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Please, checkout the uploaded file below, where you will find information and instructions. psych_140_module_6_with_set_1__and_set_2_.docx Unformatted Attachment Preview Psych 140-Module 6 with Set 1, and Set 2 Page 1 Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence When does adolescence begin? When does it end? The idea of a transition period between childhood and adulthood did not always exist. Historically, children, after perhaps completing a rite of passage, simply were considered to be adults. However, the period of adolescence is now widely accepted, at least in most post-industrial cultures. The onset of adolescence is marked by puberty. The ending is a little more difficult to define, since adolescence ends when an adult role is assumed. In many societies today, assuming a full adult role is frequently pushed back, usually so that educational and personal pursuits can first be obtained. A. Puberty The pubertal growth spurt usually begins in early adolescence. In North America, the average age for this growth spurt is around age 10 for girls and age 12 ½ for boys. Girls typically finish growing by age 16, while boys may continue to grow until nearly age 18. During this time, adolescence typically add on nearly 50\% of their adult body weight. Muscle mass also increases at this time for both boys and girls. However, this increase in muscle mass is much more notable in boys, while the female pubertal growth spurt results in girls adding fat to their arms, legs, and trunk area. Since this process runs counter to Western societal views of ideal body proportions, many girls may become dissatisfied with their bodies at this time. During puberty, a “domino effect” occurs, with various hormones being released; these trigger the development of secondary sex characteristics. This section will summarize this domino effect. 1. The Hypothalamus in the brain is a key regulatory center in the brain. In addition to monitoring body heat, and water and nutrient levels, it also regulates glands and hormones given its role in also regulating sexual behavior. The hypothalamus slowly produces GnRH, or gonadatropin-releasing hormone, beginning in middle childhood. Production really ramps up after middle childhood and is thought to be associated with the protein leptin, which is stored in fat cells. The current hypothesis is that pre-pubertal growth spurts result in pre-teens achieving a certain threshold of body fat (approximately 19\% of total body composition). Leptin levels subsequently increase, and this triggers the hypothalamus to start greater GnRH production. This hypothesis is supported by evidence of under-weight individuals not achieving puberty and overweight individuals being more likely to start puberty early. GNRH is then sent to the Pituitary gland in the brain. As you can see, the Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland are conveniently located near one another. 2. When GnRH reaches the Pituitary gland, it stimulates the gland to produce hormones called gonadotropins, which include Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). FSH stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles as well as aids sperm production. LH triggers production of sex hormones, androgens and estrogens, into the bloodstream. 3. These sex hormones are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development, pubic hair growth, testicular growth, etc. At this point and afterward, males have more androgens and females have more estrogens. Adolescents vary regarding the age at which the first visible signs of puberty occur. However, these signs usually occur around the time of the pubertal growth spurt. In North America, breast growth typically occurs now between the ages of 8-13 for girls, and the growth of tests and the scrotal sac between ages 9 ½ and 13 ½. These are the first visible signs of secondary sexual characteristics. The average age of spermarche, or first ejaculation for males, is now 13 in North America. The average age of menarche, or the first menstrual period, is now 12 ½. This is a lower average than used to occur in the 1800s and earlier. Since the early 20th century, the average age of menarche has dropped, although it has now plateaued (fewer historical records are available for spermarche). This decrease in the average age is known as a secular trend, affecting most members of a society. Since this trend is associated with a society’s increase in medical care and nutrition and because this trend is also seen in countries that are modernizing and increasing food consumption, it is thought to be caused by an increase in body fat among early adolescents. The above paragraphs indicate averages for pubertal timing. However, some adolescents begin puberty much later or much earlier than their peers. Boys and girls tend to respond differently to early and late maturation, as shown in the table below. Findings are based on the Berkeley Longitudinal Study, as well as more recent research on adolescent maturation (Sarigiani & Peterson, 2000; Wiesner & Ittel, 2002). Gender Girls Early Maturing Early maturing girls are at risk for numerous problems, such as early sexual activity, eating disorders, and poor body image. Early maturing girls start and stop their growth spurt before others. Therefore, they may attract attention from older boys at a young age, but may also be more likely to be dissatisfied with their figures. Late Maturing While some late-maturing girls may not enjoy having a more boyish figure in early adolescence, they do not have to deal with the psychsocial effects of early maturation (and increased fat distribution) during the pivotal time of early adolescence. This puts them at less risk, therefore, for body image problems. Boys There are many social advantages to maturing earlier as a boy (romantic attention comes to mind!). They may also be more likely to have more successful relations with peers and have a positive self-image. Late maturing boys may be at risk for some social and behavioral problems if physical attributes result in them being rejected by their peers (see Module 5). Stop and Think. Think back to your teen years. Does the above table fit with your observations? Why or why not? What role do you think other factors such as parental guidance, optimal social support, and adolescent temperament play? B. Eating Disorders While early maturing girls are not the only adolescents at-risk for eating disorders, the patterns we’ve just discussed help us to realize that certain individuals are more likely to have eating disorders. An eating disorder involves more than simply eating a small amount of food. Some eating disorders actually involve eating a large amount of food. Eating disorders are classified as mental disorders. Please read the material at the following links about Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa in detail. Pay particular attention to diagnostic criteria, possible causes, symptoms, consequences, and treatments. Be sure to look for information on medical treatment for anorexia. Please open and read this Link 1 → Detailed information on Anorexia Please open and read this Link 2→ Detailed information on Bulimia In addition, there are two subtypes of Anorexia Nervosa. Subtype I: Restricting Type. In this subtype, the individual does not engage in either binge-eating or purging behavior. Instead, weight loss occurs due to diet and/or exercise. Subtype II: Binge-Eating/Purging Type. In this subtype, the individual does engage in binge-eating and purging behaviors. However, keep in mind that this is still Anorexia and meets the other qualities of anorexia, which includes a significantly low body weight. Thus, dieting and purging in this subtype result in the individual having a dangerously low body mass index. Binge-eating disorder is a third eating disorder that involves frequent binge eating without compensatory behaviors such as purging or strenuous exercise. The American Psychological Association also has a short, helpful article on treatment for both conditions: Please open and read this Link 3 → https://www.apa.org/topics/eating/treatment.aspx Consider why some of these treatments might be particularly effective. C. Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Final Cognitive Stage Watch the video below as you study the material in this module. This is link 4 for the video below:→ https://onedrive.live.com/?authkey=\%21AMrJMt\%5FNEmh\%2DAOE&cid=3DAF964F40D5BF4 A&id=3DAF964F40D5BF4A\%21112&parId=3DAF964F40D5BF4A\%21103&o=OneUp Following Concrete Operations, Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development is Formal Operations. This stage is characterized by the ability to engage in abstract thinking and hypothetico-deductive reasoning, which is a systematic and scientific type of thinking. Piaget often tested the latter by setting up the Pendulum Problem. In the Pendulum Problem, students were given strings of different lengths and objects of different weights and were told to discover what influences the speed with which a pendulum swings. Piaget would then test students’ success at thinking logically and systematically through the experiment, much like a scientist. Furthermore, students were expected to come up with a hypothesis, or prediction for what they expect might affect the pendulum speed. Four logical hypotheses are possible: a.length of the string b.weight of the object c.how high the object is raised d.how forcefully it’s pushed Adolescents successfully illustrating hypothetico-deductive reasoning should systematically go through each of these hypotheses (for example, string length) while holding all others constant (weight, height, force) so that they can truly observe the cause of each single variable. However, few adolescents (or adults!) achieve the level of hypothetico-deductive reasoning that Piaget expected at this stage. However, as we learned previously, adults and teens can think logically and abstractly in situations that are more familiar to them. Thus, scientific problems may be easy for physics students, while English majors may be able to analyze Shakespearean themes with more ease! Also, some types of training and life experience might better train adolescence to engage in hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Piaget’s final stage, then, raises many questions that researchers are currently investigating. D. Brain Development A final key topic regarding physical and cognitive development in adolescence is brain development. You should recall that infancy is a key time of brain development, due to growth and pruning occurring. Adolescence is another period of major growth. Brain maturation happens all through childhood as well; infancy and adolescence are simply timepoints with a very distinctive type extensive type of growth: overproduction followed by pruning. This second period of overproduction technically happens in early puberty, around ages 11 or 12, and the overproduction of neural connections is concentrated in the Frontal Lobe of the brain. The child’s learning and new experiences coincide with much brain growth throughout childhood, resulting in overproduction by age 11-12. This is then followed by pruning, which will occur throughout the teen years and twenties. Neural pathways also become myelinated during this time. Myelin is a fatty sheath that covers neurons and speeds up (essentially lubricates) the conduction of messages. Myelination starts occurring at the end of infancy and continues throughout childhood but then becomes complete at the end of adolescence. This means that cognitive processing becomes faster by the end of adolescence. A final key aspect of brain development at this time involves a shift from using the Limbic System for judgment and decision making to using the Frontal Lobe. You may recall that judgment and decision-making are key tasks of the Frontal Lobe; this is based on research with adult brains. Adolescent brains (and younger) actually function differently and use the emotion-center (Limbic System) of the brain instead when decisions are being made. This has obvious implications for dayto-day life functioning and may partly explain difficulties adolescents and children have with impulse control and emotion regulation. So, an important part of the maturation process between adolescence and adulthood is this shift, as a more adult-type of processing begins to occur. Full development is thought to occur by approximately age 30, although studies continually are showing that brain development takes far longer than used to be thought. Page 2 Problem Set 1 1. Create two timelines indicating average ages at which the pubertal growth spurt and menarche/spermache occur for girls and boys. Ans. #1: 2. Summarize the possible consequences for being an early maturing girl and boy, and a latematuring girl and boy. Ans. #2: 3. In what ways do profiles of individuals with anorexia nervosa differ from profiles of individuals with bulimia nervosa? Ans. #3: 4. What are the health consequences of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa? Ans. #4: 5. How does formal operational thought differ from concrete operational thought? Ans. #5: 6. Describe the pendulum problem. Ans. #6: Page 3 Socioemotional Development in Adolescence A. Identity Development In Module 1, you learned about Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages. Please open and read this Link 5 → This is a good time to review that material, particularly the Identity vs. Identity Confusion stage that Erikson said pertained to adolescence. Building upon Erikson’s ideas, James Marcia (1980) thought that the Identity vs. Identity Confusion stage could be subdivided into four identity statuses. These statuses show the progression of how an adolescent might come to develop an identity. Marcia divided each of these models according to commitment or what Erikson called “crisis” (and Marcia called “exploration.” • Crisis/Exploration: a period of exploration and decision-making • Commitment: a plan of action The following table shows the four identity statuses according to the presence or absence of crisis and commitment. Further descriptions of each status are under the table. Status Crisis Commitment Identity Diffusion No No Identity Moratorium Yes No Identity Foreclosure No Yes Identity Achievement Yes Yes 1. Identity diffusion. This adolescent has not had a crisis, so she has not come to any decisions about her identity nor is she committed to any course of action. Adolescents/adults who remain in identity diffusion are essentially “lost” and floundering since this status would be most akin to Erikson’s Identity Confusion. Adolescents in this status have neither explored nor decided upon an aspect of their identity, such as vocational identity. 2. Identity moratorium. The adolescent is in the midst of a crisis but has not made a commitment to a particular identity. Adolescents in this status are exploring and considering, for example, an academic major, but have not yet decided. 3. Identity foreclosure when the adolescent has made a commitment but has not had a crisis. Its called foreclosure because it may be a premature decision that did not include enough exploration of possible alternatives. Adolescents in this status may choose a career or political beliefs based on what others tell them, without considering their own thoughts. 4. Identity achievement occurs when an adolescent has gone through a crisis and is committed to a course of action. Exploration therefore occurs before a decision is made. Research indicates that adolescents who are identity-achieved often have high self-esteem and are more likely to have an internal locus of control. That is, they feel more in control of their own destiny and believe that they have the tools to accomplish their long-term goals. Foreclosure and diffusion, on the other hand, may be harmful if this status is retained long-term. Inflexible thinking patterns may characterize foreclosed individuals, and the diffused individuals may be apathetic about the future (which may result in risky behaviors). Of course, in real life, individuals often move in and out of these statuses; decisions made one day may change later. However, a knowledge of these general patterns and possible outcomes is often helpful in working with teens who need some direction. B. Adolescent Problem Behaviors Contrary to what was formerly thought in developmental theory, adolescence is typically not a time of “storm and stress,” or major angst. However, some teens do engage in problem behaviors. Furthermore, adolescence is a common time for some types of mental disorders to present themselves. 1. Juvenile delinquency (criminal behavior prior to adulthood) Adolescent boys are far more likely to engage in juvenile delinquency than are adolescent girls. Female aggression is usually limited to simple assault, such as pushing or spitting. However, male aggression is often more violent. Two patterns of delinquency have been observed: adolescence-limited and life-course persistent. Adolescence-limited is more common and more benign; in this pattern, teens engage in delinquent behavior but then become more responsible in adulthood. Life-course persistent delinquency is far more problematic and is often reflective of troubles that start long before adolescence. That is, a combination of biological and social factors likely contributed to a child showing aggressive behaviors. These behaviors then continue and expand in adolescence, and in adulthood the individual may become a repeat offender. James Garbarino is a developmental psychologist known for his work on what causes violence in children. In his book, Lost Boys: Why Our Sons Turn Violent and How We Can Save Them (2000), Garbarino identifies key problems that can lead to child violence. These include: • Failure for the child to develop a secure attachment with a parent figure. This can result in the child showing a deficit in empathy toward others because the lack of a healthy attachment early in life may harm ones future emotional development. • Depression. Acting out may be a sign of depression in adolescent boys in particular. • Abandonment by a parent. Similar to the lack of a secure attachment, a traumatic separation from a parent early in life is associated with increased violent tendencies in the child, according to Garbarino. This abandonment can harm the childs self-esteem and rejection from a parental figure can leave lasting damage. Sometimes abandonment comes in the form of the parents severe drug abuse. Garbarino offers a number of interventions to stop the cycle of violence. These interventions include: • Teaching boys to feel and show empathy toward others. Coping with ones own feelings and working toward understanding others can greatly reduce violent tendencies. • Protecting boys from violence, both in their physical environment as well as the digital environment. Both types of violence play a negative role in boys behavior. • Stimulate the boys spirituality. Similar to working on empathy, finding meaning and purpose and thinking about higher-level moral thinking can be life-changing for at-risk boys. • Mentoring. Sometimes all it takes is one trustworthy adult figure in a childs life to make a difference. This figure can be an older sibling, teacher, social worker, pastor, Big Brother, etc. The important factors are that this person show care and model positive behaviors. • Education. Better educational opportunities means that the teen will have more options in life and higher earning potential, which can elevate them from the difficult circumstances of their childhood. Success at school also raises self-esteem, which can then tap into a positive emotional life for the teen. • Positive social support. Similar to mentoring, positive social support overall is crucial for any childs well-being. Sometimes the care and support for a gang is the reason why the teen goes down a negative path; they are simply looking for esteem and s ... Purchase answer to see full attachment