Fluent Essays

After you read both articles on happiness in the Week 2 module, find some direct quotes that answer each of the questions we use to summarize an article. Highlight the sentence/s and attach the marked up pdf What are they studying? Highlight 1-2 sentences in pinkHow did they study it? Highlight 1-2 sentences in yellowWhat did they find? Highlight 3-5 sentences in greenYou can open up each of the pdf files, highlight directly on them, and attach them to this assignment. Or, you can highlight your printed copy and send the images to me here. You do not have to take photos or scan the entire document - you can just take photos of the highlighted parts. how_do_people_pursue_happiness_relating_personality__happiness_increasing_strategies_and_wellbeing.pdf stressed_and_happy_investigating_the_relationship_between_happiness_and_perceived_stress_1_.pdf Unformatted Attachment Preview Journal of Happiness Studies (2006) 7:183–225 DOI 10.1007/s10902-005-4754-1
Springer 2006 CHRIS TKACH and SONJA LYUBOMIRSKY HOW DO PEOPLE PURSUE HAPPINESS?: RELATING PERSONALITY, HAPPINESS-INCREASING STRATEGIES, AND WELL-BEINGw ABSTRACT. Five hundred ethnically diverse undergraduates reported their happiness strategies – that is, activities undertaken to maintain or increase happiness. Factor analysis extracted eight general strategies: Affiliation, Partying, Mental Control, Goal Pursuit, Passive Leisure, Active Leisure, Religion, and Direct Attempts at happiness. According to multiple regression analyses, these strategies accounted for 52\% of the variance in self-reported happiness and 16\% over and above the variance accounted for by the Big Five personality traits. The strongest unique predictors of current happiness were Mental Control (inversely related), Direct Attempts, Affiliation, Religion, Partying, and Active Leisure. Gender differences suggest that men prefer to engage in Active Leisure and Mental Control, whereas women favor Affiliation, Goal Pursuit, Passive Leisure, and Religion. Relative to Asian and Chicano(a) students, White students preferred using high arousal strategies. Finally, mediation analyses revealed that many associations between individuals’ personality and happiness levels are to some extent mediated by the strategies they use to increase their happiness – particularly, by Affiliation, Mental Control, and Direct Attempts. KEY WORDS: affiliation, Big Five, factor analysis, goals, happiness, leisure, mediation, mental control, personality, subjective well-being The inalienable right to the ‘‘pursuit of happiness’’ listed in the U.S. Declaration of Independence illustrates the long-standing American preoccupation with well-being. Continuing to this day, happiness is considered an integral part of a desirable life (King and Napa, 1998) and the subject of most people’s daily thoughts (Freedman, 1978). Perhaps as a result of this fixation, w The authors would like to thank Sabine French for comments on earlier drafts and Andrew Comrey, Dan Ozer, and Chandra Reynolds for their valuable statistical advice. 184 CHRIS TKACH AND SONJA LYUBOMIRSKY self-help books about how to become happier have proliferated. Interest in the sources of happiness inspires the age-old problem, ‘‘What can people do to become happier?’’ Embedded in this issue are two fundamental questions: ‘‘What specific strategies do people use to try to make themselves happy?’’ and ‘‘Are these strategies effective?’’ Surprisingly, to our knowledge, little research has addressed these questions directly. To fill the aforementioned gap in the well-being research literature, the present study aimed to identify the intentional behaviors that individuals engage in to pursue happiness. To that end, the study had three general aims: First, we sought to derive empirically the strategies that people report using to maintain or increase their happiness levels. Second, we aimed to evaluate the predictive power of the individual strategies – that is, determine which strategies are most strongly related to self-reported happiness. Third, we sought to test a process model of long-term happiness by examining the relations among personality traits, happiness strategies, and subjective happiness. Happiness and Its Sources Happiness is characterized by the experience of more frequent positive affective states than negative ones (Bradburn, 1969), as well as by the perception that one is progressing toward important life goals (Diener et al., 1999). Judgments of happiness involve global affective self-appraisals and affect ratings, which are inherently subjective (Myers and Diener, 1995). Chronic or long-term happiness, the focus of the present investigation, is the relatively stable level of positive well-being one experiences over a specific time period, such as 3 or 6 months (Lyubomirsky, 2001; Lyubomirsky and Lepper, 1999). Research investigating the sources of happiness has focused on determining the strongest predictors of happiness and life satisfaction. Three general categories of happiness predictors have been identified: (1) life circumstances and demographics, (2) traits and dispositions, and (3) intentional behaviors (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). HOW DO PEOPLE PURSUE HAPPINESS? 185 Circumstances and Demographics Although circumstantial factors (e.g., income, place of residence, employment, injury) affect temporary mood, their effects tend to dissipate over time and ultimately appear not to have a substantial effect on enduring happiness (e.g., Brickman et al., 1978; Suh et al., 1996). Similarly, demographic variables (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity) are weak predictors of happiness and account for a surprisingly small portion of happiness variance in most populations (see Diener et al., 1999, for a review). Indeed, the meager predictive power of life circumstances and demographic variables has led at least one researcher to conclude that these factors play a ‘‘negligible role’’ in understanding happiness (Kammann, 1983). Personality Traits In contrast to demographic and circumstantial variables, personality traits account for a large portion of the variance in individual differences in happiness – as much as 40–50\% (Diener et al., 1999) – and appear to be critical to well-being. Traits are biologically-based, enduring dispositions (McCrae and Costa, 1996) that include attitude and behavior complexes, which are consistent across time and situations (Allport, 1955). Research has repeatedly shown that certain personality traits are related to happiness, or subjective wellbeing (see DeNeve and Cooper, 1998, for a review). For example, McCrae and Costa (1991) documented the relations between the five-factor model of personality and the individual components of subjective well-being – that is, positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction. Researchers have typically focused on the two most robust predictors of happiness and well-being – extraversion and neuroticism. In general, extraverts report being happier than introverts, and neurotic individuals report being less happy than emotionally stable individuals (Costa and McCrae, 1980; Costa et al., 1987; Emmons and Diener, 1985; McCrae and Costa, 1991). Although relatively overlooked in comparison to the closely examined traits of extraversion and neuroticism, agreeableness and conscientiousness have also been found to be positively related to happiness (McCrae and Costa, 1991). 186 CHRIS TKACH AND SONJA LYUBOMIRSKY McCrae and Costa (1991) proposed a number of ways that traits might influence happiness, two of which were the focus of the present investigation – namely, the temperamental and instrumental paths. To illustrate the temperamental causal path, extraversion leads to positive affect and neuroticism leads to negative affect, and then, in turn, both traits and affect influence happiness (Costa and McCrae, 1980; McCrae and Costa, 1991). Experimental evidence supporting the temperamental causal sequence for extraversion and neuroticism has been provided by Larsen and Ketelaar (1989). Similarly, Rusting (1998) proposed that the linkage between traits and moods is such that traits predispose people to process mood-relevant information in a manner congruent with their dispositions. Thus, seeing the world through rose-colored glasses may be considered equivalent to seeing the world through the eyes of an extraverted optimist. Alternatively, according to McCrae and Costa (1991), the instrumental causal sequence is illustrated by the notion of traits establishing conditions that are conducive to happiness or unhappiness. For example, extraverts may frequently seek out social activities and behaviors, which, in turn, influence positive moods, and, eventually, overall happiness. The instrumental perspective can be applied to the study of the relations among self-regulatory behaviors, transient mood, and chronic happiness. To illustrate, traits influence the conscious self-regulatory actions that people take to manage their emotional lives – that is, their happiness-enhancing ‘‘strategies.’’ Traits and strategies in turn, influence current mood, and, ultimately, overall happiness level. Emmons et al. (1986) document just such a trait-behavioraffect linkage. Specifically, they found that extraverts choose to be in social situations more so than did introverts, and that while in their chosen social setting, extraverts are in a better mood than when in an imposed non-social setting. More recently, Moskowitz and Coté (1995) found that it may not be the situation itself that leads to improved moods, but, rather, the behaviors that are elicited and then performed by the person in the situation. In other words, extraverts are happier in social settings because they are acting sociably. HOW DO PEOPLE PURSUE HAPPINESS? 187 These findings highlight how particular volitional behaviors, such as happiness-increasing strategies, can mediate the relation between dispositions and well-being. This process perspective has one fundamental advantage over the study of traits alone with regard to understanding how happiness can be elevated – namely, the fact that intentional behaviors are easier to modify than personality. Consequently, research findings in this area can be directly translated into prescriptive suggestions for boosting well-being. The Self-Regulation of Moods Although little research has been conducted on the activities individuals intentionally use to promote chronic, or long-term, happiness, much research has examined activities used to regulate short-term moods – particularly, negative moods (see Morris and Reilly, 1987, for a review). For example, Thayer et al. (1994) catalogued the activities that people use to get themselves out of a bad mood, such as exercising, seeking out friends, and hobbies. Unfortunately, this body of research suffers from two limitations with regard to our present topic of intentional activities used to promote happiness. First, with the exception of Thayer and colleagues’ work (Thayer et al., 1994), much of this research has focused on single behaviors, without attempting to identify the full range of intentional activities that people use to alter their mood states. Second, and more important, the focus of these studies has been the lifting of negative moods, not the promotion of positive moods or well-being. Research on the self-regulation of mood does, however, offer one distinct advantage – in some cases, it provides experimental evidence supporting the causal link between intentional behavior and mood change. For example, active distraction in the form of exercise has been found to reduce negative mood (Erber, 1996). Research has also shown that people often engage in activities that they believe will relieve negative mood, but, in the long term, these activities either have no benefit or, worse yet, serve to make people feel even worse. The most notable example of this maladaptive attempt at mood regulation is drinking alcohol. 188 CHRIS TKACH AND SONJA LYUBOMIRSKY Although drinking is a common mood regulatory activity (Hull and Bond, 1986) and may relieve a negative mood in the short term, its continued use leads to depression and other negative consequences in the long term (Anshensel and Huba, 1983). It is also worth noting that men and women handle their emotions in different ways. For example, women report using social support more frequently than do men to combat negative moods (Thayer et al., 1994). However, the emotional benefits that women gain through affiliation may be undercut by their greater tendency (relative to men) to ruminate about the causes and consequences of their unhappiness (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). In contrast, men tend to manage bad moods through pleasurable and distracting activities, such as sports (Thayer et al.). Given these findings, it is likely that men and women also differ in the strategies that they prefer to use to increase or maintain happiness. Finally, ethnic differences have been reported in the correlates of happiness and well-being (Adams, 1997; Diener, 1984), and some predictors of well-being are stronger in particular cultures than in others. For example, Diener and Diener (1995) found that self-esteem was a better predictor of subjective wellbeing in nations with individualist cultures than in those with collectivist cultures. In light of these results, we tested whether the derived happiness strategies showed any differences for gender or ethnicity. Summary The happiness literature suggests that circumstantial factors such as income and place of residence account for only a small portion of the variance of happiness and are relatively unimportant (Kammann, 1983; Lyubomirsky, 2001). By contrast, dispositional traits account for a large portion of happiness variance (Diener et al., 1999) and are clearly critical. However, up to 40\% of the variance in individual differences in happiness is not accounted for by circumstances and dispositions, and may be linked to intentional strategies and behaviors (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). At the same time, the literature suggests that people use self-regulatory mechanisms to control their mood states (Erber, 1996; Morris and Reilly, 1987). Finally, research reveals HOW DO PEOPLE PURSUE HAPPINESS? 189 gender and cultural differences in factors associated with happiness and satisfaction (Diener et al., 1999). Several questions, however, remain unanswered. First, which precise strategies do people report using to maintain their own happiness? Second, are these happiness-increasing strategies effective? And, finally, how do the happiness strategies relate to personality? The current study aimed to address these questions. The Present Study The first aim of our exploratory study was to derive the happiness strategies that individuals use to maintain or increase their happiness levels and to explore individual differences in strategy use. We anticipated that the derived strategies would, in general, resemble self-regulatory behaviors used to control transient mood (Erber, 1996; Morris and Reilly, 1987; Thayer et al., 1994). Although gender and ethnic differences in frequency of strategy use were expected, specific hypotheses were not made with regard to these differences. The second aim was to evaluate the predictive power of the derived strategies, and to identify those strategies with the strongest associations to individuals’ current happiness. To this end, the relations between the strategies and happiness levels were assessed. We expected the derived strategies to vary in the strength and direction of their correlations with self-reported happiness. The third aim of the study was to assess the relations among personality traits, happiness-increasing strategies, and subjective happiness. Taking a process approach, the strategies, traits, and reported happiness levels were subjected to a mediation analysis (Baron and Kenny, 1986; Kenny et al., 1998). We predicted that strategies would partially mediate the relation between the ‘‘Big Five’’ personality traits and long-term happiness. METHOD Participants Five hundred undergraduate students (341 females, 157 males, 2 unknown) participated by completing a questionnaire for course 190 CHRIS TKACH AND SONJA LYUBOMIRSKY credit. The sample was ethnically diverse (8\% African American, 38\% Asian, 23\% Caucasian, 19\% Chicano/a, and 11\% Other), with ages ranging from 17 to 35 years (M=19.4, SD=1.71). Procedure The paper-and-pencil questionnaire was mass-distributed in a large Introductory Psychology class at a state university. Students filled out the questionnaire at home and returned it 1 week later. The questionnaire took less than 45 min to complete. Measures Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky and Lepper, 1999) The SHS is a 4-item measure of subjective, chronic happiness. The first item asks participants the extent to which they identify themselves as a happy person (1=not a very happy person, 7=a very happy person). The second item is a comparative assessment that requires respondents to describe themselves compared to their peers (1=less happy, 7=more happy). The third item asks participants the extent to which a description of a chronically happy person describes them: ‘‘Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going on, getting the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization describe you?’’ (1=not at all, 7=a great deal). Lastly, the fourth item, which is reverse coded, describes a chronically unhappy person: ‘‘Some people are generally not very happy. Although they are not depressed, they never seem as happy as they might be.’’ Again, participants are asked to judge the extent to which the characterization is accurate in describing them (1=not at all, 7=a great deal). This scale demonstrated very good reliability in this study (a=0.85). Happiness-increasing Strategies In a pilot study, 70 students completed an open-ended survey in which they were asked to ‘‘list things that [they] do to maintain or increase [their] happiness level.’’ The students’ responses yielded HOW DO PEOPLE PURSUE HAPPINESS? 191 a list of 66 happiness-enhancing strategies used in the present study (see Table I) These were the 66 items that were most frequently generated in the open-ended pilot survey. Examples included ‘‘pursue life goals,’’ ‘‘study,’’ ‘‘spend time with friends,’’ and ‘‘watch TV.’’ In the present study, students were asked to rate each of the 66 items on ‘‘how frequently [they] use this strategy to increase or maintain [their] happiness’’ (1=never, 7=all the time). Big Five Inventory (BFI; John et al., 1991) The BFI is a 44-item assessment of five primary personality traits – Openness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Neuroticism. The scale asks respondents the extent to which they agree that a particular characteristic applies to them – that is, ‘‘I see myself as someone who is...‘‘ Examples include ‘‘Is curious about a number of things’’ (Openness), ‘‘Is outgoing, sociable’’ (Extraversion), ‘‘Likes to cooperate with others’’ (Agreeableness), ‘‘Does a thorough job’’ (Conscientiousness), and ‘‘Worries a lot’’ (Neuroticism). The participants respond on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree). (Approximately half the items were reverse coded.) Reliability for this study was good: a=0.74 (Openness), a=0.83 (Extraversion), a=0.77 (Agreeableness), a=0.77 (Conscientiousness), and a=0.74 (Neuroticism). RESULTS Overview of Statistical Procedures Consistent with the three aims of the study, three sets of statistical analyses were conducted. First, an exploratory factor analysis was performed to derive happiness-increasing strategies from a larger set of behaviors used to ‘‘maintain or increase happiness.’’ Second, correlational analyses and multiple regression analyses were used to assess the relations between the derived strategies and happiness, and to evaluate the extent to which happiness strategies account for differences among individuals’ happiness levels. Finally, mediation analyses were performed to determine how happiness strategies fit into a process model of happiness. The last set of procedures modeled the paths among the Big Five traits, happiness-enhancing strategies, and long-term happiness. Strategy I: Social Affiliation Support and encourage friends Help others Savor the moment Receive support from friends Interact/communicate with friends Focus on maintaining relationships Draw Clean Become absorbed in tasks Cultivate a sense of hu ... Purchase answer to see full attachment