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instructions is assignment docbrain imaging and brain privacy is the issue i choosemilestone worksheet goes with Submit the module 1 worksheet, which includes the topic for your final project and a short introduction. Build on the ideas from the Module One discussion to select your final topic. Remember to select an area of psychology that you wish to research. For example, you might look at cognitive psychology or developmental psychology. Then, within this field, you will pick a particular area that is of interest to you. For example, within the field of cognitive psychology, you might examine memory in emotional situations. Or, within developmental psychology, you might examine the development of executive functions in kindergarteners. assignment.docx brain_imaging_andd_brain_privacy.pdf psy_224_milestone_one_worksheet.docx milestone_one_worksheet.docx Unformatted Attachment Preview Assignment (10-20 sentences) PART A Describe a significant personal early childhood experience or an experience of someone you know. How do you think neural plasticity was involved in adapting to the impact of that experience? Were certain adaptive pathways strengthened, or did less adaptive pathways develop? Did one person or intervention impact on improving the overall outcome? Remember to tie your hypothesis to at least one external source. PART B Identifies a specific topic on childhood/adolescent disorders. Defines what particular position (thesis) your presentation intends to take in relation to this topic. Summarizes how you might explore the topic and your position as more fully develop the presentation PART B -1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KrUNBfyjlBk&=&feature=youtu.be https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z6rUCi47Fgc Analyze the early assessment process. Why are accurate assessment and sound treatment protocols essential? What are the implications of stigmatization and improper diagnosis? Substantiate your rationale with scholarly research. PART C Read Farahs (2005) discussion of neuroethics, Neuroethics: The Practical and the Philosophical. After reading the article, pick one issue in neuroethics (e.g., brain privacy, use of neuroscience in marketing, using cognitive enhancers) and examine how ethical the research in this area is based on what you have learned about ethics this week. Be sure to summarize some research that has been done in this area to illustrate whether or not it is ethical, and also mention future ethical considerations that should be taken into account for this area. Your summaries should also include a discussion of the research methods that are being used. Your ideas should be supported with the module resources. PDF DOC will be updated and the issue I pick is “Brain imaging and brain privacy” PART D Submit the module 1 worksheet, which includes the topic for your final project and a short introduction. Build on the ideas from the Module One discussion to select your final topic. Remember to select an area of psychology that you wish to research. For example, you might look at cognitive psychology or developmental psychology. Then, within this field, you will pick a particular area that is of interest to you. For example, within the field of cognitive psychology, you might examine memory in emotional situations. Or, within developmental psychology, you might examine the development of executive functions in kindergarteners. Review TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Vol.9 No.1 January 2005 Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical Martha J. Farah Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA In comparison with the ethical issues surrounding molecular genetics, there has been little public awareness of the ethical implications of neuroscience. Yet recent progress in cognitive neuroscience raises a host of ethical issues of at least comparable importance. Some are of a practical nature, concerning the applications of neurotechnology and their likely implications for individuals and society. Others are more philosophical, concerning the way we think about ourselves as persons, moral agents and spiritual beings. This article reviews key examples of each type of issue, including the relevant advances in science and technology and their accompanying social and philosophical problems. Introduction Almost three decades ago, in the picturesque coastal retreat of Asilomar, California, a group of molecular biologists gathered to discuss the safety of the newly developed recombinant DNA technology. In the years since, concern about the risks of genetic engineering have remained prominent in the public consciousness, as well as commanding the attention of academic bioethicists, government regulators, and biologists themselves. At the start of the 21st century, neuroscience has developed to a point where it, too, may have profound effects on society, extending far beyond the research laboratory or medical clinic. Like the field of genetics, neuroscience concerns the biological foundations of who we are, of our essence. The relation of self to brain is, if anything, more direct than that of self to genome. Perhaps more important, neural interventions are generally more easily accomplished than genetic interventions. Yet until recently there has been little awareness of the ethical issues arising from neuroscience. Beginning in 2002, neuroscientists began to address these issues in the scientific literature (e.g. [1–5]) and the field gained a name, ‘neuroethics’ [6]. Neuroethics encompasses a large and varied set of issues, and initial discussions focused on various different subsets of those issues. Some neuroethical issues concern the practical implications of neurotechnology for individuals and society. Technological progress is making it possible to monitor and manipulate the human mind with ever more precision through a variety of neuroimaging methods and interventions. For the first time it may be possible to breach the privacy of the human mind, and judge people not only by their actions, but also by their Corresponding author: Farah, M.J. (mfarah@psych.upenn.edu). Available online 13 December 2004 thoughts and predilections. The alteration of brain function in normal humans, with the goal of enhancing psychological function, is increasingly feasible and indeed increasingly practiced. At the same time, progress in basic neuroscience is illuminating the relation between mind and brain, a topic of great philosophical importance. Our understanding of why people behave as they do is closely bound up with the content our laws, social mores, and religious beliefs. Neuroscience is providing us with increasingly comprehensive explanations of human behavior in purely material terms. Although the field of neuroethics is young and still evolving rapidly, the time seems ripe for a review in which the key issues of neuroethics, both practical and philosophical, are surveyed and placed in relation to one another. Brain imaging and brain privacy Among the neuroscience technologies that present new ethical challenges of a practical nature is functional brain imaging. This includes the familiar false-color images of positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), as well as the electroencephalography-derived methods of event-related potentials (ERPs) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) and optical imaging methods such as near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). These methods vary in their invasiveness and portability, which constrain the uses to which they can be put, although any one of them can be used to obtain personal information surreptitiously, in a study ostensibly designed for a different purpose. In principle, and increasingly in practice, imaging can be used to infer people’s psychological states and traits [1,3,7]. For example, in ‘neuromarketing’ brain imaging is used to measure limbic system response to a product that may indicate consumers’ desire for it. In one recent demonstration, brain activity related to soft drink preference was sensitive to both the taste of the drink and to the brand name, with Cokee evoking more activity than Pepsie only when subjects knew which brand they were tasting [8]. To the extent that neuroimaging can measure unconscious motivation to buy, it provides a valuable new kind of information for marketers. Another potential use for functional imaging of brain states is lie detection. Although fMRI-based lie detection is far from feasible in real-world situations, researchers have found correlates of deception in the laboratory [9]. ERPs come closer to providing actual brain-based lie detection. They have been used to identify ‘guilty knowledge’ by www.sciencedirect.com 1364-6613/$ - see front matter Q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.001 Review TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences distinguishing responses to items that are generally known to be associated with a crime and items that only the perpetrator would know are associated [10]. An example is shown in Figure 1. This method, called Brain Fingerprinting by its developer, has been admitted as evidence in one court trial and is being promoted as a means of screening for terrorists (www.brainwavescience.com). Psychological traits also have physical correlates that are measurable with current brain imaging technology. Like genotyping, ‘brainotyping’ may be able to reveal mental health vulnerabilities [11,12] and predilection for violent crime [13]. Unconscious racial attitudes are manifest in brain activation [14]. Sexual attraction and even the attempt to suppress feelings of attraction have neuroimaging correlates [15]. A growing body of literature has investigated the neural correlates of personality using brain imaging, including extraverion and neuroticism, risk-aversion, pessimism, persistence and empathy (e.g. [16–22]). Of course, none of these characteristics can be accurately inferred by imaging (or for that matter, by genotyping) at present. Brain imaging is at best a rough measure of personality, but this is not to say it is uninformative even in its current state of development. Figure 1. ‘Brain fingerprinting’ is a technique based on event-related potentials (ERPs) that promises to help discriminate criminal perpetrators from those who are innocent, and has also been considered as a means of screening for terrorists. It is based on the finding that information might evoke different ERPs depending on whether the subject recognizes the relevance of the information, and the assumption that the perpetrator of a crime will be familiar with details of the crime that would be unfamiliar to an innocent person. Stimuli that are irrelevant (green) to a crime and stimuli that are known by all to be relevant (red) evoke distinct ERPs that serve as standards against which to compare the ERP evoked by relevant stimuli known only to the perpetrator (blue). (a) illustrates the ERPs expected of an innocent person and (b) the ERPs expected of someone with a perpetrator’s knowledge of the crime. www.sciencedirect.com Vol.9 No.1 January 2005 35 The work of Canli and colleagues [16,17] on extraversion illustrates this. In their initial experiment, they found that extraversion was correlated with amygdala response to pleasant stimuli, using photographs of puppies, ice cream, sunsets and so on [16]. In a follow-up experiment [17], they confirmed this finding concerning the amygdale with a different type of pleasant stimulus, happy faces (see Figure 2). Although the points are scattered about the regression line, the correlation is nevertheless moderately strong. Such correlations can in principle be used to narrow the range of likely values of a psychological trait on the basis of an individual’s brain activity. Neuroethical issues: privacy and public understanding An important practical problem that brain imaging shares with genetics is privacy. It might not be in an individual’s best interest to have certain personal information available to others. Another parallel is that with brain imaging, as with tissue sampling for DNA analysis, an individual need not know whether or what kind of personal information will be obtained. The experimental paradigm used by Canli and colleagues to correlate amygdala activation with personality simply required subjects to view pictures and could be administered in the guise of a picture perception study. Another practical problem raised by progress in neuroimaging is that the public tends to view brain scans as more accurate and objective than in fact they are [23]. Statements like ‘the brain does not lie’ crop up in popular writing on neuromarking and brain-based lie detection, reflecting a failure to appreciate the many layers of signal processing and statistical analysis that intervene between actual brain function and resulting image or waveform, as well as the complex set of assumptions required to interpret the psychological significance of such images or waveforms. Brain-based measures do, in principle, have an advantage as indices of psychological states and traits over more familiar behavioral or autonomic measures, being one causal step closer to these states and traits than responses on personality questionnaires or polygraph tracings. For this reason imaging may eventually provide more sensitive and specific measures of psychological processes than are now available. At present, however, such uses must be approached carefully and with a healthy dose of skepticism. Enhancement: better brains through chemistry The past two decades have seen the introduction of new antidepressant and antianxiety drugs with fewer side effects [24]. The greater tolerability of these medications, along with increased public awareness of mental illness and aggressive marketing of psychiatric medications to physicians and patients [25] has led to the widespread use of psychopharmacology by people who would not have been considered ill twenty years ago. There is a substantial literature (which in fact includes literary genres such as essays and memoirs) [26–28] on the ways in which Prozac and other selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have become a part of life for many. However, there is surprisingly little scientific Review 36 TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 5 4 T score 3 2 1 0 r = 0.71 P < 0.002 –1 30 40 50 Extraversion score Figure 2. Personality modulates the brain’s response to affectively valenced stimuli. The positive correlation of the data shown here demonstrates that the more extraverted an observer is, the more activity (as measured by the T score) will be engendered in their amygdalae by the presentation of a happy face (relative to an emotionally neutral face). Reproduced with permission from [17]. Copyright (2002) AAAS. research on the effects of SSRIs on people who are not depressed. It seems clear that they are not happy pills, shifting depressed people to normalcy and normal people to bliss. Rather, for most people they seem to leave positive affect unchanged but attenuate negative affect [29,30], for example reducing the subjectively experienced ‘hassle’ factor of life [30]. They also have subtle effects on social behavior [29,31]. In addition to mood, vegetative functions such as sleep, eating, and sex can be influenced pharmacologically and there is a large demand for ways of enhancing these functions. The wakefulness-promoting agent modafinil, approved in the US for treatment of certain sleep disorders, is prescribed off label for a panoply of other conditions [32] and is said to be favored by some ambitious professionals as a way of packing more work into a day [33]. Although a safe and effective appetite suppressant is at present just a goal, such a drug will undoubtedly find a huge market when it comes along. Even after it became clear that the fen-phen combination could cause fatal heart disease and it was pulled from the market, there was a constituency of consumers that fought for continued access to it [34]. Finally, although sildenafil (Viagra) and more recent medications for erectile dysfunction do not achieve their effects by altering brain function, newer neurally active drugs are in development, aimed at improving both male and female libido. If society’s experience with sildenafil is any indication, many people without sexual dysfunction will seek these drugs to enhance their sex lives [35]. The treatment of cognitive disorders has also begun to shade into cognitive enhancement for healthy people. Two main cognitive systems have been targeted for enhancement, executive function and memory [4,36]. Stimulant www.sciencedirect.com Vol.9 No.1 January 2005 medication, which has been shown to improve the executive function of individuals with ADHD, also enhances normal performance on a variety of executive function measures [37,38]. This is not surprising because ADHD probably represents the lower tail of the whole population distribution of executive function rather than a qualitatively different state of functioning, discontinuous with the normal population (NIH Consensus Statement, 1998). Although methyphenidate (Ritalin) and amphetamine (Adderall) are ostensibly prescribed mainly for the treatment of ADHD, sales figures suggest that they are not uncommonly used for enhancement. Methylphenidate is currently widely used by high school and college students. Surveys have estimated that as many as 10\% of high school students and 20\% of college students have used prescription stimulants such as Ritalin illegally (see D. A. Kapner: www.edc.org/hec/pubs/factsheets/ritalin.html). Figure 3 shows the growth in sales of methylphenidate over a recent 10-year period in the US and worldwide. The most commonly used method of memory enhancement involves manipulation not of memory circuits per se but of cerebrovascular function. Herbal supplements such as Gingko Biloba affect memory mainly by increasing blood flow within the brain [39]. However, a huge research effort is now being directed to the development of memoryboosting drugs [4,40,41]. The candidate drugs target various stages in the molecular cascade that underlies memory formation, including the initial induction of longterm potentiation and the later stages of memory consolidation. Although this research is aimed at finding treatments for dementia, there is reason to believe that some of the products under development would enhance normal memory as well, particularly in middle and old age when a degree of increased forgetfulness is normal. As shown in Figure 4, for example, treatment of healthy human subjects with an ampakine, which enhances LTP, improved performance in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, the ability to weaken or prevent the consolidation of unwanted memories constitutes another kind of enhancement that is also under development [42]. Nonpharmaceutical methods for altering brain function have also evolved rapidly over the past decade and in the future may offer complementary approaches to enhancement. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has moved from laboratory to clinic as a means of treating depression [43] and is being explored with healthy subjects as a means to alter mood [44] and cognitive style [45]. More invasive methods such as surgery, brain and vagus nerve stimulation, and brain-machine interfaces may eventually expand our conception of brain enhancement yet further – and possibly our conception of human nature as well [46]. Neuroethical issues: risks to the individual and society The ethical issues surrounding brain enhancement can be grouped into three general categories. In the first category are health issues: safety, side effects and unintended consequences. Of course, these are a concern with all medications and procedures, but our tolerance for risk is lower for enhancement than for therapy. Furthermore, in comparison with other comparably elective treatments Review TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 37 amphetamine to enhance the attention of pilots and other personnel on long missions, and the US defense department is a major funder of research on brain–machine interfaces [49]. This raises a concern about a very direct form of coercion, by which troops are ordered to undergo brain enhancement. Conversely, barriers such as cost will prevent some who would like to enhance from doing so. This would exacerbate the disadvantages already faced by people of low socioeconomic status in education and employment. 400 300 200 100 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 0 Other US TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Figure 3. Growth in sales of the attention-enhancing stimulant methylphenidate (Ritalin) over a 10-year period, measured in millions of doses per day. ... Purchase answer to see full attachment