Fluent Essays

Please complete guided reading questions for Chapter 1 and 2, using the chapter 1 and 2 power points provided. Please follow them in order, use your own words, and make sure to separate chapter 1 and 2. I have attached all documents below. chapter_2_gero.pptx chapter_two_guided_reading_questions_1_.docx chapter_1_gero.pptx chapter_one_guided_reading_questions_1_.docx Unformatted Attachment Preview CHAPTER TWO Neuroscience as a Basis for Adult Development and Aging © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Neuroscience Approach (1 of 3) • Learning Objectives – What brain imaging techniques are used in neuroscience research? – What are the main research methods used and issues studied in neuroscience research in adult development and aging? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Neuroscience Approach (2 of 3) • Neuroimaging Techniques – Two techniques are used most often: ▪ Structural neuroimaging: provides highly detailed images of anatomical features of the brain o Includes X-rays, CT, and MRI ▪ Functional neuroimaging: provides an indication of brain activity o Includes SPECT, PET, fMRI, and NIRSI o In general, fMRI is the most commonly used technique. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Neuroscience Approach (3 of 3) • Neuroscience Perspectives – Neuropsychological approach ▪ Compares healthy older adults with those with pathological disorders of the brain – Neurocorrelational approach ▪ Links measures of cognitive performance to measures of brain structure or functioning – Activation imaging approach ▪ Links functional brain activity with cognitive behavioral data ▪ Compensatory changes © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (1 of 12) • Learning Objectives – – – – – How is the brain organized structurally? What are the basic changes in neurons as we age? What changes occur in neurotransmitters with age? What changes occur in brain structures with age? What do age-related structural brain changes mean for behavior? The Theory of Mind (ToM) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (2 of 12) • How Is the Brain Organized Structurally? – Brain is made up of neurons. • Neurons consist of dendrites, axon, neuro-fibers, and terminal branches. • Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Neuron © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (3 of 12) • How Is the Brain Organized? – Neuroanatomy: The study of the structure of the brain, including the: • cerebral cortex • corpus callosum • prefrontal and frontal cortex – Important for executive functions • • • • cerebellum hippocampus limbic system amygdala © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The Brain © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (4 of 12) • Age-Related Changes in Neurons – – – – – – Number of neurons declines Number and size of dendrites decreases Tangles develop in axon fibers Increases in deposits of proteins Number of synapses decreases These changes occur in greater numbers in diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (5 of 12) • Age-Related Changes in Neurotransmitters – Dopamine is associated with higher-level cognitive functioning, so declines are related to poorer: • episodic memory • tasks that require higher-level cognitive functioning like inhibiting thoughts, attention, and planning. – Other neurotransmitters • Abnormal processing of serotonin has been shown to be related to cognitive decline. • Damage to structures that use acetylcholine is associated with memory declines. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (6 of 12) • Age-Related Changes in Brain Structures – Considerable shrinkage occurs in the brain • Especially in prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum – White matter hyperintensities (WMH) • Indicates myelin loss or neural atrophy – Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) • Provides index of density or structural health of the white matter © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (7 of 12) • What Structural Brain Changes Mean And ToM – Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and viewpoints different from our own • Research shows age-related decline in ToM – Executive Functioning • Difficulty focusing solely on relevant information • Due to WMH and reduced volume of prefrontal cortex © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (8 of 12) • What Structural Brain Changes Mean and ToM – Memory • Specific structural changes (e.g., the hippocampus) result in memory decline – Emotion • Increased processing of positive emotional information with age • Better emotion regulation with age © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (9 of 12) • What Structural Brain Changes Mean – Emotion • Increased processing of positive emotional information • Better emotion regulation with age • Age-related increase in connections – Social-Emotional Cognition • Older adults may rely more on automatic judgment processes than reflective processing. – Prefrontal Cortex • The Positivity Effect: Older adults are more motivated to derive emotional meaning from life and to maintain positive feelings than younger adults. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Making Sense of Neuroscience Research • Learning Objectives – What is the parieto-frontal integration theory, and what does it explain? – How do older adults attempt to compensate for agerelated changes in the brain? – What are the major differences among the HAROLD, CRUNCH, and STAC models of brain activation and aging? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (10 of 12) • The Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory – Also known as P-FIT – Proposes that intelligence comes from a distributed and integrated network of neurons in the parietal and frontal areas of the brain © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. The P-FIT Model © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (11 of 12) • Can Older Adults Compensate for Brain Changes? – Studies show that, when presented with similar tasks, younger adults exhibit focal, unilateral activity in left prefrontal region, and older adults exhibit bilateral activity (both left and right prefrontal areas). • Older adults are compensating. – However, research separating cognitive processes found consistent patterns in the brain activity in younger and older adults challenging the conventional view. • Bilateral activation in older adults plays a supportive role in older adults’ cognitive function. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Prefrontal Bilateral Activation © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neuroscience and Adult Development & Aging (12 of 12) • Theories of Brain-Behavior Changes – HAROLD (hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults) • Suggests bilaterality is compensatory in older adults with reduced cognitive ability – CRUNCH (compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis) • additional mechanisms at work of aging brains overutilizing other regions in the left hemisphere on demanding tasks – PASA (posterior-anterior shift in aging) – STAC-r (scaffolding theory of cognitive age—revised) • Default network theory holds that when the cognitive demands are made on the brain the default network is suppressed. • Neural resource enrichment and depletion interact with neural plasticity to account for age-related changes in cognitive functioning. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Scaffolding Theory of Cognitive Aging © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neural Plasticity and the Aging Brain (1 of 3) • Learning Objectives – What evidence is there for neural plasticity? – How does aerobic exercise influence brain changes and cognitive aging? – How does nutrition influence brain changes and cognitive activity? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neural Plasticity and the Aging Brain (2 of 3) • Plasticity: involves the interaction between the brain and the environment and is mostly used to describe the effects of experience on the structures and function of the neural system. • Neural stem cells: give rise to new neurons, persist in adult brains, and can generate new cells throughout adulthood. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Neural Plasticity and the Aging Brain (3 of 3) • Role of Exercise – Brain plasticity is enhanced by aerobic exercise. • Role of Nutrition – Researchers are beginning to understand the relations between categories of nutrients and brain structures. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Chapter Two Guided Reading Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Describe the different neuroscience perspectives of aging. (3) Summarize how the brain and our neurology changes with age. Identify Theory of Mind. Identify the positivity effect. Can older individual’s brains compensate for changes with age? Describe. Identify the premises of each of the brain models: a. HAROLD Model b. CRUNCH Model c. PASA Model CHAPTER ONE Studying Adult Development and Aging © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (1 of 12) • Learning Objectives – What is gerontology? How does ageism relate to stereotypes of aging? – What is the life-span perspective? – What are the characteristics of the older adult population? – How are they likely to change? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (2 of 12) • Gerontology: The study of aging from maturity through old age • Ageism: a form of discrimination against older adults based on their age, which comes about due to myths of aging © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (3 of 12) • The Life-Span Perspective divides human development into two phases: 1. Early (childhood and adolescence) 2. Later (young adulthood, middle age, and old age) • Paul Baltes (1987) identified FOUR key features: – – – – Multidirectionality Plasticity Historical context Multiple causation © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (4 of 12) • Baltes et al. (2006) argue that life-span development consists of dynamic interactions between the following factors – As people grow older, they show an age-related reduction in the amount and quality of biologically based resources. – There is an age-related increase in the amount and quality of culture needed to generate continuously higher growth of growth as people age. – People show an age-related decline in the efficiency with which they use cultural resources. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (5 of 12) – There is a lack of cultural, “old-age-friendly” support structures. • Taken together, these four factors create the need to shift more and more resources to maintain function © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (6 of 12) • The Demographics of Aging – Demographers: people who study population trends – Population pyramid: a graphic technique used to illustrate changes in the age distribution of a population – General trends indicate an increase in the population over 65 in developing and developed countries © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (7 of 12) Source: National Projections Program © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (8 of 12) Source: National Projections Program © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (9 of 12) Source: National Projections Program © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (10 of 12) Source: National Projections Program © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (11 of 12) Source: Data from the U.S. Census Bureau © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging (12 of 12) • Diversity of Older Adults – The number of older adults is increasing in all ethnic groups – Older women outnumber older men in all groups – Older adults will be better educated – Nearly all countries are facing the need to adapt social policies as the number of older adults increases – China and other countries are strained economically trying to cope with increased need © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging (1 of 6) • Learning Objectives – What four main forces shape development? – What are normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative influences? – How do culture and ethnicity influence aging? – What is the meaning of age? – What are the nature-nurture, stability-change, continuity-discontinuity, and the “universal versus context-specific development” controversies? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging (2 of 6) • Forces of development: – – – – Biological forces Psychological forces Sociocultural forces Life-cycle forces © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging (3 of 6) • Person • Life cycle forces – Biological forces – Psychological forces – Sociocultural forces © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging (4 of 6) • Developmental Influences – Normative age-graded influences – Normative history-graded influences – Non-normative influences • Culture and Ethnicity – Culture: shared basic value orientations, norms, beliefs, and customary habits and ways of living. – Important to gerontology – Solid and fluid qualities of ethnic group identities © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging (5 of 6) • The Meaning of Age – Primary aging – Secondary aging – Tertiary aging • Definitions of Age – – – – – Chronological age Perceived age Biological age Psychological age Sociocultural age An example of the complexities of age = emerging adulthood © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging (6 of 6) • Core Issues in Development – The nature-nurture issue – The stability-change issue – The continuity-discontinuity controversy ▪ Plasticity – The universal versus context-specific development controversy © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (1 of 10) • Learning Objectives – What approaches do scientists use to measure behavior in adult development and aging research? – What are the general designs for doing research? – What specific designs are unique to adult development and aging research? – What ethical procedures must researchers follow? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (2 of 10) • Measurement in Research – Reliability – Validity • Methods of Research – Systematic observation ▪ Naturalistic ▪ Structured – Sampling behavior with tasks – Self-reports – Representative sampling © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (3 of 10) • General Designs for Research – Experimental design ▪ Independent variables ▪ Dependent variables – Correlational design ▪ Correlation coefficient (r) values ▪ Cause and effect cannot be determined ▪ Third variable effect – Case studies ▪ Single individual ▪ Multiple individuals © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (4 of 10) • Designs for Studying Development – Effects that can affect results: ▪ Age effects (within subjects) ▪ Cohort effects ▪ Time of measurement effects – Designs: ▪ Cross-sectional designs ▪ Longitudinal designs ▪ Sequential designs – Confounding: ▪ one cannot determine which of two or more effects is responsible for the behaviors being observed © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (5 of 10) THREE BASIC BUILDING OF DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH TIME OF MEASUREMENT Cohort 2000 2010 2020 2030 1950 50 60 70 80 1960 40 50 60 70 1970 30 40 50 60 1980 20 30 40 50 Cohort is represented by the years in the first column, time of measurement by the years across the top, and age by the values in the cells. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (6 of 10) CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN TIME OF MEASUREMENT Cohort 2000 2010 2020 2030 1950 50 60 70 80 1960 40 50 60 70 1970 30 40 50 60 1980 20 30 40 50 Cohort is represented by the years in the first column, time of measurement by the years across the top, and age by the values in the cells. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (7 of 10) LONGITUDINAL DESIGN TIME OF MEASUREMENT Cohort 2000 2010 2020 2030 1950 50 60 70 80 1960 40 50 60 70 1970 30 40 50 60 1980 20 30 40 50 Cohort is represented by the years in the first column, time of measurement by the years across the top, and age by the values in the cells. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (8 of 10) SEQUENTIAL DESIGN TIME OF MEASUREMENT Cohort 2000 2010 2020 2030 1950 50 60 70 80 1960 40 50 60 70 1970 30 40 50 60 1980 20 30 40 50 Cohort is represented by the years in the first column, time of measurement by the years across the top, and age by the values in the cells. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (9 of 10) • Integrating Findings from Different Studies – Meta-analysis ▪ Powerful tool ▪ Determines whether a finding generalizes across many studies that used different methods © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Research Methods (10 of 10) • Conducting Research Ethically – – – – Minimize risks to research participants. Describe the research to potential participants. Avoid deception. Results should be anonymous or confidential. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. Chapter One Guided Reading Questions 1. In your own words identify the study of Gerontology and Ageism. 2. Describe the purpose and benefit of analyzing gerontology from a lifespan perspective. Include an analysis of the four key features. Provide examples to support your response. 3. Describe the current patterns of the aging populations. Use information according to the demographers. 4. Identify the four interactive forces that we study gerontology. Support with examples. 5. Identify what the concept biopsychosocial means. Support with examples. 6. Describe the three influences that interact in our development according Baltes. 7. Describe the three meaning of age. 8. How does chronological, perceived, biological, psychological and sociocultural age differ? 9. Identify the following: Nature vs. Nurture Stability-Change Issue Continuity-Discontinuity Controversy Universal vs. Context-Specific Development Controversy 10. Summarize the unique factors associated with studying gerontology. ... Purchase answer to see full attachment