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Discussion TopicLast week, you had an opportunity to develop an IEP for a student from a fictitious case study example. This week, you will focus on supporting students with autism, intellectual and development disabilities, and communication disorders.Read “Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) & FAPE” to review current and historical rulings regarding LRE litigation impacting students with disabilities and schools.Discuss the following questions in a minimum of 500 words: What are some challenges for schools in dealing with recent litigation that involves educational placements for their students with disabilities? Consider your own district. Are there students whose placements change simply because they are in a different school/district?What are some challenges for teachers in dealing with recent special education legislation? How have the rulings impacted classrooms on your campus or in your state?Explain and provide rationale to support your response. Be sure to respond comprehensively to all questions and support with scholarly research in APA Style in-text citations and a reference page.Be professional. Read and use the following articles and links synthesize to base the answers on:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zz8gXfluwBs#action=sharehttps://www.edutopia.org/video/say-hi-milo-autism-robot _1.pdf _2.pdf _3.pdf _4.pdf Unformatted Attachment Preview 611880 research-article2015 FOAXXX10.1177/1088357615611880Focus on Autism and Other Developmental DisabilitiesAlverson et al. Article Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities 2019, Vol. 34(1) 52­–64 © Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2015 Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357615611880 DOI: 10.1177/1088357615611880 focus.sagepub.com High School to College: Transition Experiences of Young Adults With Autism Charlotte Y. Alverson, PhD1, Lauren E. Lindstrom, PhD1, and Kara A. Hirano, MEd1 Abstract Youth with disabilities are less likely to enroll and complete postsecondary education than their nondisabled peers. Using a qualitative, cross-case design, we investigated the high school to college transition experiences of young adults diagnosed with Asperger syndrome (AS). Data sources included a family questionnaire, review of special education records, and multiple individual interviews (N = 27) with young adults with AS, family members, teachers, and rehabilitation counselors. Social skills, communication, and executive functioning challenges in high school continued into postsecondary education settings. Across cases, five reoccurring themes seemed to influence the transition from high school to postsecondary education: (a) motivation to attend college, (b) high levels of disability awareness, (c) intentional family supports, (d) coordinated transition planning, and (e) clear postschool goals. Keywords high school, secondary transition, postsecondary education, Asperger syndrome Changes in the labor market over the last several decades have made postsecondary education critical for employability and economic stability (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010). With the increasing demand for highly trained workers who have completed postsecondary education, preparing all students to exit high school college and career ready has become the mantra of educational leaders and a focus of federal legislation, including the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, 2010). When examining postsecondary education and degree attainment, two key issues arise, enrollment in degree-granting institutions and persistence to graduation. Relative to enrollment in a postsecondary program, students with disabilities are less likely than their peers without disabilities (60\% vs. 67\%) to attend postsecondary education within 8 years of leaving high school. For young adults with autism, the rate of postsecondary enrollment within 8 years after high school is 44\% (Newman et al., 2011). Shattuck et al. (2012) found youth with autism from higher income families and those with greater functional abilities were more likely to attend college. Furthermore, Shattuck et al. found that youth with autism have a high risk for being unengaged in either postsecondary education or employment during the first 2 years after high school. Chiang, Cheung, Hickson, Xiang, and Tsai (2012) identified five significant predictors of postsecondary education participation for individuals with autism: (a) primary post– high school goal to attend postsecondary education, (b) type of high school (regular vs. specialized), (c) parent expectations for enrollment, (d) annual household income above US$50,000, and (e) above average academic performance in high school. In examining previous research regarding completion of postsecondary programs, students with disabilities are less likely than peers in the general population to graduate (41\% vs. 52\%), and young adults with autism have a completion rate of 39\% (Newman et al., 2011). Receiving appropriate supports and accommodations is one factor related to the success and persistence of students with disabilities in postsecondary programs (Hart, Grigal, & Weir, 2010; Mull, Sitlington, & Alper, 2001). Although the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 guarantees accommodations in public institutions of higher education for students with disabilities, the onus for securing accommodations rests solely 1 University of Oregon, Eugene, USA Corresponding Author: Charlotte Y. Alverson, University of Oregon, 205 Clinical Services Building, 5620 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA. Email: calverso@uoregon.edu 53 Alverson et al. on the student. Newman et al. (2011) found 72\% of students identified by their secondary school as having a disability either did not consider themselves to have a disability once they transitioned to a postsecondary school (63\%) or chose not to disclose their disability to the school (9\%). Nearly 37\% of students with autism in the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2) did not disclose their disability to their educational institution, therefore did not receive accommodations (Newman et al., 2011). The lack of formal accommodations is only one factor influencing persistence to graduation. Other factors unique to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affect students in postsecondary settings, especially those diagnosed with Asperger syndrome (AS), an ASD characterized by significant impairment in social interaction accompanied by restrictive, repetitive, and stereotyped behaviors or interests (Klin & Volkmar, 2003). Adults diagnosed with AS are often socially isolated, remain dependent on their families, and are unable to transition fully to independent adult roles (Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004). Common interpersonal challenges include forming and maintaining work and personal relationships, demonstrating age appropriate behaviors, developing a full understanding of their disability, and lacking self-advocacy, coping, and problem-solving skills (Browning & Miron, 2007; Roberts, 2010). Although overall academic achievement may be average or above average, youth with AS often exhibit uneven patterns of performance with pockets of specialized knowledge and highly focused interest areas (Sciutto, Richwine, Mentrikoski, & Niedzwiecki, 2012). Kidwell (2005) referred to the first year of college as the purgatorial zone as students often struggle, not due to a lack of intellect or aptitude, but due to challenges stemming from leaving familiar surroundings, family, and friends, and navigating the routines associated with being a college student—finding classrooms, purchasing books, meeting other students, understanding syllabi, and completing assignments on time. This purgatorial zone can be debilitating for individuals with AS who have difficulties with communication and social skills as well as unique needs related to sensory integration and organization (Camarena & Sarigiani, 2009). Anecdotal reports of generalized challenges faced by individuals with AS abound in the literature, often accompanied by recommendations for strategies to address barriers in postsecondary education (Browning & Miron, 2007; Dillion, 2007; Wenzel & Rowley, 2010). However, there is a dearth of empirical research documenting how these traits manifest in college, and what high school transition services may better prepare individuals with AS for college. The purpose of this study was to identify the unique personal and contextual barriers young adults with AS face in postsecondary education and what high school transition services youth need to be prepared for postsecondary education. The overarching research questions were as follows: Research Question 1: What high school transition services do young adults with AS need to be successful in college? Research Question 2: What unique personal and contextual barriers do these individuals face when enrolling and remaining in college? Method We used a phenomenological qualitative approach using individual interviews over a 6- to 12-month time period to examine the experiences of young adults with AS in transition from high school to college. Multiple, individual interviews with young adults, family members, teachers, and rehabilitation counselors (N = 27) provided various perspectives on the transition process and early college experiences. A family background questionnaire contributed to the understanding of the family structure, and, when available, participants’ special education records provided insight into their school experiences. Qualitative methods allowed us to gain a rich understanding of individuals with AS, their families, and those who worked with them (Brantlinger, Jimenez, Klingner, Pugach, & Richardson, 2005). Participants We purposefully selected young adults with a medical diagnosis of AS, all diagnosed under the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994) criteria (prior to the publication of DSM’s fifth edition; DSM-5; APA, 2013) who were eligible for special education services in high school and enrolled or planned to enroll in a 2- or 4-year college. Referral sources were (a) autism consultants for an education service district, (b) a vocational rehabilitation counselor primarily serving clients with ASD, and (c) a developmental pediatrician. Young adults with diagnosed or suspected comorbid conditions (e.g., clinical depression) or those unable or unwilling to acknowledge a disability were ineligible. We used a structured screening protocol to ensure potential participants met the study’s inclusion criteria. Young adults with AS. Participants were five young men ages 19 to 22 at the time of the first interview (see Table 1). They lived in urban, suburban, and rural areas of a northwestern state. Four identified as Caucasian and one identified as multiple races. All five participants had a high school completion document at the time of the first interview; two received a regular high school diploma, two completed the 54 Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities 34(1) Table 1. Participant Demographic Information. Name Age at first interview Age at ASD diagnosis Initial diagnosis Ethnicity Diploma status Brent Hunter Irvin Jeff Jorge 22 21 22 21 19 18 17 3 4 19 ADD/ADHD ADD PDD-NOS ID ADHD Caucasian Caucasian Caucasian Multiracial Caucasian Modified GED Regular GED Regular Note. Per the American Psychiatric Association, “Anyone diagnosed with one of the four pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) from DSM-IV should still meet the criteria for ASD in DSM-5 . . . ” ADD = attention deficit disorder; ADHD = attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; PDD-NOS = pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified; ID = intellectual disability; ASD = autism spectrum disorder; DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). General Educational Development (GED), and one received a modified diploma. Key informants. We obtained participants’ consent to interview individuals who could provide additional insights into their family, high school, and college experiences. For each participant, we interviewed (a) one or both parents, (b) a high school teacher or transition specialist; and (c) for those who received services from vocational rehabilitation, a rehabilitation counselor who provided career counseling and guidance. Data Collection Interview protocols. We developed semi-structured interview protocols utilizing key indicators identified in special education (e.g., disability awareness, focus of Individualized Education Program [IEP]), transition (e.g., postschool goals, self-advocacy/self-determination), and autism literature (e.g., communication, socialization, organization/executive functioning). The following major topics were addressed in all interview protocols: (a) personal characteristics including strengths and interests, (b) family supports and expectations, (c) high school experiences, and (d) college experiences including barriers and services accessed. Interview procedures. We interviewed each participant and a parent or family member twice, approximately 6 to 12 months apart. Participants had the option of having a parent join them for the first interview; three young adults included their parent in the first interview. The remaining parents were interviewed individually. The initial interviews focused on family background, high school, and early college experiences. We conducted the second interviews with parents and participants separately. The second interviews focused on recent changes in the participants’ lives and individualized questions to clarify and follow up on information obtained in the first interviews. With participants’ permission, we interviewed a high school teacher or other school staff and rehabilitation counselor to gain information about their perceptions and experiences working with the participants during the transition from high school to college. Across all five participants, we conducted 27 interviews. Interviews lasted 60 to 90 min and were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim by a professional transcriptionist. Secondary sources. We completed a family background questionnaire and obtained special education records when available. Field notes documenting contact with participants and key informants were compiled and coded. All field notes and file reviews were recorded on structured forms to ensure comparable information across cases (Yin, 2009). Data Analysis We analyzed data following a multistage process (Bazeley, 2009; Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2013). First, we simultaneously read the transcripts and listened to the audio files to ensure accuracy in transcription, added descriptors (e.g., “said sarcastically”), or included field notes (e.g., turned away as mom described his early behaviors). All transcripts were entered into NVivo (Version 9) qualitative software used for coding and analysis. Next, we developed broad descriptive codes and definitions based on relevant literature, interview protocols, and our initial read of the data. Using the descriptive codes (e.g., preparation for college, or social skills/socialization), we assigned labels to individual passages of text. After reviewing an initial set of transcripts, the research team revised and expanded the codes, adding key topics that emerged from participant data. To ensure that interpretations were not idiosyncratic or biased, coding was conducted in pairs with the lead author coding all interviews. We did not attempt to resolve coding differences. Instead, coders reached initial agreement on the definition of each code, and multiple codes were assigned to each passage of text to allow for flexible, yet consistent, data interpretation (Anfara, Brown, & Mangione, 2002). In the third stage of analysis, we developed an in-depth narrative profile for each participant using coded interview Alverson et al. data, field notes, and file review records. The profiles included detailed descriptions of family, high school transition, and college experiences supported by direct quotes from the data sources. After completing in-depth, participant profiles, we used explanatory methods to compare and contrast common or unique qualities and experiences across participants. Cross-case analysis was used to confirm patterns and document themes related to the transition to college (Bazeley, 2009; Miles et al., 2013). Findings Our interviews with young adults, parents, and service providers provided in-depth perspectives on the transition from high school to college for five individuals with AS. All five participants enrolled in college with varying degrees of success. Participants identified multiple challenges, especially in the areas of social skills, communication, and executive functioning skills. These challenges were evident in high school and persisted into college settings. Our descriptive findings are presented in three parts: (a) participant profiles, including family status and initial disability diagnosis for each participant, (b) high school and transition services, and (c) early college experiences. We conclude the section with a presentation of the cross-case themes that seemed to influence postsecondary enrollment and retention across cases. Participant Profiles Brent. Brent grew up with his mother and younger brother in an urban community. Brent’s mom described his early elementary years as difficult as he had intense temper tantrums: “Grade school was definitely something. We were sent to somebody for a diagnosis on the average of once per year.” He received several diagnoses in elementary school, including attention deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). As Brent aged, he had difficulty with hygiene and organization. In sixth grade, his mom enrolled him in a military school, where he thrived within a system of structure and specific expectations. He had high grades and followed the strict dress and hygiene requirements. Brent attended a nonprofit, public, charter high school. Although he continued to have an IEP, his transition specialist described the nature of the charter school as one in which “he was accepted into their community and they kind of tossed out all disability. He was just sort of viewed as an individual.” During high school, Brent’s IEP was based on eligibility for a specific learning disability in written expression. Observations by the transition specialist led to an evaluation for ASD and a medical diagnosis of AS at age 18. Having resisted previous diagnoses, his mom supported the AS diagnosis, “The Asperger’s thing, the more I learned, the more I know it’s like uh huh, the light bulbs! Oh, that explains it!” 55 Jeff. Jeff grew up with his mother after his parents divorced when he was a young child. Jeff’s mom described knowing early that he was not developing like other babies. She noted he did not cry for food as her older son had, explore his environment, or respond when his name was called. He expressed strong preferences for certain textures on his skin, sometimes refusing to wear clothes. When Jeff was about 3 years old, a doctor suggested he had a mild intellectual disability (ID) and referred him to the school system for evaluation. Mom indicated he was diagnosed as ID based on initial testing. Jeff was diagnosed with ASD around age 4. In the early elementary years, he had difficulty following directions, spoke with two-word utterances, and exhibited aggressive behaviors especially when people were “in his space.” When Jeff entered sixth grade, his mom began homeschooling him, saying she worried that kids would tease him and “[middle school] was just a different environment and I just felt it was better that he would just stay home.” Jeff was homeschooled via online programs until age 18 when he enrolled in a post–high school transition program. Hunter. Hunter grew up with elderly parents in a rural community. He was the youngest of five children. As a young child, Hunter was given a variety of medications to control his behavior. His mom described how some medications made him hyper and some made him “like a zombie” until she finally said, “no more medications.” In elementary school, he was diagnosed with ADD and struggled to focus and control his behavior; these years were not easy for Hunter. He described some of the difficulties he had as “not really concentrating on anything, or paying attention or caring. People described me as a tyrant. Pretty much every day I wound up in the principal’s office daily for being in trouble, usually for doing something; usually hitting people.” In fifth grade, Hunter was evaluated for special education services but was determined to be “too smart for help.” Midyear, his parents withdrew him from public school and enrolled him in an online, homeschool program. He was diagnosed with AS at the age of 17 by the developmental pediatrician he was seeing for anger issues and depression. Irvin. Irvin grew up with his parents and younger sister in an urban community. His ... Purchase answer to see full attachment