Fluent Essays

For the Chapter 4 assignment consider the following resources in the context of the powerpoint and text materials:1) the definitions at this site for the activities we’re discussing:https://www.us-cert.gov/ics/content/cyber-threat-source-descriptions#terror (Links to an external site.)2) the issues and observations described in this article:https://www.uscybersecurity.net/hacktivist/ (Links to an external site.)3) a practical examination of the reality of cyberterror and internet-based threats: https://www.mmc.com/insights/publications/2018/nov/global-cyber-terrorism-incidents-on-the-rise.html (Links to an external site.), and4) a view of a potential cyberwar:https://www.zdnet.com/article/cyberwar-a-guide-to-the-frightening-future-of-online-conflict/ (Links to an external site.)The ASSIGNMENT: having considered these resources, in addition to the text, submit an analysis in APA format that answers the following questions:Is hacktivism a legitimate form of political protest or criminal activity that should be prosecuted?How comfortable are YOU with society’s increasing dependence upon information technology for national security and social and economic stability? (Consider the many ways that society depends on internet-based information and communications.)Is cyberterrorism a significant danger that requires preparation and responsive measures or an overblown concern that has no real threat? (Consider how cut off from the world you felt when the last hurricane came through and you lost power and/or internet communications.)Will nation-state cyberwarfare capabilities increase or reduce the violence associated with conventional forms of warfare? Will nation-state cyberwarfare actions lead to an actual “shooting war” in the future?Your submission should be seven or more pages (1 page of cover, 1 page of references, five pages of text with citations to your sources). yar___steinmetz04.pdf Unformatted Attachment Preview Cybercrime and Society, Third Edition © Majid Yar & Kevin F. Steinmetz Chapter 4 Political hacking Discussion • What is the difference between hackers and hacktivists? 3 Introduction • Hacking as political: “hacktivism” and “cyberterrorism” • Seemingly omitted from hacker ethic for two reasons – Focus upon technology itself as the goal – Counter-cultural aspirations • Surge of political hacking since the mid-1990s – E.g. Arab Spring and Anonymous • Since Sept. 11th, there has been increased attention to cyberterrorism • Boundaries between forms of political activity – unclear 4 Hacktivism and the politics of resistance in a globalized world • The expansion of the online environment: a means for revitalizing political culture – Government’s use of the internet as a tool for political communication – A stimulation for citizen participation – Greatest impact: mobilization of the internet by social/political resistance movements 5 Hacktivism and the politics of resistance in a globalized world • Understanding the political and ideological terms of internet activism – Advocating and resistance to Western political values • Key features of online activism – Non-violent civil disobedience and protest – Mobilization of online tools and techniques 6 Forms of “hacktivism” Virtual sit-ins and blockades • Cyber-equivalents of traditional protest methods against oppressive political interests Email bombs • A tool used to overload email systems by sending mass mailings, thereby overwhelming the system and blocking traffic Website defacements • Defacing and altering websites as a form of protest Viruses and worms • Using viruses and worms that specifically target organizations, agencies and states (limited use to hacktivists) Doxxing and leaking • “Dropping docs;” collecting private information for purposes of shaming, silencing, or coercing the individual Development of privacy and resistance tools • The use of hacker tools to facilitate political resistance 7 The spectre of cyberterrorism • Convergence of terrorism and cyberspace • Understandings of (cyber)terrorism – One definition: ‘the execution of a surprise attack by a subnational foreign terrorist group or individuals with a domestic political agenda using computer technology and the Internet to cripple or disable a nation’s electronic and physical infrastructures’ (Verton, 2003: xx) 8 The spectre of cyberterrorism • Definitional components – Unlawful attacks/threats against ICTs and infrastructure – Against government – Political/social agendas – Violence against persons or property 9 Cyberterrorism, law, and politics • Legal provisions on cyberterrorism – UK – Terrorism Act of 2000 – U.S. – US PATRIOT Act of 2001 • Critical infrastructure (CI) – Infrastructures/assets of national security, economic, or social welfare of a nation – E.g. communications, energy, water, food, emergency/medical services – Symbolic content (e.g. the Statue of Liberty) 10 Cyberterrorism, law, and politics • Political action – U.S. – President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection (PCCIP) – UK – National Infrastructure Security Coordination Centre (NISCC) 11 Discussion • Is cyberterrorism a “clear and present danger” or merely a “phantom menace”? 12 Cyberterrorism, law, and politics • Critical information infrastructure (CII) – E.g. telecommunications, computers/software, the Internet, etc. • Two reasons these elements are essential: – Importance of the Internet and economic, political, and social factors – CIIs are increasingly emerging with CIs 13 Cyberterrorism, law, and politics • Common scenarios of cyberattacks – Loss of power/attacks on systems – Disruption of economic systems – Crippling transport systems – Theft of top-secret information • Departments and budgets aiming to prevent cyberterrorism 14 Why cyberterror? • Advantages of cyberattacks – The Internet enables “action at a distance” o Circumventing traditional factors involved in terrestrial terrorism – The Internet and “empowered small agents” o The “force multiplier” (White, 1991, p. 18) – Anonymity o Use of “proxies” – Lack of regulation o A decentralized network of nodes 15 Rhetorics and myths of cyberterrorism • “Digital Armageddon” – fact or fiction? • No recorded act of cyberterrorism – Cited examples of “cyberterrorism” – The case of Ardit Ferizi – The difficulty of establishing the scale of harm from cyberterrorism • Reasons why terrorist groups may be disinclined to commit cyberterror – CII are largely on private networks – The unsuitability to generate virtual terror 16 Rhetorics and myths of cyberterrorism • Why so much political and economic attention? • Possible explanations – Current actions are anticipatory – Cyberterrorism as a social construction o Legitimizing the authority of the state while criminalizing suspect groups • Moral entrepreneurs and myth-making – Justification for proposals and expenditures 17 Alternative conjunctions between terrorism and the Internet • Terrorist activities and the Internet – Computer-assisted terrorist offenses Communication and coordination • Use of internet to secure goals • Advantages over conventional communication • Encryption and steganography Propaganda, publicity, and recruitment • Internet – inexpensive means of delivery to a worldwide audience • Both open and dark web presence • Tools of recruiters Information gathering • Presence of sensitive information • “Data mining” • Online documents and terrorist handbooks Fundraising and financing • Solicitations via “fronts” • Alternative and transnational currencies 18 Discussion • Is it possible to curtail the uses of the Internet by terrorist organizations for the purposes of publicity, recruitment, information gathering or financing? • If so, what effects might such counter-measures have upon legitimate and legal uses of the Internet? 19 Cyberwarfare • Computer networks – a new domain of warfare – Use of such technology to spread propaganda, disrupt communications, and sabotage operations • Response – countries developing defensive operations in cyberspace – The appeal of cyberwarfare – Cyberwarfare victims – countries having established, funded programs • Recent attack – Stuxnet – U.S. malware on Iran’s nuclear facilities • Key issue of cyberwarfare – clandestine nature • Is cyberwarfare overstated? 20 ... 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