Fluent Essays

DETAILS INSIDE...... STUDENT REPLIES STUDENT #1 Brody Hicks How does geographical location impact opioid addiction, and how are people impacted by opioid addiction get started on abusing these drugs? This is my research question I aim to study. If I began presenting this information to a group of colleagues and students that may not be as well versed in statistical analysis, I would begin by breaking down my research question so it’s easy to understand. For example, I might have many maps and diagrams allowing the audience to easily follow along without getting distracted. A pie charge, a diagram of a map, would be implemented into my research presentation to help the audience better understand what I am trying to show. My diagrams would break down the different type of locations I was studying. For example, I would have a graph showing the difference between rural and urban living environments with statistics to go along with them. Lastly, I would make sure my audience knew what I was trying to accomplish before leaving. I feel like many times when you listen to a presentation, you can leave the classroom more confused. During each segment of my presentation, I would give a “take away” moment to further show what I was trying to accomplish. Reference Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2013). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice. STUDENT REPLIES STUDENT REPLIES #2 William Kellogg Since my research topic is on theft from autos in our jurisdiction it is a narrow field to cover. Therefore, I’m relying on reported crime and the initial officers main report for the data. If I want to show time of day, day of week, and time of year most of these thefts occurred I cannot display all this data at once, as it would be to confusing. (Bachman & Schutt 2019) I would need to break it down into tables and graphs for the audience to better understand when I present it to them. References Bachman, R.D., & Schutt, R. K. (2019). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Chapter 16, “Summarizing and Reporting Research” (pp. 472-492) https://class.content.laureate.net/55ecada96feeb8a92fd8fabf0056cb1d.pdf PROFESSOR REPLY THIS IS THE PROFESSOR RESPONDING BACK TO THE CLASS DISCUSSION YOU COMPLETE JUST COMPETED PLEASE REPLY BACK…...THANKS While presenting a message of hope and positivity to the community, what numerical measures would you use to provide this information? Take Test: Quiz - Week 5 PLEASE RESEARCH EACH ANSWER FOR THE QUIZ QUESTIONS VERY CARFULLY AND HIGHLIGHT THEM IN RED ALSO JUST TO LET YOU KNOW I HAVE FAILED THE LAST 3 QUIZEZ BY GETTING 2 OR 3 WRONG SO REALLY PAY CLOSE ATTENTION TO YOUR ANSWERES THANKS…. QUESTION 1 Reverse outlining when preparing a research report means: A. Outlining a draft of the report paragraph by paragraph B. Writing the executive summary after completing the report C. Shifting back matter, such as bibliographical information, into the body of the report D. Reorganizing the report after critiquing the original research proposal QUESTION 2 The different goals of researcher, research sponsor, subjects, and study audience: A. Are usually in conflict so that the most important consideration remains the researchers goals B. Are usually consistent so that there is little to worry about when balancing each of these goals C. Have in recent years become an integral part of the reporting process itself D. Have been exaggerated so much that researchers no longer pay attention to them QUESTION 3 A researcher conducts a study of racial tensions in a correctional setting. He identifies different interest groups, interviews members of these different groups, talks with interviewees about the issues raised by other interviewees, and attempts to reach consensus on issues on which there is disagreement. The research exemplifies: A. The constructivist paradigm B. Normal science C. Participatory action research D. Quantitative research QUESTION 4 The most unique aspect of the preparation of an academic journal article is the: A. Need for approval by more than one person B. Peer-review process C. Interest of stakeholders in the research findings D. Feedback that is possible on early drafts QUESTION 5 Which of the following is good advice for writing research reports? A. Avoid a discussion section before the conclusion section. B. Revise several times, if possible. C. Ensure that each paragraph focuses on multiple topics. D. Stick to the organization that you outlined in the proposal. QUESTION 6 An ethical research report should include all but which of the following? A. Identification of the research sponsors B. A description of every change made in the plans after the fact C. Acknowledgement of the staff who made major contributions D. Coauthors listed in the order agreed on in advance QUESTION 7 A discussion section: A. Recites the literature and the relationship of the study findings to the literature B. Discusses the ethical implications of the study and calls for further research C. Summarizes study methods in order to lay the basis for the conclusion section D. Summarizes the evidence with respect to the theoretical framework of the study QUESTION 8 Which section of a journal article concisely describes the research problem, the sample, the method, and the findings? A. Abstract B. Introduction C. Method D. Results QUESTION 9 Social scientists who believe that there should be a strict separation between the determination of empirical facts as satisfactory and unsatisfactory also believe that: A. Value considerations should guide most decisions about research design. B. Values may motivate the selection of a research problem to study. C. Scientists may get their research reviewed by human subjects’ committees. D. It is not possible to implement this belief in actual practice in any meaningful way. QUESTION 10 Compressed frequency displays in research reports: A. Eliminate unnecessary percentages and repetitive tables B. Obscure the entire range of variation in variables C. Are a graphic alternative to frequency distributions D. Are acceptable only for displaying summary statistics Assignment: Presentation of Criminal Justice Research and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) PLEASE FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS TO PUT THIS PAPER TOGETHER YOU CAN ALSO USE OUTSIDE REFERENCES AS WELL I HAVE ATTACHED A REWRITE PAPER TO HELP GUIDE YOU IN PUTTING THIS ONE TOGETHER. AND I HAVE ALSO ATTACHED ALL OF THE READING MATERIALS FOR YOU IF YOU NEED THEM TO HELP YOU ALSO…...THANKS A simple map is a basic representation of space—boundaries, a route, and landmarks. You may consider it to be two-dimensional. However, maps can also be considered many layered representations of data or information. They can show connections, relationships, patterns over time, or many other attributes intended to communicate about the factors influencing a given space. Crime is one of those attributes. And when considering crime as a layer, many other attributes can be examined to discover connections between crime, its causes, and its patterns. In this Assignment, you combine your ongoing research presentation skill building with a consideration of crime mapping. Submit a chart and/or graph as directed in Part I, and in 500 words, address the prompts in Part II. Part I: Visual Representation Locate the most recent crime statistics for your hometown or a nearby area. (AUSTIN TX OR YOUR CHOICE) Create a chart or graph to help you present the crime data. Note the distribution of crimes based on the statistics you found. Be sure to properly cite the data source. Part II: Narrative Analysis Locate a police department within your state or a neighboring state that utilizes crime mapping technology. Explain how this technology is either being used or could be used to address the crimes you highlighted in your graph or chart. Explain how crime mapping could be utilized as a tool for law enforcement and other criminal justice professionals to help reduce and prevent crime. Explain how another technology could help in researching or preventing crime in tandem with or in addition to crime mapping, explain how. Explain how the presentation of crime mapping data and one’s understanding of that data affect a police officer’s daily experience on the job. Explain how the presentation of crime mapping data and one’s understanding of that data affect citizens’ understanding of their communities. Be sure to support your thoughts using the crime data you collected along with the Learning Resources from this week. Submit the graph or chart you created along with your response to the questions for this assignment. 1 Crime Data Map [Part I: Visual Representation] Your Name Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice, Walden University CRJS-3004: Data Analysis for Criminal Justice Professionals John Walker May 16, 2021 This study source was downloaded by 100000800531006 from CourseHero.com on 08-07-2021 14:32:43 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/94047523/WK5AssgnPart1Crime-Mapdocx/ Th is stu dy re so ur ce w as sh ar ed v ia C ou rs eH er o. co m 2 Crime Data Map Part I: Visual Representation On May 09, 2021, the crime data within a two-mile radius of my address was: Assault/Battery: (6)  3300 Block S. Valley View Blvd.  4500 Block Pennwood Ave.  6100 Block W. Charleston Blvd.  6100 Block W. Charleston Blvd.  1600 Block Community College Dr.  3700 Block El Conlon Ave. Disturbing the Peace: (6)  4600 Block Sirus Ave.  7000 Block Spring Mountain Rd.  2900 Block El Camino Rd.  3600 Block W. Sahara Ave.  6100 Block W. Charleston Blvd.  1600 Block DaVilla St. Burglary: (2)  2300 Block S. Valley View Blvd.  2600 Block S. Decatur Blvd. Stolen Motor Vehicle: (4)  Pamplona St./Bonillo Dr.  5300 Block Pioneer Ave.  6200 Block W. Charleston Blvd.  1900 Block S. Decatur Blvd. Vandalism: (0)  None Robbery: (1)  4500 Block Sparky Dr. (TriTech Software Systems, 2021). Crime Map: Number of Crimes (Sum) This study source was downloaded by 100000800531006 from CourseHero.com on 08-07-2021 14:32:43 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/94047523/WK5AssgnPart1Crime-Mapdocx/ Th is stu dy re so ur ce w as sh ar ed v ia C ou rs eH er o. co m 3 Part I: Visual Representation Schnobrich, B. (2021). Crime data map: Las Vegas, NV 89146 [Infographic]. Excel 2016 Crime Data Graph for Number of Crimes from May 09-11, 2021 Vandalism Indecent Exposure Stolen Motor Vehicle Stolen Motor Vehicle Burglary Assault/Battery Disturbing the Peace Disturbing the Peace 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Number of Crimes for 5/9-5/11/2021 Schnobrich, B. (2021). Crime data: 5/9-5/11/2021. [Bar Graph]. Excel 2016. References This study source was downloaded by 100000800531006 from CourseHero.com on 08-07-2021 14:32:43 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/94047523/WK5AssgnPart1Crime-Mapdocx/ Th is stu dy re so ur ce w as sh ar ed v ia C ou rs eH er o. co m 4 TriTech Software Systems. (2021, May 09). Crime mapping: 2301 Redwood St. Las Vegas, Nv. 89146. Retrieved from https://www.crimemapping.com/map/location/2301\%20Redwood\%20St,\%20Las\%20Ve gas,\%20NV,\%2089146,\%20USA?id=dHA9MCNsb2M9MTA3OTcyNDEjbG5nPTM0I2 huPTIzMDEjbGJzPTEwOTo1MTA0MTA1MA==#. This study source was downloaded by 100000800531006 from CourseHero.com on 08-07-2021 14:32:43 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/94047523/WK5AssgnPart1Crime-Mapdocx/ Th is stu dy re so ur ce w as sh ar ed v ia C ou rs eH er o. co m Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) Crime mapping: fimUraphiral nrappinU *lrat*{t}ies u$*d i* visr.raliz* a n i: rn i:r r *f th i rrg*, inr,l*rJing t*t:ttirs*,tl i gtiln * t, an d paitcrns *f *rim* a*tlrh*ir t;*rr*lat**, Geographic information system (GIS): Th* srfnvar*tts*llhnl lsx.* nadrt *rir** r*xpfiirt# i n * r *,o,*tn *t,l au ail aYsl * t* r***arther* sitrc* ihe i*#**, The size of the shapes in the graphs (e.g., circles, diamonds) indicate the degree of between- ness centrality. The highest-scoring individual at the beginning of the investigation was Melvyn Foster, who is represented by the square containing the large diamond in the Exhibit 1 1.3A. By 18 months, however, Gary Leon Ridgway becomes more noticeable (depicted by the shaded triangle in the second box). Unfortunately, the task force did not focus on Ridgeway but contin- ued to focus exclusively on Foster. Bichler and her colleagues concluded, It is hard to know in hindsight if these results would sway the organization momenflrm that led investigators to focus on Foster to the exclusion of Ridgway. . . . It might have prevented the working hypothesis from solidiiring so early on in the investigation by encouraging members of the Green River Killer Task Force to pay greater attention to GaryLeon Ridgway. While this research cannot predict what would have happened had SNA been available then, it cerainly highlights the utility of SNA for investigative purposes today. We move on next to a research technique that is frequendy being used for predictive purposes in law enforce- ment. CRIME MAPPING Many of us have adopted an image of crime mapping that involves a police precinct wall with pushpins stuck all over it identif.ing the location of crime incidents. Shows such as Tlte Wire, Tlte Dimict, and episodes of CSI have also presented the drama behind the use of crime mapping in generating crime counts within various police beats. Crime mapping for intelligenceJed policing has been increasing in the past few decades, but crime mapping for research purposes has a very long history; it is generally used to identifiz the spatial distribu- tion of crime along with the social indicators such as poverty and social fisorganization that are similarly distributed across areas (e.g., neighborhood, census tract). Boba (2009) defines crime mapping as othe process of using a geographic information s,stem (GIS) to conduct special analysis of crime problems and other police-related issues (7). She also describes the three main functions of crime mapping: 1 . It provides visual and statistical analyses of the spatial nature of crime and other events. 2. It allows the linkage of crime data to other data sources, such as census information on poyerty or school information, which allows relationships among variables to be esablished. l. It provides maps to visually communicate analysis results. Although applied crime mapping similar to this has been used for over one hundred years to assist the police in criminal apprehension and crime prevention, the advent of computing technology has enabled crime mapping to become an advanced form of statistical data analysis. The geographic information system (GIS) is the software tool that has made crime mapping increasingly available to researchers since the 1990s. Today, crime mapping is being used by the majority of urban law enforcement agen- cies to identifiz crimg hot spots (Caplan and Kennedy 2015). Hot spots are geospatial loca- tions within jurisdictions where crimes are more likely to occur compared to other areas. Being able to understand where crime is more likely to occur helps agencies deploy resources more effectively, especially for crime prevention purposes. These hot spots can be specific addresses, blocts, or even clusters of blocks @ck et al. 2005). Of course, crime mapping data with insight from criminological theory is the ideal. fu Eck and his colleagues explain, Crime TOPICAL RESEARCH DESIGNS334 SECTION IV theories are critical for useful crime mapping because they aid interpreation of daa and provide guidance as to vrhat actions are most appropriate (3). This is important because the ability to undersand why crimes are occurring has a great deal to do with underlying factors related to the environment in which they occur. Kennedy, Caplan andPiza (2012) provide a very illuminating example: A sole analytical focus on crime hotspots is like observing that children frequently play at the same place every day and then calling that place a hotspot for children playing, but without acknowledging the presence of swings, slides, and open fields-features of the place (i.e., suggestive of a playground) that attract children there instead of other locations absent such entertaining feattres. Q4546) Through various qrmbols, maps can communicate a great deal of information. Exhibit 11.4, which was published by the National Institute ofJustice, displays some common symbols used by crime analysts (Eck et al. 2005). As the map shows, dots (A) point to specific places where crime is likely to occur, a crime site @ and C) indicates where crime is equally likely to occur within a panicular site, and a crime gradient (D) indicates that the probability of crime is most likely inside the site and decreases as you move toward the edge of the site. CHAPTER 11 . SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS, CRIME MAPPING, AND BIG DATA 335 fennifer A. Herbert, MA, Grime Intelligence Analyst, Grime Analysis and Strategic Evaluation Unit Source: Courtesy of Jennifer A. Herbert Jennifer Herbert gradu- ated with a double maj or in political sci- ence and justice stud- ies from James Madison University in 2007 . She had aspirations of becoming a police offi- cer and eventually a detective. She was hired as a police officer after graduation, but she real- ized while at the police academy that she wanted to pursue the crime analysis career path in law enforce- ment. She became a crime analyst at Chesterfield County Police Department in Virginia. While work- ing full time as an analyst, Jennifer pursued a mas- ters degree in intelligence at the American Military University. She then accepted a promotion to crime intelligence analyst at Henrico County Police Division. After working as a crime analyst for six years, Jennifer cannot imagine doing anything else. Every day is different when working as a crime intelligence analyst. Some days, Herbert analyzes phone records and maps a suspects whereabouts dur- ing the time of a crime. Other days, she maps the lat- est residential burglary trend and predicts where the next burglary will occur. She also completes research projects that examine quality-of-life issues for the community, including estimating crimes per 1,000 residents by neighborhood. Herberts role as a crime analyst is equally important in preventing crime and in helping patrol officers to apprehend offenders. She thinks the most rewarding part of her job is helping people who have been victimi zed by ,pprehending offenders and improving the quality of life for county residents. Jennifer has some good advice for students interested in careers involving analysis: If crime analysis interests you, ask your local police department if you can do an intern- ship (paid or unpaid) to gain experience. Be sure to network with other crime analysts and let them know you are interested in pursuing a career in crime analysis. Courses in all forms of data analysis and GIS (geo- graphic information systems) are almost essential to a career in crime analysis. Even if you did not take GIS classes during your undergraduate studies, many community colleges offer introductory and advanced classes in GIS. Other qualifications that wilt help you stand out as an applicant include competency in basic statistics and profi- ciency in data analysis programs, including Microsoft Excel, Access, and SPSS. Chance of crime being part of pattern is high at site, but zero at other places. Everywhere outside the chance of being a crime site that is part of the pattern is zero. Everywhere inside is equally Iikely to be a crime site that is part of the pattern. Chance of a site being Part of the pattern changes radically at the edge. Source: Eck et al. 2005, Exhibit 3. CASE STUDY Gradient indicates that the probability of being a crime site that is part of the Pattern varies from low near the edge to high near the center. Chance of crime site being part of pattern is equal anywhere along street segments, and zero elsewhere. Social Disorganization and the Chicago School fu we noted earlier, crime mapping for general research purposes has a long history in crimi- nological research. Although they were not the first to use crime mapping, Shaw and McKay 1tl+i; conducted a landmark analysis in criminology on juvenile delinquency in Chicago neighborhoods back in the 1 93 0s. These researchers mapped thousands of incidents of iuve- nll. dli.,qoncy and analyzed relationships between delinquenry and various social condi- tions such as social disorganization. After analyzing rates of police arrests for delinquenry, Shaw and McKayused police iecords to determine the names and addresses of those arrested in Chicago between L927 and 1935. They observed a striking pattern that persisted over the years, as shown in Exhibit 11.5. Exhibit 11.5 displays one of the maps Shaw and McKay (1942) created that illumi- nates the spatial disuibution of delinquenry within concentric circles of Chicago that spread out io the suburbs from the citys center. As noted in Exhibit 11.5, there is a linear dicrease in rates of delinquenry as the distance from the Loop (city center) increases. When rares of other community characteristics were similarly mapped (e.g, infant mor- taliry tuberculosis cases, percentage of families who own their own homes, percentage of TOPICAL RESEARCH DESIGNS336 SECTION IV ExhibitTL.4 Symbols Used in Grime Maps foreign-born residents, percentage of families on relief), the conclusions rilrere obvious. Shaw and McKay concluded, It may be observed, in the first instance, that the variations in rates of officially recorded delinquents in communities of the city correspond very closely with varia- tions in economic status. The communities with the highest rates of delinquents are occupied by these segments of the population whose position is most disadvantageous in relation to the distribution of economic, social, and cultural values. Of all the com- munities in the city, these have the fewest facilities for acquiring the economic goods indicative of status and success in our conventional culture. . . . In the low-income areas, where there is the greatest deprivation and frustration, where, in the history of the city, immigrant and migrant groups have brought together the widest variety ofdivergent cultural traditions and institutions, and where there exists the greatest disparity between the social values to which the people aspire and the availability of facilities for acquiring these values in conventional ways, the development of crime as an organized way of life is most marked. (3 18-19) 6.6 4.3 3.9 6.1 LL J I T F :f o U) tr o LL U) LU F E, B. Zone rates of police arrests, 1927 Source: Shaw and McKay 1942. CHAPTER 11 . SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS, CRIME MAPPING, AND BIG DATA 337 Exhibit 11.5 Zone Rates of Police Arrests in Ghicag or 1937 W ENTIRE | 7.8 I rr FOR 4.3 ilt I ntelligence-led policing: iJsing data, analysis, anrl r:rininal tfuerrry t* uuirJ* # *ii r: * ali * r:ati * n anr| decisi*n making, CASE STUDY Predicting Break and Entries (BNEs) Contemporary researchers and law enforcement ofEcials interested in issues related to crime and criminology have access to more sophisticated computer technology that allows for the creation of more enhanced crime maps. In fact, the easy availability of mapping tools, includ- ing mobile GIS technology, is providing many more opportunities for intelligence-led policing, which includes using data, analysis, and criminal theory . . . to guide police alloca- tion and decision making @itterer, Nelson, and Nathoo 2015, l2l). The purpose of crime maps, however, remains the same: to illuminate the relationship between categories of crime and corresponding characteristics such as poverty and disorganization across given locations. Break and entries (BNE ) are one type of crime that are patterned; in facg one of the things we know about them is that the probability of a repeat BNE increases for either the original BNE site andlor for homes near it for several weels after the original BNE. To deter- mine the effectiveness of mapping in predicting residential and commercial BNEs, Fitterer and her colleagues (2015) used daa from the Vancouver Police Districts (VPD) alongside data on other characteristics ofthe districts, including variables such as population density, property values, dominant housing types, and street Iight density. UsingBNEdatabylocation,hour,day,month,andyearfrom200l to2}l2,rheresearch- ers then created a map of the Vancouver area composed of 200m by 200m grids, placing the data within each grid. For example, Exhibit 11.6 displays the map depicting residential BNE hot spots for the time period. The goal of their research, however, was not merely to describe the BNE data but to use data from the early time period to predict later occurrences of BNEs. For example, Fitterer and her colleagues found that the probability of a repeat BNE occur- ring up to 850m from the originating BNE increased 53/ for the next 24 hours after the first event. While there was still an increase in the likelihood of near BNEs over time, this increased risk decreased to 24\% after a week of the original BNE. Imporandy, the propor- tion of historical crime did significandy predict future crime. The authors concluded, We found [that] both residential and commercial crimes had a strong spatial cluster- ing over short time periods, suggesting a near-repeat offense dynamic . . . [indicating] that perpetrators prefer to reoffend where they have local knowledge about residents routine activities, possessions, and can confirm successful property entry. (130) Residential BNE Hot Spots Quadratic Density * 100,000 ffio-21 w22- 46 Effi47 - 82 w83 - 138 E 139 - 247 Source: Adapted from Fitterer et aI. (2015), Figure 9, page 129. 338 SECT!ON !V . TOPICAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Exhibit 11.6 Vancouvers 2OOL-2O11, Break and Enter Hot Spot Map for Residential Break-Ins CASE STUDY Using Google Earth to Track Sexual Offending Recidivism While the GIS software that was utilized by Fitterer et al. (2015) has many research advan- tages for displaying the spatial distributions of crime, other researchers have begun to take advantage of other mapping tools, including Google Earth. One such endeavor was con- ducted by Duwe, Donnay, and Tewksbury (2008), who sought to determine the effects of Minnesotas residency restriction statute on the recidivism behavior of registered sex offend- ers. Many states have passed legislation that restricts where sex offenders are allowed to live. These policies are primarily intended to protect children from child molesters by deterring direct contact with schools, day care centers, parls, and so on. Most of these statutes are applied to all sex offenders, regardless oftheiroffendinghistory or perceived risk ofreoffense. The impact of such laws on sexual recidivism, however, remains unclear. Duwe et al. (2008) attempted to fill this gap in our ftnowledge. They examinedZ}4 sexaffenders who had been reincarcerated for a new sex offense between 1990 and 2005 and asked several research questions, including Where did offenders initially establish contact with their victims, and where did they commit the offense? and What were the physical distances between an offenders residence and both the offense and first contact locations? (488). The research- ers used Google Earth to calculate the distance between an offenders place of residence, the place where first contact with the victim occurred, and the location of offense. Duwe and his colleagues (2008) investigated four criteria to classifir a reoffense as pre- ventable: (1) the means by which offenders established contact with their victims, (2) the CHAPTER 11 . SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS, CRIME MAPPING, AND BIG DATA 339 ,ffid; ,ffiffit#.$ Objectives nL. Describe the three basic goals of research reports. ; Identify unique problems that must be overcome in writing student papers, theses, applied research reports, and journal articles. J List the major sections of a research article. ,- Describe the eiements that should be considered in writing research reports to ensure adherence to the ethical standard of honesty. ) Discuss the motivations for plagiarism and the ways to avoid suspicions of plagiarism. i- Identify major steps in the review of research reports. 7 Understand the need to display results without redundant information using compressed displays. Vo, learned in Chapter 2 thatresearch is a circular process, so it is appropri- I ate that we end this book where we began. The stage of reporting research results is also the point at which the need for new research is identified. It is the time when, so to speak, the rubber hits the road-when we have to make our research make sense to others. To whom will our research be addressed? How should we present our results to them? Should we seek to influence how our research report is used? The primary goals of this chapter are to guide you in writing worthwhile reports of your own, displaying findings, and communicating with the public about research. This chapter gives particular attention to the writing process itself and points out how that process can differ when writing qualitative ver- sus quantitative research reports. We highlight the goals of research reports, including expanding the discussion of participatory action research (PAR), which we introduced in Chapter 1. We will conclude by considering some of the ethical issues unique to the reporting process, with special attention to the problem of plagiarism. The goal of research is not only to discover something but to communi- cate that discovery to a larger audience-other social scientists, government officials, your teachers, the general public-perhaps several of these audiences. Whatever the studys particular outcome, if the research report enables the intended audience to comprehend the results and learn from them, the research can be judged a success. If the intended audience is not able to learn about the studys results, the research should be judged a failure no matter how much it cost to conduct it, how sophisticated its design, or how much of yourself you invested in it. This conclusion may seem obvious and perhaps a bit unnecessary. After all, you may think that all researchers write up their results for other people to read. But the fact is that many research projects fail to produce a research report. Sometimes the problem is that the research is poorly designed to begin with and cannot be carried out in a satisfactory manner; sometimes unantici- pated difficulties derail a viable project. But too often, the researcher just never gets around to writing a report. And then there are many research reports that are very incomplete or poorly written or that speak to only one of several interested audiences. The failure may not be complete, but the projects fuIl potential is not achier.ed. 47:,z SUMMARIZI NG AND REPORTING RESEARCH RESEARCH REPORT GOALS The research report will present research findings and interpretations in a way that reflects some combination of the researchers goals, the research sponsors goals, the concerns of the research subjects, and perhaps the con- cerns of a wider anticipated readership. Understanding the goals of these different groups will help the researcher begin to shape the final report even at the start of the research. In designing a proposal and in negotiating access to a setting for the research, com- mitments often must be made to produce a particular type of report or at least cover certain issues in the final report. As the research progresses, feedback about the research from is participants, sponsoring agencies, collaborators, or other interested parties may suggest the importance offocusing on particular issues in the final report. Social researchers tradition- ally have tried to distance themselves from the concerns of such interested parties, payrng attention only to what is needed to advance scientific knowledge. But in recent years, some social scientists have recommended bringing these interested parties into the research and the reporting process itself. Advance Scientifi c Knowled ge Most social science research reports are directed to other social scientists working in the area of study so they reflect orientations and concerns that are shared within this community of interest. The traditional scientific approach encourages a research goal to advance scientific knowledge by providing reports to other scientists. This approach also treats value consid- erations as beyond the scope of science: An empirical science cannot tell anyone what he should do but rather what he can do and under certain circumstances what he wishes to do (Weber 19+9,5+). The idea is that developing valid knowledge about how society is organized or how we live our lives does not tell us how society should be organized or howwe should live our lives. There should, as a result, be a srict separation between the determination of empirical facts and the evaluation of these facts as satisfactory or unsatisfactory (Weber 1949). Social scien- tists must not ignore value considerations, which are viewed as a legitimate basis for selecting a research problem to study. After the research is over and a report has been vritten, many scientists also consider it acceptable to encourage govefilment offrcials or private organiza- tions to implement the findings. During a research project, howeveq value considerations are to be held in abeyance. Shape Social Policy As we highlighted in our discussion of applied research in Chapter 12, many social scientists seekto influence social policy bywriting abouttheir research. Bynow,you have been exposed to examples ofseveral such studies in this text, including all the evaluation research (Chapter 12). These particular studies, like much policy-oriented social science research, are similar to those that aim stricdy to increase knowledge. In fact, these studies might even be considered CHAPTER 16 . SUMMARIZING AND REPORTTNG RESEARCH 473 Participatory action research (PAR): &i,;p* *i, r***arch in ,vhich th* r***ar*h*r inu*iv*s **m{j fr r t} ilt\ t z*ti rs t e il m * r*ls t r; *.r, a$i,t * rSarti r:i pa*ls tltr *utrt?t*Ltt i*rt P ro * c s s c f stt: dtiifi fi an rs r #anizati ** ; tLt * U*al i* ntakmg rfisa*u*,t i* tli* rsr*a*iruii*n. contributions to lnowledge first and to social poliry debate second. What distinguishes the reports of these studies from stricdy academic reports is their attention to policy implications. Other social scientists who seek to influence social policy explicidy reject the tradi- tional scientific, rigid distinction between facts and values (Sjoberg and Nett 1968). Bellah et al. (1985) have instead proposed a model of social science as public philosophy, in which social scientists focus explicit attention on achieving a more just society. Social science makes assumptions about the nature of persons, the nature of society, and the relation between persons and society. It also, whether it admits it or not, makes assumptions about good per- sons and a good society and considers how far these conceptions are embodied in our actual society. Social science as public philosophy, by breaking tlrough the iron curtain between the social sciences and the humanities, becomes a form of social self-understanding or self-interpretation. . . . By probing the past as well as the present, by looking atoval- ues as much as at facts, such a social science is able to make connections that are not obvious and to ask difEcult questions. (301) This perspective suggests more explicit concern with public poliry implications when reporting research results. But it is important to remember that we all are capable of distorting our research and our interpreations ofresearch results to cor:respond to our own value prefer- ences. The temptation to see what we want to see is enormous, and research reports cannot be deemed acceptable unless they avoid this temptation. Organize Social Action-Participatory Action Research For the same reasons that value questions are traditionally set apart from the research process, many social scientists consider the application of research a nonscientific concern. Whyte (1943), whose Street Corner Society studyyottencountered in Chapter 9, has criticized this belief and proposed an alternative research and reporting strategy he calls participatory action research (PAR). \ 4ryte (1991) argues that social scientists must get out of the academic rut and engage in applied research to develop a better understanding ofsocial phenomena. In PAR, the researcher involves some members of the setting studied as active partici- pans. Both the organizational members and the researcher are assumed to lyant to develop valid conclusions, to bring unique insighs, and to desire change, but Whyte (1991) believed that these objectives were more likely to be obained if the researcher collaborated actively with the persons he studied. PAR can bring researchers into closer contact with participans in the research setting through groups that discuss and plan research steps and then ake steps to implement research findings. Kemmis and McTaggart (2005) summarize the key features of PAR research as oa spiral of self-reflecting rycles involving o planning a change, o acting and observing the process and consequences ofthe change, o reflectingon these processes and consequences, . replanning, and . actingandobservingagain. In contrastwith the formal reporting ofresults at the end of a research project, these rycles make research reporting an ongoing part ofthe research process. 414 sECTroN v . AFTER THE DATA ARE coLLECTED CASE STUDY Seeking Higher Education for lnmates While prison populations in the United States have been significandy increasing, access to college programs within prisons has been essentially eliminated. Primarily because of the tough on crime policies of the 1990s, by 1995 , only eight of the previously existing 3 50 col- lege programs in prisons remained open nationwide (Torre and Fine 2005). To remedy this situation, Jbrre and Fine became involved in PAR to facilitate a college and college-bound program at the Bedford Hills Correctional Facility (BHCF), a maximum-security womens prison in NewYork. Jb conduct a study of the effects of the program, Fine was the principal investigator, along with four prisoner researchers and four researchers from the Graduate Center of the City University of Nevr York. This participatory research team asked several questions: (a) Who are the women in the college program? @) What is the impact of the college experience on inmate students and their children? (c) What is the impact of the col- lege experience on the prison environment? (d) What is the impact of the college experience beyond college on recidivism? (e) What is the cost of such a program to taxpayers? The researchers used a triangulated methodology employing quantitative analysis of recidivism rates and costs of the program along with in-depth interviews with the participants; focus groups with inmates, faoalty, children, and college presidents; and surveys of faculty who aught in the program. Although they were not using a randomized experimental design, Torre and Fine, along with their coinvestigators, tracked participants in the college program after release and found that women who had not participated in the program were four times more likely to be returned to custody than women who participated. The narratives from the interviews with college inmates also illuminated the benefits of the education. One inmate college student said, Because when you ake somebody that feels that theyre not gonna amount to anything, and you put them in an environment, like, when youre in college it takes you away from the prison, . . . its like youre openingyour mind to a whole different experience. (582) The positive impact of college on the inmates was also transferred to their children. The cost+enefit analysis of the program indicated that the savings based on decreased recidivism rates for those who attended the college far outweighed the initial cost of the program iself. In sum, with a small grant from a private foundation, the PAR team brought together univer- sities, prisoners, churches, community organizations, and prison administrators to resurrect a college at BHCEThe authors concluded, Key elements of this program include broad-based community involvement, strong prisoner participation in design and governance, and the support of the prison administration (591). fu you can see, PAR has the potential to be life changing for all involved! Dialogue With Research Subjects Guba and Lincoln (1989) have carried the notion of involving research subjects and others in the design and reporting of research one step firrther. What they call the constnrctivist para- digm is a methodology that emphasizes the importance of exploring how different stakehold- ers in a social setting construct their beliefs. As we noted in Chapter 1, this approach rejecs the assumption that there is a reality around us to be studied and reported on. Instead, social scientists operating in the constructivist paradigm try to develop a consensus among partici- pants in some social process about how to understand the focus of inquiry which is often a Constructivist paradiUm: f!,eth*rful*ilv i: a g * d t n r*iy*lir:* *t b*li*f in a* *v.i*r*al r*alit,i; it efirtlha$iies the importitnce *f eirplori*g ihe lvay in*ihicli *itt*r**t stak*hfi ld€ r$ i rT fi. scrial scttinU coilstruct thsir hrli*f s. CHAPTER 16 o SUMMARIZING AND REPORTING RESEARCH 475 social program that the scientist is evaluating. A research report will then highlight different views ofthe social program and explain how a consensus can be reached. The constructivist approach provides a usefirl way of thinking about how to best make sense of the complexity and subjectivity of the social world. Other researchers write reports intended to influence public policy, and often, their findings are ignored. Such neglect would be less common if social researchers gave more attention to the different meanings attached by participants to the same events in the spirit of constructivist case reports. The philosophlr ofthis approach is also similar to the utilization-based evaluation research approach advanced by Patton (1997; see Chapter 12) that involves all stakeholders in the research process. WRITING IS NOT EASY! Perfectionism is the voice of the oppressor, the enemy of the people. It will keep you cramped and insane your whole life and it is the main obstaile bttr.r yoo ,rd , shitty first draft. (I-amott 1994,28) We often hear lamentations from students such as, It is impossible to know where to begin or oI have a hard time getting started. To this we say Begin wherever you are most comfortable but begin early! You do not have to start with the introduction; start in the method section if you prefer. The main point is to begin somewhere and then keep typing, keep typing, and keep typinsl It is always easier to rewrite a paper than it is to write the first draft. The fine art of writing is really in the rewritingl Those of you who began with a research proposal have a head start; you will find that the final report is much easier to write. It is very disappointing to discover that something important was Ieft out when it is too late to do anything about it. We do not need to point out that students (and professional researchers) often leave final papers (and reports) until the last possible minute (often for understandable reasons, including other course work and job or family responsibilities). But be forewarned: The last-minute approach does not work! Successful research reporting requires both good writing and a proper publication out- let. We will first review guidelines for successful writing before we look at particular types of research publications. Consider the following principles formulated by experienced writers @ooth, Colomb, andWlliams 1995): Respect the complexity of the task and dont expect to write a polished draft in a linear fashion. Your thinking will develop as you write, causing you to reorganize and rewrite. Leave enough time for dead ends, resafts, revisions, and so on, and accept the fact that you will discard much of what you write. Write as fast as you comforably can. Dont wory about spelling, grammar, and so on until you are polishing things up. fuk anyone whom you trust for reactions to what you have written. Write as you go along, so you have notes and report segments drafted even before you focus on writing the repoft. It is important to oudine a report before writing it, but neither the reports organization nor the first written draft should be considered fixed. As you write, you will get new ideas about how to orgarizethe report. Try them out. As you review the first draft, you will see many wals to improve your *riting. Focus particularly on how to shorten and clarifi, your statements. SECTION V . AFTER THE DATA ARE COLLECTED476 Make sure that each paragraph concerns only one topic. Remember the golden rule of good writing: Writing is revisingl You can ease the burden ofreport writing in several ways: o .Draw on the research proposal and on project notes. . (Jse a word processing program on a computer to facilitate reorganizing and editing. . Seek criticism from friends, teachers, and other research consumers before turning in the final product. We often find it helpfirl to use reverse oudining After you have rritten a complete first draft, oudine it on a paragraph-by-paragraph basis, ignoring the actual section headings you used. See if the paper you vrote actually fits the outline you planned. How could the organization be improved? Most importandy, leave yourself enough time so thatyou can revise, several times if possible, before turning in the final draft. Revision is essential until complete clarity is achieved. For more suggestions about writing, see Becker (1986), Booth et al. (1995), Cuba (2002), Strunk and White (2000), and Tirabian (1996). RESEARCH REPORTTYPES Research projects designed to produce student papers and theses, applied research reports, and academic articles all have unique features thatwill influence the final research report. For example, student papers are written for a particular professor or for a thesis committee and often are undertaken with almost no financial resources and in the face of severe time con- straints. Applied research reports are written for an organization or agency that usually also fieverse outlining: {1,,ii:^..,.., iL.-. ^..nrin,,.- ,n. n,, \J 1..1 t, i I 1 i I i I tl i I I A iirjt: I 1 t) i I i I 1 I {; i I ?,ir t: th i,, r,,r.,*, tJr iift t:i it , t\ lltlt\l ti\ti itt.l i)ii.l.;\-rt \-Jt i \.,1.r.-ii,. 11.; tittl.)i (iri, :i.:.i t, iit !\r.titn ii r,,, i * iL r. r, n..ti ri tt{i1\l,l/1111:/t!tt tli l,r tliJ-,. iri...it lzt(ilt:,)l tj.AllJLULIUii,ii ii) r :rL.r.: 1rr LL( r. CHAPTER 16 . SUMMAR]ZING AND REPORTING RESEARCH 477 Mitchell B e zziln.a, B S, Gyb ers ecurity G on sultant Nditchell Bezzina has been a computer foren- sic examiner for over 15 years. He has conducted investigations centered on many areas of inquiry including intellectual property theft, employee misconduct, fraud inves- tigations, cross-border investigations, court orders, and regulatory inquiries. This work has spanned multiple jurisdic- tions and countries. With hands-on experience in security and digital investigations of every kind, he has designed, developed, and implemented operational and procedural policies for digital forensics, e-discov- ery and engineering departments to gain production efficiencies and comply with business requirements. While knowledge of computers is a must for the kind of work Bezzina does, the cyber world is constantly changing, so the main thing you need to have is curiosity and motivation to learn. Bezzina believes there are several career paths for someone interested in his line of work, includ- irg digital forensics, e-discovery, and incident response/threat intelligence. From there, lour path is defined by your interests, as you will be investing more than 40 hours per week and doing what you love. His advice to students is that they take as many computer and data analysis courses as possible and never stop learning. If you go into the consultingbusi- ness, you also have to be able to communicate with several different stakeholders in both business and government. For this reason, its also important to be able to communicate effectively, both verbally and in writing. 7a Ti Source: Courtesy of Mitchell Bezztna li has funded the research and has expectations for a particular type ofreport.Journal articles are written for the larger academic community and will not be published until they are judged accepable by some representatives of that community (e.g., after the article has gone through extensive peer review). These unique features do not match up so neady with the specific types ofresearch prod- ucts. For example, a student paper that is based on a research project conducted in collabora- tion with a work organizadonmay face some of the same constraints as a project designed to produce an applied research report. An academic article may stem from an applied research project conducted for a goverlrment agenry. An applied research report often can be followed by an academic article on the same topic. In fact, one research study may lead to all three types ofresearch reports, as students write course papers or theses for professors who write both academic articles and applied research reports. Student Papers and Theses What is most distinctive about a student research paper or thesis is the audience for the final product a professor or, for a thesis, a committee of professors. In light of this, it is important for you to seek feedback early and often about the progress ofyour research and about your professors expectations for the final paper. Securing approval ofa research proposal is usually the first step, but it should not be the last occasion for seeking advice prior to writing the final paper. Do not become too anxious for guidance, however. Professors require research projects in part so that their students can work through, at least somewhat independendy, the many issues they confront. A great deal ofinsight into the research process can be gained this way. So, balance your requests for advice with some independent decision making. Most student research pro;ects can draw on few resources beyond the students own time and effort, so it is important that the research plan not be overly ambitious. Keep the paper deadline in mind when planning the project, and remember that almost every researcher tends to underestimate the time required to carry out a project. Group Projects Pooling your resources with those of several students in a group project can make it possible to collect much more data but can lead to other problems. Each students role should be clarified at the outset and written into the research proposal as a formal commitrnent. Group members should try to help each other out rather than competing to do the least work pos- sible or to receive the most recognition. Complaints about other group members should be made to the professor when things cannot be worked out among group members. Each group member should have a clear area of responsibilitywith respect to writing the final report, and one may want to serve as the final editor. TheThesis Committee Students who are preparing a paper for a committee, usually during the senior year ol a bachelors degree or at the masters or PhD level, must be prepared to integrate the multiple perspectives and comments of committee members into a plan for a coherent final report. (The thesis committee chair should be the primary guide in this process; carefirl selection of faculty to serve on the committee is also important.) As much as possible, committee mem- bers should have complementary areas of expertise that are each important for the research project: perhaps one methodologist, one specialist in the primary substantive area of the the- sis, and one specialist in a secondary area. Theses using data collected by service agencies or other organizations often benefit if an organizational representative is on the commiftee. It is very important that you work with your committee members in an ongoing man- ner, both individually and collectively.In fact, it is vitally important to have a group meeting AFTER THE DATA ARE COLLECTED478 SECTION V O with all committee members at the beginning of the project to ensure that everyone on the committee supports the research plan. Doing this will avoid obstacles that arise due to mis- communication later in the research process. JournalArticles It is the peer review process that makes preparation of an academic journal article most unique. In a process similar to a grant review; the journals editor sends submitted articles to two or three experts (peers) who are asked whether the paper should be accepted more or less as is, revised and then resubmitted, or rejected. Reviewers also provide coilrments, sometimes quite lengthy, to explain their decision and to guide any required revisions. The process is an anonyrnous one at most journals; reviewers are not told the authors name, and the author is not told the reviewersnames. Although the journal editor has the final say, editors decisions arenormally based on the reviewers comments. This peer review process must be anticipated in designing the final report. Peer review- ers are not pulled out ofa hat. They are experts in the field or fields represented in the paper and usually have published articles themselves in that field. It is critical that the author be familiar with the research literature and be able to present the research findings as a unique contribution to that literature. In most cases, this hurdle is extaordinarily hard to jump: Most leading journals have a rejection rate of over 90\%. Of course, there is also a certain luck of the draw in peer review. One set of two or three reviewers may be inclined to reject an article that another set of reviewers would accept. But in general, the anonymous peer review process results in higher-quality research reports because articles are revised prior to publication in response to the suggestions and criticisms of the experts. Criminological and criminal justice research is published in a myriad of journals within several disciplines, including criminology, law; sociology, pqychology, and economics. As a result, there is no one formatting style that all criminological literature abides by. If, for example, you are submitting your paper to a psychology-related journal, you must abide by the formatting style dictated by the Publication Manual of the American Prycbohgical,*sociation (American Psychological Association 2009). The easiest way to determine how to format a paper for a particular journal is to examine recent volumes of the journal and format your paper accordingly. To give you a general idea ofwhat a journal article looks like, an article in its entirety has been reprinted in Appendix B, along with an illustration of how to read a journal article. There are also numerous articles available on the Student Study Site. Despite the slight variations in style across journals, there are typically seven standard sections within a journal article in addition to the tide page (see Exhibit 16.1). Applied Reports Unlike journal articles, applied reports are usually commissioned by a particular govefirment agency, corporation, or nonprofit organization. For this reason, the most imporant problem that applied researchers confront is the need to produce a final report that meets the fund- ing organizations expectations. This is called the bired-gun problem. Of course, the extent to which being a hired gun is a problem varies gready with the research orientation ofthe frrnding organization and with the nature ofthe research problem posed. The ideal situation is to have few constraints on the nature of the final report, but sometimes research reporB are suppressed or distorted because the researcher comes to conclusions that the firnding organization does not like. Applied reports that are written in a less highly charged environment can face another problem-even when they are favorably received by the funding organization, their conclu- sions are often ignored. This problem can be more a matter of the organization not really knowing how to use research findings than a matter of not wanting to use them. And this is CHAPTER 16. SUMMARIZING AND REPORTING RESEARCH 479 :s : .:.,:.:[it,e.iaiiUine. i...,.,i,.,,,R,6ivi.,e.w.. . .. #ililffi fii 1$ftH+6. .$,UUfi. .,$.ffiufin e s,a,S.. il6i6i:il ffi:8ii8iulffifi$lfi iHe,:i.diifi . ill,n :l:::1ffi : : i::t r:::lilll:Re: ;elnel:n:0.:g:S not merely a problem of the funding organization; many researchers are prepared only to present …