., CNN). From the user’s perspective, if the borders are not perceived completely in line with the formal borders demarking territory, this story could be perceived as belonging to CNN, to Facebook, or to the user’s friend. Further confusion could occur when, after clicking through to CNN, the user encounters DIGITAL BORDERS, LOCATIONS, AND ATTRIBUTION 423 additional “click-bait” story headlines that, when clicked, take the user to another location altogether. Or consider a consumer shopping for an elliptical exercise machine for home use. The user may start with a Google search for “best elliptical machines,” which results in a dizzying array of links. Some of these links lead to actual vendors (e.g., Bowflex), some are from consumer product aggregators that write for-profit articles that purport to rank machines, and other links are auto-created by Google as part of a question-and-answer format. When the user then clicks through one of the links, the user may not recognize (or, perhaps, may not care) that a transition to a new location has occurred. Additional confusion may arise within the shopping context after a user has clicked through to a shopping site, after which advertisements for specific products viewed seem to follow the user regardless of which site the user visits thereafter. Furthermore, within the shopping context, many websites advertising through Google and on other websites act as search aggregators (e.g., Kayak for airfare). These search aggregators then further link to other websites where goods and services can be purchased, thus presenting additional potential points of border confusion. When choosing and paying for a trip, does the user perceive having just purchased the airfare from the airline? From Kayak? From Google? In summary, these realistic cases of consumers transacting in the platform-based world, show that it is increasingly challenging to keep track of where one is on the Web. The resulting confusion and blending of providers can undermine accurate border perceptions. Border Strength and Digital Locations Given this foundation, we propose the concept of the digital border as the point at which a user transitions from one digital content repository to another. A border specifies the boundary around a quantity of information in a digital environment (e.g., a website) and can be either formal (i.e., defined by the content owner) or perceptual (i.e., idiosyncratic to the user). We refer to the content defined by a border as a digital location. Uncertainty and idiosyncrasy exist in the way users perceive the borders of a given website. Indeed, similar ideas of idiosyncratic or ambiguous borders around digital information can be found in Kent’s [26] discussion of arbitrary categorization of data and in the more recent idea by Kallinikos et al. [25] of an evolving website’s “ambivalent ontology.” In the physical world, experiential geographers maintain that different individuals form different sorts of attachments to physical locations based on a number of factors, such as personal experience with a location, beliefs about others who are from a given location, the visual appearance of a location, and the social connections that transpire within a given geography [16, 31, 48]. Similarly, users’ experiences viewing photos, page layouts, and colors form 424 DUNN ET AL. their perceptions of a digital location. In both the physical and digital worlds, different arrangements of the elements provide cues that the location has changed. Experiential geographers also suggest that there can be consequential overlap between the formal and perceptual senses of place [48, 59]. Tuan [58], in discussing political borders, states that “politics creates a place by making it visible” (p. 163). For example, erecting signs, raising flags, and establishing other symbols and artifacts help establish an identity, enabling the “owner” of a geography (e.g., a city or national government) to better align the formal borders that it creates with the borders that are perceived by individuals. Transposing this concept to digital locations, owners of digital content (e.g., websites) could better ensure that their digital locations are recognized by similarly erecting artifacts. Many ... Purchase answer to see full attachment