Fluent Essays

Option B: Discuss the Columbian Exchange. Be sure to identify what it was, what it consisted of, and the consequences/effect of the Columbian Exchange on the people, animals, and environments of Europe and the Americas. Please provide specific examples from the reading materials. Dont forget to respond to someone.https://youtu.be/HQPA5oNpfM4https://www2.palomar.edu/users/scrouthamel/colexc.htmIN TEXT CITACTION AND WORKS CITED taugermodworldhistprintpchapt02.pdf taugermodworldhistprintpchapt03.pdf Unformatted Attachment Preview Chapter 2 The First European Imperialism Prior to the 14th century, Islamic merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean and Africa, although they shared land and sea routes with Chinese mariners. China’s fleet of ships was under the command of Zheng He, who established trade and diplomatic relations in India, East Africa, and the Middle East. Chinese porcelain was in great demand in these markets and was exchanged for exotic animals, feathers, and ivory, which were considered desirable luxury items in China. China’s voyages ended in 1433 due to a number of factors. Afterwards, Islamic merchants continued to actively trade in Africa where they expanded beyond the Sahara in search of gold, converts, and slaves. In Southeast Asia they traded actively in India and the islands. Many Asian and African goods were destined for European markets. Beginning in the 14th century, however, Europeans sponsored voyages of exploration that facilitated cross-cultural interactions and the spread of Christianity, as well as European trade goods, ideas, and technologies. After 1500, the pace and scale of these interactions increased and became more destructive as Europeans used military technologies to exploit resources and expand control over the markets in Eurasia and the Americas. With expanding markets and greater resources, new opportunities emerged to increase wealth, power, and influence that shifted the world’s balance of power toward Europe. Motives for Exploration Muslim traders were major players in the Indian Ocean and Africa in the 1300s. In Southeast Asia, merchants from the Islamic world and China were placed in direct contact. China’s voyages of exploration would soon be halted, but at their height, during the Ming Dynasty, Chinese ships explored and traded from the major Asian markets all the way to East Africa. Chapter Seven discusses Asia and its exploration in more detail. Islamic merchants and missionaries had been trading goods and spreading Islam within Southeast Asia and Africa for some time. By the fourteenth century, Islam had established trading ports throughout Southeast Asia and successfully attracted numerous converts. In Africa, Muslim merchants used camels and developed the camel saddle to aid in their successful expansion across the Sahara desert as they moved deeper into Africa. Major African kingdoms adopted the Islamic faith and became hubs of trade and education linking Africa with the Mediterranean world. 47 Europe lagged behind when it came to voyages of exploration and the establishment of trading ports in Africa and the East. Europeans had, however, developed a taste for African and Eastern goods and spices during the medieval Crusades. Launched by the Catholic Church and states of Europe against Islamic powers in the Holy Land for a variety of reasons that involved religious differences, economic issues, and political power plays, the Crusades had linked Europeans to the Eastern world and introduced many to the spices, furs, ivory, gold, and silks commonly found in African and Eastern markets. In addition, knowledge preserved and developed by Islamic scholars directly impacted the development of the western world. The failure of the Crusades to establish a long term and stable European presence in the East, however, had limited the expansion eastward of Europe. Europeans maintained a taste for Eastern knowledge and trade goods that would partially drive the voyages of exploration. Goods and ideas still made it from Africa and the East into European markets and universities via Islamic middlemen. During the fourteenth century, however, a decrease in goods and an increase in prices occurred due to the breakup of the Mongol Empires and the expansion of the Ottoman Turks that helped to stimulate a desire by European states to seek new trade routes. One goal of the European voyages was to find a new path to Asia that would allow Europeans to circumvent the Muslim merchants. While Muslim merchants willingly traded with Europeans, as they had done throughout the medieval period, they charged a fee on top of the already high price of goods. Western Europeans greatly desired to find an alternate path to Asia so they could have direct access to spices and other trade goods and profit from selling these goods themselves in European markets. The early European voyages of exploration were very expensive, dangerous, and time consuming. The initial outlay could be justified, however, by the huge profits that could be made. Economic motives fueled by the desire for new markets and resources drove some early voyages. Many Europeans also desired to expand the borders of Christianity. Anti-Muslim sentiment was one component of the religious motives for exploration. The Portuguese and Spanish had emerged from the Reconquista period, during which Catholic forces strove to drive Muslims out of the region, with a strong fervent faith and desire to expand the borders of Catholic Christianity. While the Crusading periods had ended by the fourteenth century, the legacy of bitter relations between Muslims and Christians lingered. Some Christians saw the voyages as opportunities to push back the frontiers of Islam. After the Protestant Reformations of the sixteenth century, competition between various sects for converts or the desire for safe haven in the face of religious persecution also formed motives for exploring new lands. Accompanying the desire for profit was competition among European states. France, England, the Holy Roman Empire, Portugal, and Spain competed for power in Europe. The voyages would allow new wealth to enter the coffers of European powers. Rulers and elites 48 could use this wealth to build centralized states or buy power and influence. Merchants could use their newfound wealth to influence rulers to allow them greater political privileges and social mobility. Finally, we cannot rule out the lure of adventure as a motivating factor. The lure of exploring new and unfamiliar lands may have driven some to participate in the voyages. Opportunities to gain land or to earn a reputation also motivated some people to become explorers. Technologies The voyages would never have taken place had the technology to support them not been available. The voyages of exploration required advanced nautical technology and navigational skills. New and better maps allowed seafarers to move further from the coasts and use their expanding knowledge to create even more and even better maps. Astrolabes, an Arab world invention, allowed mariners to determine the latitude by measuring the angle of the sun or the polar star above the horizon. They also allowed them to sail further into uncharted territories without the risk of losing their way home. Once navigators were able to determine latitude and longitude, they could accurately plot their course to and from destinations. European explorers needed sturdy ships. The adoption of rudders, already in use in China, gave their ships greater stability in choppy deep ocean waters. The magnetic compass, another Chinese invention, allowed European mariners to sail out further away from the coast, thereby expanding their range. European mariners also adopted better sailing technologies. Ships would be equipped with two different types of sails, which allowed sailors to take advantage of the different winds. They adopted the use of square and triangular sails, which had been used earlier in the Mediterranean. Combining the two types of sails enabled ships to take advantage of winds that came from side angels. Mariners also learned to tack, advance against the wind, which allowed ships to sail into deeper waters. Furthermore, advanced knowledge of winds and currents further enabled navigators to plan trips more efficiently. By the mid-fifteenth century, the Portuguese had developed what is called Volta do mar. This strategy uses knowledge of the prevailing winds and currents to determine indirect routes to and from ports. While Volta do mar takes ships out of the direct path to a location, it is actually faster, safer, and more reliable than attempting to sail into winds or against currents. The Early Voyages Portugal led the way in the early years of European exploration. The Portuguese built ships that were broad bowed and deeper keeled than other ships in order to sail safely through the rugged Atlantic waters. Their ships were also armed with canons. A resource and land poor state, Portugal sought fish, seals, whales, timber, and land on which to cultivate wheat and sugarcane. The population of Portugal grew to two million between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, but they had limited means of providing for the additional people. Exploration offered opportunities for wealth and advancement to the populous. The Portuguese 49 State was also interested in promoting the voyages as a means of enriching its own coffers. The ruling Avis Dynasty worked closely with merchants and middling sorts in order to increase their power and wealth at the expense of the older noble families of the realm. Profit, therefore, was one of the motives that drove many to take part in the voyages of exploration. Many Portuguese were interested in finding new trade routes to the profitable Asian markets. After the collapse of the Mongol Empire and the spread of the plagues, travel on the old silk roads was dangerous. Although Muslim merchants had access to the Asian markets and traded with Europeans, they added their own charges to the already very expensive costs of purchasing ginger, pepper, cloves, and nutmeg from India. These spices were considered necessities by the elites of Europe. The Renaissance periods witnessed the growth of consumerism and consumption in many areas of Europe. One displayed wealth and status by the conspicuous consumption and showcasing of items such as exotic spices, porcelain, furs, and animals. Trade routes in Africa brought Europeans quantities of gold, ivory, and slaves. Portuguese explorers such as Prince Henry the Navigator heavily promoted African trade in order to further the gold trade, gain intelligence about Muslim powers in Africa, win converts to Catholicism, and make alliances against Muslims. As noted earlier, the desire to cut out Muslim middlemen in the profitable trade of spices, as well as for economic and religious reasons, helped to expand the pace of the European voyages of exploration. Voyages of Exploration: The Atlantic World Portugal The Portuguese voyages of exploration and conquest in Africa were led by Prince Henry the Navigator (13941460). Prince Henry desired not only new trade routes to the east, but also wanted to control the profitable gold trade in Africa and to build alliances with Ethiopia’s Christian King against the Muslims. Prince Henry founded a school to train navigators in the emerging techniques and technologies. By 1415, Portuguese traders had breached the African markets, as Prince Henry directed the attacks that subdued the Muslims at Ceuta on the Moroccan coast. The Portuguese then sponsored a series of voyages down the West African coast. As they traveled down the coast, Portuguese merchants established trading posts in Ghana and other strategic locations in Africa. They exchanged horses, leather, textiles, and metal for gold and slaves. They established ports all along the western coast of Africa. 50 “CNN Millennium #5 6 Portugal Prince Henry the Navigator and Sea Exploration in the 15th Century 1400s” By the mid-fifteenth century, Portuguese sailors had discovered and claimed the Madeira Islands, the Azores, and the Canary Islands. These early voyages led to the establishment of Atlantic sugar plantations in the Southern Atlantic and Cape Verde Islands in order to meet the growing demand for sugar in Europe. Spain would contest with Portugal over control of the Canary Islands, but Portugal retained control. They successfully negotiated a treaty (Treaty of Alcacovas, 1479) with Spain that guaranteed Portugal hegemony over West Africa and the Canary, Medeiras, and Azore islands. Spain gained the rights to the Canary Islands. Portuguese mariners continued to sail down along the west coast of Africa until finally in 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean. He did not continue to explore because he feared his crew would mutiny. With his voyage, however, the Portuguese had succeeded in opening the first direct sea route to Asia. European merchants could now access the Asian markets without Muslim intermediaries. Ten years later, Vasco da Gama would continue the exploration of the east coast of Africa. While domestic and foreign problems delayed his voyages until 1497, he eventually left for India with armed merchant ships. His cargo, however, did not impress Indian merchants who had access to all the riches of the Eastern World and had no real need for Western European products. The return voyage was difficult, half the crew died, but he still made a huge profit on pepper and cinnamon. “Vasco da Gamas Voyage of Discovery” Attempting to follow up on da Gama’s successful trip, Pedro Cabril (1468-1520) strayed off course. His crew spotted Brazil, but it was left unexplored by the Portuguese until 1532 when they established a small colony. For the most part, Brazil was sparsely colonized by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century. By 1500 Portuguese trading posts were established throughout Africa and India, and Catholic missionaries traveled through those regions. Along the west coast of Africa, Portuguese explorers, merchants, and colonists traded with, and later toppled, the major state in the Kongo. The Portuguese dominated African ports along 51 the east coast, placing the Swahili city-states under Portuguese rule. They established fortified trading posts all along the east coast, using them as staging grounds for further expansion to the East. By 1510 the Portuguese had control of the lucrative trading center of Goa in Western India. While in India, they intervened in disputes between Hindus and Muslims by supporting Hindu forces in an effort to counter Islam. The Portuguese dominated the markets of the East for several decades using their superior maritime skills and military technologies. The Portuguese ships were light and easily maneuverable, and by the sixteenth century highly armed and capable of unleashing devastating damage on areas that resisted their domination. They also attempted to force ships to pay taxes and high duties to land at Portuguese ports. This policy would not enjoy long lasting success, as the British and Dutch would begin expanding into the region in the sixteenth century. Further east, the Portuguese initially experienced success in their contacts with the Chinese, but this was followed by setbacks. The Chinese resented Portuguese attempts to bud forts in China without permission. The Chinese also had little interest in Portuguese trade goods. When some Portuguese bought Chinese children as slaves, the Chinese government responded violently. Portuguese merchants were twice banned from trading in Chinese ports before being granted permission in 1554 to trade in Macao. In Japan, the Portuguese experienced greater success. In 1542 the first Portuguese ship arrived in Japan. This was during Japan’s Warring States period when rival warlords, daimyo, were competing for power. Portuguese guns were in high demand. Efforts to convert the Japanese were also successful. Jesuit priests arrived to spread Catholicism in 1549. One of the leading daimyo encouraged his followers to convert because he wanted to counter a threat from Buddhists who opposed his rule. The initial success of Catholicism ended, however, once Japan was unified and the rulers of Japan began to view Catholicism as a foreign threat. The Japanese government passed laws against Christianity, which led to the deaths of thousands of Christians. Eventually, after a failed revolt by Christian peasants in 1637-1638, all foreigners were expelled from Japan except for a group of Dutch merchants. Chapter Seven offers substantial coverage of Asia in the Early Modern period. Spain, the Americas, and Christopher Columbus Portugal concentrated on accessing the Eastern markets via the Indian Ocean, while Spain attempted to access the East via a westward route. The most important figure in Spains early voyages was the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506). Columbus believed Eurasia was within 2500 nautical miles of the Canary Islands. In actuality, the distance was 10,000 miles. The Portuguese had turned him down because they were skeptical of his geography and already had Dias’ route. Columbus was able to convince the Spanish crown to finance his voyages. Fernando and Isabel of Spain underwrote his expedition. In 1492 Columbus reached the Americas where he explored the coast of Cuba and the island of Hispaniola. He landed on an island populated by the Taino, which corresponds to 52 modern day San Salvador. In 1493, Columbus established the first Spanish colony, Santo Domingo, and it became a testing ground for further exploration. He brought chickens, sheep, goats, clippings, seeds, pigs, and weeds with him to the colony. The importation of foreign animals and plants caused major ecological changes in the region. He was looking for gold, but instead found great quantities of silver. He subdued the natives with dogs and horses, and forced them to labor in the silver mines. By 1550 the Taino people no longer existed. Columbus thought he was in India, so he called the native peoples “Indians” and the region the Indies. He sailed the Caribbean for three months in search of gold and Asian courts. Columbus never reached Asia despite three more voyages across the Atlantic, and he also found little gold. He firmly believed, however, until near the end of his life, that he had reached Asia. He thought he had only to sail a bit further, breach the outer islands, and he would reach China. Other voyagers followed Columbus’ route realizing that while he had not found a new route to China, he had opened a route to new regions rich in resources that could be exploited. Europeans referred to the Americas as the “New World.” Dutch, English, Portuguese, French, and other Spanish explorers followed, establishing a link between the eastern and western hemispheres and paving the way for conquest, settlement, and exploitation. “History of the Holidays: Columbus Day” Although Europeans considered the Americas the “New World,” the Americas were populated by diverse groups of indigenous peoples. Despite the sophistication and wealth of some of the civilizations in the Americas, Europeans saw the region as open to exploitation and conquest. Racial constructs and ethnocentric beliefs in the superiority of European culture helped support the expansion of European hegemony over the indigenous peoples. In 1494 the Treaty of Tordesillas, mediated by the Pope, divided the newly discovered areas between the Portuguese and the Spanish. The route east around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa was to be Portugal’s sphere of influence, whereas the route across the Atlantic (except for Brazil) would fall within Spain’s sphere of influence. 53 Spanish explorations in the Americas would be led by a group of men called conquistadors. The Spanish government did not fund the conquistadors, although the crown approved of their enterprises. Each group of conquistadors financed their own voyages. They were a complex group, motivated by greed, religion, and the desire for reputation. The conquistadores were warriors supported in their conquest by military technology, such as guns, not seen before in the Americas. Guns, steel weapons, and armor helped the conquistadors expand quickly though the Americas. The Caribbean islands become staging grounds for the later invasions of Mexi ... Purchase answer to see full attachment