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Please, checkout the uploaded file below, where you will find information and instructions. psyc_140___all_my_module_exam_from_1_to_8.docx psych_140___mod_2__retake_exam_.docx biob_171___all_my_module_exam_from_1_to_6__b_.docx Unformatted Attachment Preview PSYC 140 - All my Module Exam from 1 to 8 (Prepared for the Final Exam) PSYCH 140-MODULE 1 Module 1 Page 1 What is Lifespan Development? A note before we begin This course has a number of external links to informational websites and videos. The information on these pages are part of the course and will be incorporated into the exams. Please make sure to follow each link and read the material or watch the video as specified in the course material. Throughout the human life span, numerous changes occur. These changes include physical, social, cognitive, and emotional dimensions. Lifespan Development studies these changes from conception to death by investigating major periods of development. These major periods include: • Prenatal development • Infancy and Toddlerhood • Early Childhood • Middle Childhood • Adolescence • Early Adulthood • Middle Adulthood • Late Adulthood In studying these major periods, experts in lifespan development note some distinctive features of human development. First, development is lifelong. Early research and theory in human development primarily focused on children. However, developmental science increasingly emphasizes the major changes that occur throughout adolescence and adulthood, showing that it is important to consider development (or change) at each period. Secondly, development is multidirectional. In the paragraph above, development is loosely defined as change. However, change can be good or bad. It can even be both, simultaneously. Thus, at every period, an individual might be improving in some ways and falling behind in others. We even have terms for these different aspects of change. For example, aging, or the process of becoming old, is something that everyone faces if they live long enough. There is a surprising amount of mystery in science regarding what precisely triggers aging. We would typically use this term for adults. While children technically are getting older as well, we wouldn’t use the term, “aging,” to refer to a child. Aging is somewhat different from growth, which implies physical change, such as becoming bigger. Maturation, on the other hand, can be physical, emotional, and/or cognitive. Maturation has to do with something becoming more developed and more advanced. For example, our brains don’t grow in size across the lifespan, but they do mature (due to physical changes occurring within the brain) across childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. In everyday conversation, we may speak of someone becoming more mature; this type of improvement in emotional regulation is a good example of emotional maturation. Multidirectional development can be seen in adults who are aging and facing some physical declines but are becoming more emotionally mature at the same time. Thirdly, the study of development is multidisciplinary. You might be taking this course because of your training in the health sciences, social sciences or education. Each of these professional fields has a major stake in understanding human development. In addition, each of these fields is influenced by major contributions from professionals in the remaining fields. Finally, development is multidimensional. As stated earlier, we experience changes in the following dimensions: biological, social, emotional, and cognitive. In addition, moral development is an important area of consideration. In summary, development is multidimensional, multidisciplinary, multidirectional, and lifelong. Module 1 Page 2 Problem Set 1 1) Why is it important to study human development across the lifespan? It is important to study human development across the lifespan because it helps us in understanding how humans learn, mature, and adapt at different life stages. 2) What does it mean that development is multidirectional? Development is multidirectional means that dimensions and specific components of dimensions grow and shrink during different points in a persons life. 3) Why is lifespan development multidisciplinary? Is there a reason why various disciplines study lifespan development? Lifespan development is multidisciplinary since it involves various changes in psychological, biological, and cognitive constancies in the life of a human being. The reasons behind studying lifespan development involves understanding biological, cognitive, development analysis of activities, patterns and even all interactions that happen in the human body are studied. 4) You learned how development is multidimensional. Now, try to create brief definitions of the following dimensions: biological, social, emotional, cognitive. The answer key will offer examples of change in each of the following dimensions, so consult it after you have created your definitions to see whether they match. Biological: involves our physical appearance. Social: involves how society affects us, our interactions. Emotional: involves being aware of our own feelings and emotions. Cognitive: involves on how we think. 5) Answer the following reflection questions. There are no wrong or right answers, but self-reflection will help you to connect with the material to enhance your learning. a. Which periods of development interest you the most? Why? Do you plan on working with a specific age group in the future? What would you like to learn about these specific periods? Periods of development that interest me the most are infancy and toddler because my brother has a newborn baby and I would like to learn more about her development in this period, as I think this is the period when she will form her personality. I would like to learn more about their thinking ability and language learning. b. Going through all 8 developmental periods, come up with 2-3 adjectives to describe each period. Then consider, why did you choose these descriptors? Were some periods easier to describe than others? Why or why not? Parental development: fetus, uterus, gender. Infancy and Toddlerhood: innocent, happy, curious. Early Childhood: funny, cute, tantrums. Middle Childhood: seeks independence, fun, friends. Adolescence: school, friends, puberty. Early Adulthood: happy, scared, anxious. Middle Adulthood: stress, happy, sad. Late Adulthood: scared, anxious, confused. I choose these adjectives due to my experiences, and based on the information I got for each of these stages. I find it is difficult to describe prenatal development, infancy and toddlerhood because there is a lot of information is needed to describe them which you cannot summarize in two or three words. Module 1 Page 3 Theoretical Perspectives in Lifespan Development A. Controversies in Lifespan Development While few students are thrilled at the prospect of studying psychological theory, it is extremely important to understand what directs knowledge in the field. In addition, theoretical perspectives are always significant portions of outcome tests (for example, CLEP, N-CLEX) in development! Watch the video below as you study the material in this module. We will begin with a few controversies in the field. If you’re looking for a good fight, with respectable psychologists duking it out, you’ll be sorely disappointed! While these controversies are by no means solved, most experts acknowledge the importance of considering both sides. Why is it then relevant to discuss these controversies? One reason is because various professionals may lean toward one or the other perspective and it is important to be aware of these theoretical leanings. In addition, (and this is particularly the case with the first “controversy”), researchers spend a significant amount of time teasing out the relative contributions of the various sides as they seek to understand specific topics in human development. 1. Nature vs. Nurture The nature/nurture issue in human development is one of the most important considerations in the field. At issue is what causes people to be the way that they are. Are they born that way? Persons leaning toward that perspective rely on “nature” or biology to explain human behavior. Or, do people change largely due to their environments, such as parental influence, socioeconomic status, or level of education? These explanations fall under “nurture.” As you can see, both sides are necessary for understanding development. Yet, some professionals, due to their interest and expertise, may lean toward one or the other perspective. 2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity This controversy has to do with the process of change. Is development continuous? If so, then the various stages of development gradually flow into one another. Sometimes it might be hard to even discern where one stage stops and another starts. But if development is discontinuous, then stages are distinct. One definitely ends before the other begins. Historically, as we’ll learn shortly, a discontinuous perspective prevailed. More recently, development is viewed more as a continuum. However, depending on the type of development being discussed, it is helpful to know that both types of change might be possible. B. Major Theorists and Theories Have you heard of the following theorists: Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson? While they are only a few of the classic theorists in lifespan development, they were some of the most influential. Each originated stage theories of human development. We begin with a brief discussion of Freud’s psychodynamic theories. 1. Sigmund Friend and the Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud described five stages of development, each of which involves a conflict and each of which has to do with fixation with an area of the body that is associated with sexual gratification. Terms from this theory are really part of Western culture now. For example, being “anal,” and speaking of “phallic symbols,” all harken back to Freud. The websource AllPsych has an excellent description of Freud’s psychosexual stages. Access the link and read carefully to become familiar with the stages. Many, many theorists and researchers have critiqued these stages. For instance, many have noted that Freud lumps adolescents and adults together in the final stage and is uninterested in exploring additional development. However, a lifespan perspective to development notes the very important changes that occur after adolescence. Others take issue with Freud’s research methods, stating that Freud’s particular clinical sample and biased analysis call the stages into question. Numerous other challenges to these stages exist. However, why are they still relevant to discuss? First, for their historical importance and secondly because his ideas still influence many today. 2. Erik Erikson and the Psychosocial Stages of Development Erik Erikson described eight stages of human development, ranging from infancy to late adulthood. Erikson integrated social experiences extensively into his stage theory. Thus, they are most aptly described as psychosocial stages. Read the detailed description of the stages. It’s recommended that you watch the videos and take notes on the content for study purposes. After you’ve done this, you can continue on with this module. You hopefully noticed that each of Erikson’s stages reflects a crisis. This is fairly similar to Freud’s stages, where either adaptive or maladaptive outcomes are possible at each stage. Each theorist was at one point in the psychodynamic school of thought, which emphasizes the unconscious and early childhood experiences. However, Erikson in many ways moved beyond a strictly psychodynamic approach. Other differences that you may have noted between the two theories are the lack of sexual content in Erikson’s stages, as well as his detailed emphasis far beyond adolescence. 3. Behaviorism and Social Learning Behaviorism is a hugely influential perspective in psychology. In general, behaviorists scientifically study human and animal behavior and focus on what is observable and measurable. However, there are many forms and applications of behaviorism. We will discuss Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Social Learning. a. Classical conditioning You’ve most likely heard the term, “Classical conditioning.” However, the process by which it occurs is rather detailed. Ivan Pavlov is the researcher credited with discovering classical conditioning based on his research on dogs’ digestive systems. Since he earned a Nobel Prize for his work, the Nobel prize website has an excellent description of his work. Access this link and read in detail. Then answer the following questions, referring back to the website as needed: • How did Pavlov become interested in studying reflexes? • What is a conditioned reflex? • How does treatment for phobias apply classical conditioning principles? Answers: Pavlov, like a good scientist, was very curious and became interested when he saw that the research dogs salivated any time that they saw a researcher in a lab coat. A normal trigger for salivation would be the smell of food. But the dogs had learned to associate food with the lab coats. A Conditioned Reflex, or conditioned response, is a learned response. That is, an organism becomes responsive to a stimulus that previously was neutral. For example, over time, Pavlov’s dogs became conditioned to respond to the lab coats. This type of conditioning to the lab coats happened accidentally, but classical conditioning can be used very intentionally to help people. Systematic desensitization operates on principles similar to classical conditioning and helps a phobic individual to, over time, become able to associate a feared stimulus with feeling relaxed. Since relaxation and high anxiety are incompatible, the high anxiety will eventually decrease or go away entirely. b. Operant Conditioning Have you ever worked with children? If you have, perhaps you used a reward as an incentive for good behavior? If so, you relied on the principles of operant conditioning. B.F. Skinner was one of the foremost researchers on operant conditioning (he even coined the term). Watch this video interview with Skinner, taking notes on what you observe and hear. There is much in Skinner’s viewpoint that is unacceptable to many Americans today, particularly his view of free will. However, Skinner effectively showed how behavior can be shaped by the environment; namely, by reward (reinforcement) and punishment. The term, “operant” refers to an organism operating on the environment. For example, when you receive something that reinforces or encourages your behavior, how then do you respond or operate? According to operant conditioning principles, a reinforcer following a behavior should make you more likely to commit that behavior again, while a punishment following a behavior should make you less likely to commit that behavior again. c. Social Learning Our final Behaviorism topic is Social learning. A hugely important name in this area is Albert Bandura. He is called a social cognitive theorist/researcher because he connected behaviorism with cognition and the environment. Unlike B.F. Skinner, he accepted the importance of studying mental processes, or cognitions, even though they couldn’t be directly observed. Bandura extensively studied modeling…. and not the type that occurs down a catwalk! This type of modeling involves imitating what you see others do. Social learning emphasizes that people learn by observing others, and that this learning can occur without necessarily shaping behavior through reward and punishment. We’ll later see the importance of social learning theory for explaining children’s behavior. 4. Jean Piaget and Cognitive Stages of Development While the Social Learning theorists were a bridge between Behaviorism and more Cognitive models, Jean Piaget fully embraced a cognitive perspective. That is, his stages of development focus on the changes in thinking that children from infancy through adolescence go through. Trained as a biologist, Piaget thought that development happened on its own via maturation. That is, as children get older, they have increased capacity to understand the world. Today, brain research from the field of cognitive neuroscience corroborates this finding, showing that with increased brain development comes greater capacity for sophisticated thought. However, some of Piaget’s specific stages have come under scrutiny. We will extensively discuss Piaget’s stages throughout this course. The remaining theories deserve brief mention for their relevance in understanding different aspects of development, taken from various viewpoints. 5. Information-processing theory Information-processing theory is a cognitive theory that likens the human brain to a computer. For examples, humans actively manipulate information. Research in this area uses computer terms to describe the processes of learning and memory. Although there is some similarity between this theory and Piaget’s, information-processing theory is not connected to any stages. Rather, this theory holds that cognitive development is continuous rather than discontinuous. 6. Ethological theories Ethological theories are biological, focusing on animal behavior. Most famously, Konrad Lorenz and his geese illustrate the phenomenon of imprinting, which is briefly described here. Regarding human development, ethological attachment theory is important for its implications for human attachments and bonding. 7. Sociocultural theories Lev Vygotsky is an example of a sociocultural theorist. His ideas greatly influence the field of education today. Vygotsky focused on how culture and knowledge is transmitted to the next generation. He carefully considered how children are influenced by the people, particularly people in authority, around them. While he de-emphasized the role that the individual plays in her own development, today his work is admired for the emphasis on what students can accomplish in conjunction with a teacher’s guidance. 8. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses on an environment of development (rather than the natural environment). He originated 5 environmental systems that influence development. They range from the very small (your neighborhood) to the very large (the period of history in which you exist). According to Bronfenbrenner, it is extremely important to consider the contexts in which individuals exist. Phew!! You made it through the major theories. Some of these we will discuss extensively throughout the course, while others only appear in this module. As you study, be sure to consider the role of each theory in explaining human development. Module 1 Page 4 Problem Set 2 1) Summarize each side of the nature/nurture controversy. Then, go through the first four theorists in this module (Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Piaget) and consider whether each theorist leans toward the nature or the nurture side. Nature, people believe is based on biology, assumes you are born that way while nurture, people believe that you are influence by society, your parents and friends. Freud: both sides. Erikson: nurture. Skinner: both sides. Piaget: nature. 2) Summarize each side of the continuity/discontinuity controversy. Which theorists (consider Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Piaget) view development as being discontinuous? Continuous: development gradually occurs. Discontinuous: development occurs in stages. Freud, Erikson, and Piagets views development as discontinuous. 3) Compare and contrast the following three theorists regarding their stage theories and view of human development: Freud, Piaget, Erikson. Freuds stage theories were based on psychosexual development. Piagets stage theories were based on cognitive development. Eriksons stage theories were based on lifespan (infancy through adulthood). 4) Compose 4 sentences to summarize the following theories: informat ... Purchase answer to see full attachment