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Discussion question: How can you use the principles of competent communicators to improve your communication?Chapter from the book is attached.please cite resources human_communication.pdf Unformatted Attachment Preview 1: DEFINING COMMUNICATION INTRODUCTION The phrase “one cannot not communicate” implies that people are always communicating, whether or not they are actually speaking. Consider the following examples: A college student rolls her eyes at a professor’s poor attempt at a joke. An audience loudly applauds Leonardo DiCaprio as he accepts an Oscar for “Best Male Leading Actor” in the 2015 Jlm The Revenant. A teenager leans in for a Jrst kiss at the end of a date. A man sitting across from another person at a local coffee shop puts on his headphones and starts to scroll through his phone. What do these scenarios have in common? First, they all involve interactions between human beings, which is where the deJnition of communication begins—with people. Beginning with humans may sound like common sense, but in reality, there are several other types of communication that scholars do not focus on, and for good reason. For example, the communication that takes place between dog owners and their beloved canine companions is better left to animal trainers, veterinarians, or zoologists. Another example can be found in the way that various colors communicate subliminal messages to a consumers psyche, such as red and yellow are said to arouse feelings of hunger. Such types of communication research are better suited for psychologists or sociologists. On the other hand, the deJnition of communication used in this course is narrower and involves only the communication acts exchanged between human beings. Second, although none of the opening scenarios involve the exchange of verbal communication or actual spoken words, each scenario showcases its fair share of communication through the use of nonverbal communication or communication without words. For example, in the United States, rolling one’s eyes often signals boredom, frustration, or an overall lack of amusement on behalf of the listener, while an audience’s energetic applause often signals their strong appreciation or support for an award recipient. Leaning in for a kiss indicates romantic interest in Western society; however, placing headphones in one’s ears could easily be interpreted, or misinterpreted, as a sign that someone would rather be left alone than engage in conversation. The meanings ascribed to various messages depend on how effectively people interpret shared symbol systems or the verbal and nonverbal communication patterns embedded in Western culture. As the abilities and means to communicate cross-culturally continue to expand, reaching all corners of the globe via technological advances, it is important to consider that not all communication is universal. The famous “Hook ‘em Horns” hand signal used by University of Texas Longhorn football fans is similar to a gesture Italians use to signal inJdelity and is “considered a curse in some African countries” (Cotton, 2013, para. 4). These differences bring forth unique challenges as well as exciting opportunities toward the research and development of culturally competent communication strategies. By expanding their understanding of diverse communication patterns, people are better equipped as responsible media consumers, more capable of participating in public discourse, and more savvy with social media. Finally, by studying communication, people are able to self-re`ect and adjust their own communication patterns, thus improving personal relationships with family, friends, and signiJcant others, as well as with those abroad in business or travel contexts. Chapter 1 will Jrst introduce the deJning characteristics of communication, then show these characteristics in action through the evolution of communication models over time. Next, the primary functions of communication will be discussed as well as the various types or subJelds of communication studies throughout the discipline, such as spiritual or sports communication. Finally, the chapter will explain how communication skills can be applied in multiple and rewarding communication careers. DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS Communication is deJned as the interactive process of meaning-making that occurs through the use and exchange of symbols. To gain a fuller understanding of communication, this deJnition can be broken down into parts: Communication is a process. Communication involves meaning-making. Communication is symbolic. First, communication is a process. Stating that communication is a process implies that communication is ongoing and transactional or that it represents the constant and dynamic exchange of messages between senders and receivers. Imagine two roommates getting into an argument about whose turn it is to do the dishes. One must Jrst consider that this argument does not occur in a vacuum; in other words, all the past experiences, including who did the dishes last, and conversations between the roommates regarding responsibility for particular household chores, as well as each roommate’s internal expectations about who should do the dishes this time around are embedded in this dispute. All of this carries potential to shape the content and nature of their argument. In this way, communication is ongoing; past conversations affect current dialogue as well as reactions to others, which, in turn, in`uences future interactions. Second, communication involves meaning-making. Meanings are the interpretations and subsequent evaluations of the messages people send and receive. People attribute meaning in two important ways: based on the content of a message and based on the relationships they have with other communicators involved in the conversation. For example, consider the following question: “Will you please do the dishes tonight?” On a content level, this question appears straightforward: a request of another to do the dishes. But what if this question were posed by one of the roommates arguing about the dishes. On a relational level, the request to do the dishes may come across as sarcastic, argumentative, or even insincere given the context and in`uencing relational factors, or the request may be interpreted as a polite request from the one roommate who has been working overtime lately. Thus, each message contains both content- and relational-level meanings. Oftentimes, these meanings carry similar messages, but other times, they may contradict one another. Third, communication is symbolic. Symbols are arbitrary representations of other things people use in their language systems in order to help create shared meanings. Re`ect on the word table. What image, if any, comes to mind? A giant wooden table Jt for a family of 20 or a small patio table with room for two? Perhaps neither comes to mind. Clearly, the word table is not really a physical table but an arbitrary term chosen to represent a `at structure supported by three or more legs. It is an arbitrary term because it varies culture to culture. In Spanish, the word for table is mesa, yet it still represents a similar physical object to a table. It is often easier to Jnd shared meanings in symbols with concrete referents, such as table, chair, or apple, but imagine the words love, justice, and war. These are far more abstract terms because their meanings do not represent physical objects but rather feelings/emotions, philosophical ideas, or social/political actions. Through the use of symbols, humans can communicate both concrete and abstract meanings with one another, as well as converse about the past, present, and future, which is another unique feature of human communication. COMMUNICATION MODELS Thus far, this chapter has deJned communication and taken a deeper look at its unique features. Another way to understand how communication functions is to turn to various communication models in order to see communication in action. These models include the linear modeland the transactional model. LINEAR MODEL The earliest attempts at developing a communication model consisted of a one-way interaction sequence called linear communication (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). In this model, communication is something that someone does to another person. In other words, a sender Jrst encodes a message intended for a receiver who then decodes that message. To better understand the linear model, consider communicating via the telephone. The caller (sender) has something they would like to say to a friend (receiver). The caller decides what to say (encoding) and makes the call. The friend listens to the message while making meaning (decoding). Figure 1.1. Emoticons and Emojis In the example, the caller’s message is transmitted through the phone, referred to as the main communication channel, or the method by which a message is sent. Using different communication channels can complicate a message. One way to imagine how different channels may complicate a message is to consider the differences between communications that occur face-to-face versus text-messaging. For example, in a face-to-face conversation, both the sender and receiver can see each other’s facial expressions, gestures, and body language as well as hear the tone of the sender’s message—these are some of the key features of the transactional model discussed later in this chapter. In a text message, many valuable context clues are lost. In this way, mediated communication is often better represented as a one-way model of communication. While emojis and emoticons have enabled online communicators to embed affective qualities in their digital communication, the possibilities for misinterpretations are still vast. Mark and Jill are dating. Mark receives a text message from Jill that reads, “We need to talk.” Instantly, Mark starts to panic. Is Jill mad at him? Does she want to break up? Is she seeing someone else? While any of these outcomes are possible, there are, of course, several other alternatives Mark may have failed to consider. Perhaps Jill has exciting news to share, or maybe she wants to apologize to Mark for something. A face-to-face conversation takes the ambiguity out of the text message by giving context and deeper meaning. Early communication models also took into account the notion of noise or any possible interference to the message-sending process (Barnlund, 2008). Noise can be both internal and external. Internal noise refers to cognitive, or even biological, interference that affects the message transmission, such as being hungry, tired, bored, or thinking about a to-do list—all of which carry potential to distract listeners from interpreting a message effectively. External noise consists of the physical or environmental factors that interfere with the transmission of a message. Examples of external noise include the sound of a screeching siren or the constant chatter and other noises in a restaurant while having lunch with a friend. Together, all the factors that create the setting for communication, and therefore, affect the meaning of messages, form the communication context (see Figure 1.2). Figure 1.2. Linear Communication Model Over time, critics of the linear model found that the one-way `ow of communication it sought to capture presented an extremely limited view of the actual communication process. Thinking back to the deJnition of communication, there are several key features the linear model neglected. As such, the transactional model was introduced as a two-way interaction sequence that more closely represents the dynamic, simultaneous, and symbolic meaning-making features embedded in everyday communication. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL The transactional model begins with the same basic foundation of the linear model (e.g., sender, channel, message, receiver, and noise), yet it adds a feedback loop to the circuit. The term feedback describes the variety of receiver responses to a given message, whether verbal or nonverbal, thus showcasing a two-way model of communication that more closely and accurately represents the way people send and receive messages simultaneously in face-to-face communication contexts (see Figure 1.3). Figure 1.3. Transactional Communication Model Peter has been invited by a friend to attend a local church service. As the pastor begins the sermon, Peter cannot help but notice how tired he feels after a long night of studying. Much to his chagrin, the pastor makes direct eye contact with him just as he begins to yawn and settle into his seat. Peter feels horrible. He hopes the pastor does not think he is falling asleep during her sermon, he just could not hold back that yawn. In this situation, both Peter and the pastor function as message senders and receivers. The pastor is sending a message (her sermon) while at the same time gaining important audience feedback to determine their response. While listening to the sermon, Peter unintentionally yawns, which functions as feedback to the pastor. The type of feedback a receiver provides offers important information to the sender about if and how they should alter their message in any way to better suit the communication context. Oftentimes, this two-way process between a message sender and receiver occurs instantaneously and without their knowing; in other words, it is a natural, unconscious, and dynamic phenomenon. Another feature embedded in the transactional model accounts for this message-altering process: the word responds in place of encodes on both the sender and receiver ends of the model. This process can be further illustrated by using the example of the church sermon. After seeing Peter yawn, the pastor must decide whether or not to interpret this signal as boredom or tiredness. Then, the pastor must decide whether or not she will alter her message based on this and other audience feedback or continue the sermon as planned. One pitfall to this process is that communication symbols, especially nonverbal communication symbols, can be easily misread, misinterpreted, or even sent unintentionally on behalf of the message receiver. For example, the pastor might have interpreted the yawn as a sign that her sermon is dull, when in truth the guest simply felt utterly exhausted from lack of sleep. In any case, the transactional model accounts for these types of often unintended communication contexts by showing how feedback plays a role in the overall communication process. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Besides understanding the communication process and all the key features in action, it is important to gain a deeper understanding about the ways that communication functions in peoples everyday lives. Harlow (Harlow, Dodsworth, & Harlow, 1965) conducted a series of controversial psychological experiments on developing primates whereby infant rhesus monkeys were kept in isolation for months on end. Social isolation, as it turned out, rendered devastating cognitive and social effects for the monkeys, including hyperaggression, emotional shock, and even anorexia/starvation. While these experiments have never been conducted on humans, and for good reason, social scientists have reason to believe that the Jndings of Harlow’s research carry valuable implications about the needs of mankind—namely, that humans are social beings with an innate desire to communicate with others. Communication, in all of its forms, provides three of these speciJc human needs: Physical, mental, and social needs; Identity needs; and, Practical needs. PHYSICAL, MENTAL, AND SOCIAL NEEDS Communication is vital to peoples physical well-being, meaning it improves their health. Individuals who surround themselves with positive social support and who maintain satisfying interpersonal relationships (e.g., family, friends, coworkers, and romantic partners) ultimately experience lower levels of stress and depression, as well as higher levels of positive emotions and improved mental health (Segrin, 2006; Shim, Koller, Roberts, & Gustafson, 2015). Communicating with others also helps to manage stressful situations more effectively as people cooperate with others and generate solutions and to develop lasting relationships that bring joy and purpose to their lives. The beneJts of communication are certainly apparent in cancer and other chronically ill patients. Health communication research has found that positive communication, including encouragement, empathy, and support, plays a substantial role in the overall psychological well-being of cancer patients, providing them with a more positive outlook on life and better coping skills (Arora, Finney Rutten, Gustafson, Moser, & Hawkins, 2007; Query & Wright, 2003). Furthermore, medical patients who engage in open and positive communication with their health-care providers have shown an increased ability to provide self- and preventative-care, as well as recover faster (Asnani, 2009). Social isolation, on the other hand, or an overall lack of communication with others has been shown to have negative effects on peoples psychological health and well-being, such as loneliness and depression (Chan, 2015). ScientiJc research has even pointed to the ways that loneliness can lead to a greater risk in strokes and heart disease, as well as increased anxiety and job dissatisfaction (Pascual, 2016). While many adults experience loneliness, social media provides a unique digital platform that allows users to stay connected with others and, thus, combat potential feelings of loneliness. Media researchers have found, for example, that Internet and cell-phone users who use their devices to engage in voice communication (e.g., phone calls, text and instant messaging) report stronger social bonds and satisfying intimate relationships with family and friends (Gentzler, Oberhauser, Westerman, & Nadorff, 2011; Ling, 2008; Wei & Lo, 2006). In short, communication plays a key role in peoples overall physical, mental, and social well-being. IDENTITY NEEDS Who people believe they are largely depends on their self-perception, which is in`uenced by the way they communicate with others. While growing up, individuals may have been referred to as the “shy one,” the “trouble-maker,” the “clown,” the “smart one,” or something else by parents, teachers, or friends. How have these labels in`uenced their perceptions of self? In what ways did they, and do they now, live up to this reputation in one way or another? Children quickly learn about their identities through their early interactions with caretakers; adults continue to learn about who they are through their interactions and subsequent appraisals of others (Mumenthaler & Sander, 2012). Appraisals are the subjective evaluations of particular events, people, or characteristics that cause positive or negative emotional responses. Chapter 3 will have more about identity, the self, and perception processes. Ann’s best friend always compliments her on her outJt. As such, Ann may come to believe that she is a stylish and fashionable person. Renee’s boss is constantly belittling her work performance. She may come to believe that she is an incompetent, stupid, or a lackluster employee. PRACTICAL NEEDS Communication is a powerful tool in peoples everyday lives. It fulJlls practical needs such as giving and taking directions, asking for help, and sharing important information with one another. People need communication to thrive as individuals and as a society. Communication is what allows people to express their emotions and desires to their intimate partners, pass along health information to medical providers, discuss grades with a college instructor, or simply order a pizza. Throughout every community, communication allows people to connect with their neighbors, provide support for the homeless, or legislate on behalf of civil rights. Additionally, effective communication skills are heavily sought after by today’s employers (Boyle, Mahoney, Carpenter, & Grambo, 2014). A Forbes article reported that the world’s most successful business lead ... Purchase answer to see full attachment