Philosophical Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Paradigms and Approaches - Psychology
PLEASE Review PSY635 Week Two Discussion Scenario ATTACHED!In that scenario, the three instructors realized there are limits to the insights they can gain through anonymous counting of discussion posts. The instructors would like to answer two additional research questions: (a) How do their students actually feel about the intervention? and (b) How do students view the influence of the intervention on their learning inside and outside of the classroom (if applicable)?
Compare the characteristics of appropriate research designs and recommend a qualitative research design that would facilitate answering the instructors’ additional questions. Explain the philosophical paradigm underlying the recommended approach. Evaluate the required articles attached and describe the assumptions the instructors might have to set aside as they enter into a qualitative research study. Be sure to identify any ethical issues that may apply to the research. Review the characteristics of the quantitative approach described in the PSY635WK2 DISCUSSION attached. Explain the ways in which the quantitative approach and paradigm differs from the qualitative approach and paradigm you have recommended here.
REQUIRED ARTICLES REFERENCES
Frost, N. (2011). Qualitative research methods in psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Chapter 1: Qualitative Research in Psychology
Ponterotto, J. G. (2013). Qualitative research in multicultural psychology: Philosophical underpinnings, popular approaches, and ethical considerations. Qualitative Psychology, 1(S), 19-32. doi:10.1037/2326-3598.1.S.19
PSY635 Week Two Scenario
Three instructors teach the same online course and have devised an experimental intervention to
improve student motivation to actively participate in discussions. The course is a core
requirement for all psychology students, and students are assigned to particular sections at
random rather than by instructor choice.
The average class size for this particular course is 45 students. To get a large enough sample for
adequate analysis, the instructors have decided to include two sections for each instructor in the
experiment. The first section will serve as the control group (no experimental intervention), and
the second section will receive the intervention. Anonymous data about the dependent variable
will be pooled for the three sections comprising the control group and the three sections that
receive the intervention.
The independent variable is the intervention, which may be an incentive such as digital badges or
an instructional intervention involving changing the instructions for the guided response. The
dependent variable will be the number of response (not initial) posts per student that exceed two
lines of text. The researchers have decided to use the Week Four discussion for data collection,
reasoning that it may take some time for the intervention to become effective.
Problems in Designing an Experimental Research Study
Null and Research Hypotheses
Research Hypothesis
Motivated students do actively participate in discussions than unmotivated students.
Null Hypothesis
There is no statistically significant correlation between the instructors and the course they teach.
The Most Appropriate Experimental Research Design to Test my Hypothesis
In this experiment, the most suitable research design to test the hypothesis according to
the provided case scenario is Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design. This research design
involves the random assignment of participants to either control or experimental groups
(Skidmore, 2008). In the provided case, the assignment of students into particular sections using
randomization rather than being directed by the instructors choices. This is the first factor that
makes Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design suitable for this experiment. Additionally, Pretest-
Posttest Control-Group Design is characterized by the presence of control and an experiment
group, an element that has been utilized in the provided scenario. Besides that, Pretest-Posttest
Control-Group Design entails an intervention administered in the experimental group and no
intervention given to the control group. The control group shall not receive any intervention in
the provided case, while the experimental group shall receive an intervention. Hence, a
combination of the above elements makes Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design the most
appropriate research design for this experiment.
Internal Threats to Validity and How to Mitigate Them
Addressing validity threats is a crucial task towards realizing a conclusive research
experiment. Internal validity threats hinder the researchers ability to achieve accurate inferences
in the particular experiment (Skidmore, 2008). The provided case study is exposed to various
internal validity threats, among them experimental attrition. In this internal validity threat,
researchers are concerned about a differential loss of experiment participants due to the impacts
of administered interventions. In the provided scenario, many students might leave the
experimental group due to the effects of various interventions such as changing instructions to
grant a guided response if they feel that the instructions make the discussions challenging. In this
case, the experiment results will be under question as the comparison will be less effective as
most of the participants will be from the control group. Researchers can mitigate attrition in their
experiments by offering incentives to participants. Besides that, Pretest-Posttest Control-Group
Design entails pretesting, which exposes the experiment to testing internal validity threats. In this
regard, the familiarity with the prior testing of the various interventions might create a significant
difference in pretest and post-test results, creating a concern that testing can influence the
experiments results. If there is a significant difference between results before and after testing,
the results might be inconclusive, adversely impacting the experiments quality. Researchers can
mitigate testing validity threats by altering the research to employ experimental designs that do
not use pretesting.
Ethical Principles in the Proposed Research
Ethics is a valuable tool that guides quality research. In this proposed research, various
ethical principles should be implemented to fulfill the researchs moral obligations. These ethical
principles include informed consent, justice, and integrity. Informed consent is a core principle of
research, ensuring that participants can voluntarily enter into the experiments and be granted
adequate information on what the study means to them. Additionally, informed consent provides
that researchers seek the participants consent before entering into the research.
On the other hand, justice is a vital principle that ensures that researchers exhibit fairness
and equity to all the participants and that the needs and interests of research participants have a
higher priority than the studys objectives. Whenever human beings are treated unfairly, their
human dignity is violated (Damtew, 2018) Moreover, integrity is an ethical research principle
that ensures that a study is conducted with transparency, honesty, and open communication.
Integrity enables other people to have trust in research methods and findings. Lastly, the selected
population in the samples should depict diversity, requiring each sample in the scenarios to have
people from different cultures since people from diverse backgrounds might react differently to
various interventions, improving the quality of the research.
References
Damtew, B., 2018. Justice in Research: History,
Principle and Application (A Literature
Review). In: Ethics in Conducting Health
Systems Research.
Skidmore, S. (2008). Experimental Design and
Some Threats to Experimental Validity: A
Primer. Online Submission.
Qualitative Research in Multicultural Psychology: Philosophical
Underpinnings, Popular Approaches, and Ethical Considerations
Joseph G. Ponterotto
Fordham University
This article reviews the current and emerging status of qualitative research in psychol-
ogy. The particular value of diverse philosophical paradigms and varied inquiry
approaches to the advancement of psychology generally, and multicultural psychology
specifically, is emphasized. Three specific qualitative inquiry approaches anchored in
diverse philosophical research paradigms are highlighted: consensual qualitative re-
search, grounded theory, and participatory action research. The article concludes by
highlighting important ethical considerations in multicultural qualitative research.
Keywords: multicultural, qualitative research, research ethics, philosophy of science
The need for multicultural psychologists to
be knowledgeable of multiple-research para-
digms and competent in conducting both quan-
titative and qualitative research, is now made
clear in the American Psychological Associa-
tion’s (APA, 2003) “Guidelines on Multicul-
tural Education, Training, Research, Practice,
and Organizational Change for Psychologists,”
which state the following:
Culturally centered psychological researchers are en-
couraged to seek appropriate grounding in various
modes of inquiry and to understand both the strengths
and limitations of the research paradigms applied to
culturally diverse populations . . . They should strive to
recognize and incorporate research methods that most
effectively complement the worldview and lifestyles of
persons who come from a specific cultural and linguis-
tic population, for example quantitative and qualitative
research strategies. (p. 389)
The reality, however, is that most psycholo-
gists, including those focused on research
across cultures, continue to operate from a pri-
marily postpositivist research paradigm and
their associated quantitative procedures
(Haverkamp, Morrow, & Ponterotto, 2005b;
Ponterotto, 2005a; Rennie, Watson, & Mon-
teiro, 2002). In this article I promote the in-
creased use of qualitative research methods an-
chored in diverse research paradigms. To that
end, this article (a) describes leading research
paradigms for qualitative research, (b) reviews
the current and emerging status of qualitative
methods in the field, (c) highlights the potential
value of qualitative approaches to psychology
generally and multicultural psychology specifi-
cally, (d) presents a brief overview of select
qualitative inquiry approaches advocated for
multicultural research, and (e) highlights impor-
tant ethical issues in conducting qualitative re-
search with diverse populations.
Consistent with the APA’s (2003) “Multicul-
tural Guidelines,” when referring to multicultur-
alism or multicultural psychology throughout
this article, I recognize the broad scope of the
dimensions of ethnicity, race, gender, language,
sexual orientation, age, disability, education,
spiritual or religious orientation, socioeconomic
class, education, as well as other cultural dimen-
sions.
Research Paradigms Anchoring
Qualitative Research
Though many psychologists have a good idea
about some of the general distinctions between
quantitative and qualitative research, most have
not been trained to understand the depth and
variety of philosophical paradigms and inquiry
approaches anchoring qualitative research in
psychology (Ponterotto, 2005a; Rennie et al.,
2002). As noted by McLeod (2001), “It may be
possible to do good quantitative research with-
out knowing much about epistemology of the
philosophy of (social) science, but good quali-
Joseph G. Ponterotto, Division of Psychological & Edu-
cational Services, Fordham University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Joseph G. Ponterotto, Division of Psychological & Educa-
tional Services, Room 1008, Fordham University at Lincoln
Center, 113 West 60th Street, New York, NY 10023-7478.
E-mail: [email protected]
This article is reprinted from Cultural Diversity and
Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2010, Vol. 16, No. 4, 581–589.
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Qualitative Psychology © 2013 American Psychological Association
2013, Vol. 1(S), 19 –32 2326-3598/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/2326-3598.1.S.19
19
tative research requires an informed awareness
of philosophical perspectives” (p. 203). Relat-
edly, Morrow (2005) highlighted differential
criteria for evaluating the rigor and quality of a
qualitative study based on its anchoring para-
digm. Thus knowledge of philosophy of science
and competence in qualitative research are in-
extricably intertwined.
The research literature presents varied classi-
fications of research paradigms (see Denzin &
Lincoln, 2005a); however, one that I find par-
ticularly concise yet comprehensive is that pro-
posed by Guba and Lincoln (1994) and adapted
by Ponterotto (2005b). This classification pres-
ents four research paradigms: positivism, post-
positivism, constructivism-interpretivism, and
the critical-ideological perspective. Of these
four paradigms, positivism is the exclusive
province of quantitative research; however the
other three paradigms can all serve as anchors
for qualitative research. Table 1 summarizes the
defining characteristics of postpositivism, con-
structivism-interpretivism, and the critical-
ideological perspective. The descriptive charac-
teristics include the paradigm’s perspective on
key philosophy of science parameters, including
ontology (nature of reality), epistemology (re-
lationship between researcher and participant in
the quest for knowledge), axiology (role of val-
ues in research), rhetorical structure (language
used to present research findings), and method-
ology (specific procedures of research; see Ta-
ble 1).
Postpositivist qualitative research aims to use
traditional qualitative methods (e.g., interviews,
case studies) in as quantifiable a manner as is
possible. Thus for example, a researcher may
prepare a lengthy (25 questions) semistructured
interview protocol based on a review of the
literature (explanatory, verification oriented),
Table 1
Research Paradigms for Multicultural Research
Research paradigm Defining characteristics and qualitative approaches
Postpositivism
One true approximal reality; researcher attempts to be as
dualistic and objective as possible; must monitor
closely and bracket any value biases; attempts control
of variables and systematization of research
procedures; generally third person, objective report
presentation; chiefly quantitative methods, with some
more structured qualitative approaches such as
consensual qualitative research (Hill, Thompson, &
Williams,1997).
Constructivism-Interpretivism
Multiple, equally valid, and socially coconstructed
realities; highly interactive researcher-participant
relationship that leads to discovered meaning and
expression of experience; researcher values to be
expected and should be discussed and bracketed;
report writing is first person with adequate “voice” of
participants (e.g., through quotes or documents);
incorporates only qualitative methods. More discovery
oriented qualitative inquiry models such as grounded
theory (Fassinger, 2005).
Critical Theory and Related Ideological Positions
An apprehendable reality shaped by political, economic,
and social factors; interactive and proactive researcher
role that promotes emancipation and transformation
through research; researcher values are clearly
explicated and help shape inquiry process; usually
first person written reports relying extensively on
participant voices; incorporates chiefly qualitative
methods, but may incorporate quantitative procedures.
Qualitative approaches in which researcher’s social
justice values help direct inquiry, such as participatory
action research (Kidd & Kral, 2005).
Note. Paradigm characteristics adapted from Guba and Lincoln (1994), Ponterotto (2005b), and Ponterotto & Grieger
(2007).
20 PONTEROTTO
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administer the interview protocol to 40 partici-
pants averaging 40 min an interview. The pro-
tocol is the same for all interviewers and the
data is analyzed by a team of coresearchers and
auditors for a sense of reliability in coding
(agreeing on single reality). Furthermore, the
researcher, in staying close to the protocol dur-
ing the interview process, does not emotively
connect with the participant (concept of dual-
ism).
By marked contrast, a parallel interview in
the constructivist-interpretivist paradigm would
involve preparing a short (five questions) semi-
structured protocol and interviewing 10 partic-
ipants for roughly 2 hr each. The protocol can
change from interview to interview (discovery-
oriented) as new insights emerge. Furthermore,
the researcher and participants become emo-
tively connected, facilitating deeper levels of
communication and topic exploration. Only the
interviewer analyzes the data as multiple reali-
ties are valid under this paradigm, and no core-
searcher or auditing team is necessary to iden-
tify a single agreed-on reality.
The critical-ideological paradigm has at its
core an assumption that inequity and oppression
characterize real-world human interactions, and
that during the process of empirical inquiry the
researcher’s own social justice values can and
should play a role in the research process. This
role is manifested in the goal of empowerment
and emancipation of groups who experience
oppression (Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000). An
example of a qualitative study in the critical-
ideological paradigm might involve lengthy in-
terviews or focus groups with migrant farm
workers, who during and after the study gain a
sense of unity and empowerment that leads to
coordinated demands for better working condi-
tions. Counseling psychologists have been par-
ticularly vocal in advocating for increased re-
search anchored in the critical theory paradigm
(e.g., Toporek, Gerstein, Fouad, Roysircar, &
Israel, 2006).
Current Status of Qualitative Research in
Psychology
Though qualitative research featured promi-
nently in the early development of the psychol-
ogy profession (e.g., the work of Allport, Erik-
son, Fanon, Freud, Horney, and Piaget), during
the last half century qualitative methods, as a
collective group, have taken a back seat to
quantitative research procedures (see historical
review in Ponterotto, Kuriakose, & Granovs-
kaya, 2008). The reason for this lies in the
profession’s strong preference for the positivist
and postpositivist research paradigms over al-
ternate paradigms such as constructivism and
critical theory (Camic, Rhodes, & Yardley,
2003; Haverkamp et al., 2005b).
Evidence of the profession’s strong reliance
on positivism and postpositivism, and their as-
sociated quantitative methods, is presented in a
number of studies. For example, Rennie et al.
(2002) entered five search terms qualitative re-
search, grounded theory, discourse analysis,
phenomenological psychology, and empirical
phenomenology in the PsycINFO database for
the 100-year period, 1900 through 1999, and
found that less than 1\% of the articles included
one of these terms.
A number of other studies examined pub-
lished journal literature to assess the relative
representativeness of both quantitative and
qualitative studies. For example, in a review of
outcome studies published worldwide across a
large number of journals in counseling, psycho-
therapy, and psychiatry, Sexton (1996) found
that less than 5\% of the studies relied on qual-
itative methods. Focusing specifically on jour-
nals in counseling and counseling psychology,
Berrios and Lucca (2006) and Ponterotto,
Kuriakose, et al., (2008) found that qualitative
research represented under 20\% of the pub-
lished empirical studies during the 1990s and
2000s. Finally, in a 25-year review of journals
focused on the psychology of religion and spir-
ituality, Aten and Hernandez (2005) found that
less than 1\% of published articles represented
qualitative research studies.
It appears that the meager representation of
published qualitative research in psychology
journals may, in part, stem from graduate train-
ing programs that give minimal attention to
qualitative methods training. For example, with
regard to research training in counseling psy-
chology, Ponterotto (2005c) found that only
10\% of programs required a course in qualita-
tive research methods, and the median percent-
age of doctoral dissertations across programs
that employed qualitative methods was only
10\%. It follows that if graduate students in
psychology are not being adequately trained in
alternate research paradigms and qualitative in-
21SPECIAL SECTION: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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quiry procedures, they will be less likely to
conduct and publish qualitative research.
Despite the clear dominance of quantitative
methods in the psychology profession, there is
mounting evidence that qualitative methods are
slowly increasing in popularity among psychol-
ogy researchers. For example, in a 12-year con-
tent analysis of major journals in counseling
psychology, Ponterotto, Barnett, Ticinelli,
Kuriakose, and Granovskaya (2008) found the
representation of qualitative studies to increase
from 13\% during the 1995 to 2000 period, to
18\% during the 2001 to 2006 time period. Fo-
cusing on research in family process and family
therapy, Faulkner, Klock, and Gale (2002)
found the overall number of qualitative studies
Table 2
Specific Benefits of Qualitative Inquiry Procedures
Benefit claim Supporting citations
Applied psychologists are drawn to constructivist
qualitative methods because they often involve
studying the emotive and cognitive aspects of
participants’ life experiences interpreted within
the context of their socially constructed
worldviews.
Hill, 2005; McLeod, 2001; Morrow, 2007; Ponterotto,
Kuriakose et al., 2008; Sciarra, 1999
Qualitative methods are useful in exploratory phases
of research given their “discovery” rather than
“explanatory” or “confirmatory” goals.
Hill, 2005; Morrow, 2007; Nelson & Quintana, 2005.
Qualitative research compliments quantitative
research by adding descriptive depth.
Morrow, 2007; Nelson & Quintana, 2005.
Qualitative methods are excellent for theory
development given the inductive, iterative process
of ongoing data collection, analysis, and
interpretation; researchers become “intimate” with
data through this process.
Hill, 2005; Morrow, 2007; Nelson & Quintana, 2005.
Qualitative research is particularly useful in
studying and understanding process in counseling
and psychotherapy.
Hill, 2005; Morrow, 2007.
Qualitative research is effective in examining very
complex psychological phenomena as it is not
constrained by pre-selected and limited variables;
such research can examine all variables as they
emerge during the discovery process.
Hill, 2005; Morrow et al., 2001.
Qualitative research is excellent at establishing
clinical relevance of research given participants’
active involvement in defining research questions,
and in assessing and interpreting data; it
ultimately increases clinical relevance to both
clients and psychologists.
Hill, 2005; Nelson & Quintana, 2005; Silverstein,
Auerbach, & Levant, 2006.
Qualitative research and writing can increase the
public’s understanding of and receptivity to
research.
Morrow, 2007; Ponterotto, 2006; Ponterotto &
Grieger, 2007; Silverstein et al., 2006.
Qualitative research can effectively bridge the noted
rift between the objective hypothetico-deductive
model of science (from positivism/postpositivism)
and the subjective everyday experience of
practitioners helping clients and patients.
Morrow, 2007.
Qualitative research is effective in establishing
“procedural evidence” (i.e., study methods and
findings are intelligible, consistent, and credible,
and become self-evident in the iterative, emergent
analysis process).
Hill, 2005; Morrow, 2005.
22 PONTEROTTO
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published roughly doubled from the 1980s to
the 1990s, though the overall percentage of
qualitative studies to quantitative studies was
still very low (percentage not specified). Pon-
terotto, Barnett, et al. concluded that there is a
slow, gradual research paradigm shift under-
way, with qualitative research in applied psy-
chology becoming more accepted and increas-
ingly popular.
Potential Value of Qualitative Research
In this section I briefly highlight the particu-
lar value of qualitative methods, relative to tra-
ditional quantitative methods, to advancing psy-
chology generally and multicultural psychology
specifically. A review of the literature of the
past decade has uncovered strong rationales for
the psychology profession to expand its reper-
toire of operating research paradigms and em-
pirical procedures. There is a clear sense in the
literature that both quantitative and qualitative
methods have their inherent strengths and lim-
itations, and that there is a time and place for
both sets of approaches in psychological re-
search. Table 2 summarizes the particular ben-
efits of qualitative methods to psychology (see
Table 2).
Value of Qualitative Research
to Multicultural Psychology
In addition to the general advantages of qual-
itative research summarized in Table 2, various
authors have highlighted the particular rele-
vance and value of qualitative inquiry to the
study of multicultural psychology (Morrow, Ra-
khsha, & Castaneda, 2001; Ponterotto, 2005a;
Trimble & Fisher, 2006a). Constructivist and
critical theory qualitative procedures often in-
volve intense, ongoing, and prolonged interac-
tion with participants. This emotive interaction
is transformative (Ponterotto, 2005b), thus cre-
ating change in both the researcher and the
participants. In a country where race relations
have been replete with misunderstanding, ste-
reotyping, and conflict, qualitative research can
bring deeper appreciation and understanding
across cultures. Sciarra (1999) stated that “not
only are emotions allowed in qualitative re-
search, they are crucial. Because entering the
meaning-making world of another requires em-
pathy, it is inconceivable how the qualitative
researcher would accomplish her goal by dis-
tancing herself from emotions” (pp. 44 – 45).
Sciarra’s (1999) quote highlights one of the
benefits of constructivist qualitative methods to
the study of multicultural psychology. That is,
researchers attempt to understand the world-
view of our participants through intensely lis-
tening to and respecting their own voice and
their own interpretation of life events. Addi-
tional benefits of qualitative methods to multi-
cultural research are outlined below.
1. By entering culturally diverse communi-
ties, researchers can demonstrate strong
interest in participants’ life experiences
through respectful interviews and obser-
vations. In this way, researchers achieve
close personal contact with the partici-
pants that lead to suspension of previously
held conceptions and stereotypes of the
group. As the instrument of their own
research, this close interaction helps trans-
form researchers as well as the partici-
pants (Mohatt & Thomas, 2006; Morrow
et al., 2001; Ponterotto & Grieger, 2008).
2. In some qualitative approaches, the re-
searcher and participants are equivalent
co-investigators, thus leveling the power
hierarchy common to many quantitative
designs. The empowerment of research
participants serves to reduce the chances
of marginalizing and stereotyping study
participants (Mohatt & Thomas, 2006;
Ponterotto, 2005a).
3. Qualitative research is often effective at
empowering participants to navigate com-
plex and sometimes oppressive systems
(particularly within the critical theory par-
adigm) leading to interventions in schools
and organizations, and contributing to so-
cial change (Ditrano & Silverstein, 2006;
Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005; Kidd &
Kral, 2005; Morrow, 2007).
4. Quantitative research often forces partici-
pants to respond to predesigned instru-
ments or protocols that isolate individual
attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors.
For research participants who hail from
more collectivist worldviews, this kind of
research is challenging. Mohatt and
Thomas (2006) summarized this concern
well in their work with Native American
23SPECIAL SECTION: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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is
no
t
to
be
di
ss
em
in
at
ed
br
oa
dl
y.
and Alaska Native populations: “Many
traditional Native people would not isolate
behaviors, emotions, or cognitions and as-
sign values to them, measure them, ma-
nipulate them, and interpret the results”
(p. 109).
From a cross-cultural perspective, another
concern with many quantitative designs an-
chored in positivism and postpositivism is the
value given to random sampling. Once again
Mohatt and Thomas (2006) addressed this con-
cern quite directly:
I believe that random sampling procedures violate a
fundamental principle of every indigenous group with
whom I have worked. It assumes that a statistical or
mathematical rationale should determine whom we
talk to or with whom we intervene. It is . . . . both
exclusive and dangerous because not all members of
the community would be included, and there would be
no evidence of comembership on the part of the re-
searchers and therefore no sense of protection from
harm. (pp. 110 –111)
By contrast, qualitative designs often give
voice to previously disempowered, marginal-
ized, and silenced groups who share their
worldview and lived experiences in their own
words, in their own way, and under conditions
set forth through comembership in the research
endeavor (Ponterotto, 2005a).
Steps in Conducting Qualitative Multicultural
Research
In the last decade, many excellent sources on
conducting qualitative research have been put
forth (e.g., Camic et al., 2003; Denzin & Lin-
coln, 2005b; McLeod, 2001). In this section I
draw on these and other sources as well as my
own experience conducting and supervising
multicultural qualitative research to summarize
important steps for conceptualizing and con-
ducting multiculturally focused qualitative re-
search.
Decide on Operating Research Paradigm
The first step in conducting a qualitative
study is to decide on the research paradigm
anchoring the study. The paradigm will serve as
a roadmap guiding the researcher to an appro-
priate qualitative inquiry approach, directing the
course and methods of the study, and promoting
a careful evaluation of the quality of the study
(Morrow, 2005). Paradigm choices were re-
viewed earlier in this article and are summa-
rized in Table 1.
Graduate students and psychologists should
understand the politics of research in their
working environment and be prepared to ad-
dress supervisory resistance to certain para-
digms and research approaches. For example,
some PhD programs in psychology dissuade
students from conducting a qualitative study
anchored in constructivism or critical theory
in favor of quantitative studies or qualitative
studies anchored in postpositivism (see re-
lated discussion in Ponterotto, 2005c; Pon-
terotto & Grieger, 2007).
Select Qualitative Inquiry Approach
There are at least 20 acknowledged and pop-
ular qualitative inquiry approaches emanating
from a host of intellectual disciplines. Qualita-
tive inquiry approaches that have been particu-
larly popular with psychologists are reviewed in
recent edited books (e.g., Fischer, 2006; Willig
& Stainton-Rogers, 2008) and special journal
issues (e.g., Carter & Morrow, 2007a, 2007b;
Haverkamp, Morrow, & Ponterotto, 2005a). In
this section I briefly review three popular qual-
itative inquiry approaches that will appeal to
both seasoned researchers and students new to
qualitative research. For paradigmatic breadth I
have chosen one inquiry approach from each of
the three potential qualitative-anchoring para-
digms.
CQR. Consensual qualitative research
(CQR) is the most postpositivist of our three
selected qualitative inquiry approaches. CQR
was developed by Clara E. Hill in response to
her dissatisfaction with the depth and richness
of data emanating from quantitative research in
psychotherapy. In developing the CQR model,
Hill, Thompson, and Williams (1997) drew on
established qualitative approaches, while retain-
ing some of the scientific rigor common to
quantitative methods (e.g., consensus, replica-
bility, concrete procedural guidelines). The par-
ticular qualitative approaches that Hill et al.
(1997) borrowed from were grounded theory,
comprehensive process analysis, phenomenol-
ogy, and feminist theories. Thus, CQR actually
has components of constructivism and critical
theory in addition to an anchoring in postposi-
tivism.
24 PONTEROTTO
T
hi
s
do
cu
m
en
t
is
co
py
ri
gh
te
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by
th
e
A
m
er
ic
an
P
sy
ch
ol
og
ic
al
A
ss
oc
ia
ti
on
or
on
e
of
it
s
al
li
ed
pu
bl
is
he
rs
.
T
hi
s
ar
ti
cl
e
is
in
te
nd
ed
so
le
ly
fo
r
th
e
pe
rs
on
al
us
e
of
th
e
in
di
vi
du
al
us
er
an
d
is
no
t
to
be
di
ss
em
in
at
ed
br
oa
dl
y.
More recently, Hill et al. (2005) reviewed and
updated procedures for conducting CQR stud-
ies. The updated guidelines were developed in
response to reviewing and evaluating 27 differ-
ent published CQR studies from 1994 to 2003.
Ponterotto (2005b) noted that the 2005 CQR
model is somewhat more constructivistic than
the original 1997 model in terms of reducing the
number of interview questions to promote more
probing, greater depth of participant responses
and, ultimately, greater discovery.
Hill et al. (2005) posit five essential elements
of the CQR method. First, researchers prepare
semistructured interview protocols for use in
face-to-face and/or phone interviews (though
focus groups have also been used). The authors
recommended preparing roughly 8 to 10
scripted questions per planned hour of inter-
view. Probing responses further is encouraged
as a means of additional exploration and dis-
covery. The interview protocols are prepared in
consideration of a thorough literature review on
the topic at hand, on talking with people from
the target group to garner insights for the pro-
tocol, and on researchers’ own self-reflections
and experience related to the topic. CQR sam-
ples tend to be randomly selected from within
an identified homogeneous population with in-
depth experience of the phenomena under
study. Hill et al. (2005) recommend 8 to 15
participants per study when only one or two
interviews are conducted with each participant.
Generally speaking, one thorough interview is
sufficient in a CQR study, with a second inter-
view sometimes helping to capture further par-
ticipant thinking in the area.
The second component of CQR is the reli-
ance on multiple judges/coders throughout the
data analysis process in the hopes of fostering
diverse perspectives. Hill et al. (2005) recom-
mended a minimum of three primary research
team members for each CQR study. The third
component of CQR emphasizes consensus in
arriving at the meaning of the coded data. Hill et
al. (2005) considered consensus critical to the
CQR method and that is why “consensus” forms
the first word in CQR. The construct of consen-
sus emanates from a postpositivist position as
research team members discuss and come to
agreement on data interpretation. Thus there is
an ontological assumption of one approximal
reality in terms of the generated results (refer
back to Table 1). However, the construct of
consensus as operationalized by Hill et al.
(1997) also drew on the critical theory para-
digm in that the consensus generation among
CQR team members relies on mutual respect,
equal co-involvement, and shared power,
which is central to ideological positions in
feminism, multiculturalism, and liberation
psychology.
The fourth component of CQR advocates the
use of at least one auditor (not part of the
primary research team) to review the work of
the researchers, minimize the potential effects
of groupthink, …
3
C H A P T E R 1
Qualitative
Research in
Psychology
Nollaig Frost
Introduction : this book
Qualitative research methodology in psychology is now well established. The authors of the Handbook of Qualitative Methods in Psychology (2008), Carla
Willig and Wendy Stainton Rogers, suggest that this approach has moved from the
‘margins to the mainstream in psychology in the UK’ (2008: 8), and many other
researchers and writers attest to its widespread use elsewhere (e.g. Bryman, 2006;
Dicks, Soyinka & Coffey, 2006; Golden-Biddle & Locke, 2007).
In this book we will be describing ways to use qualitative methodology in
psychology research. We will outline the single use of four commonly used
methods – grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA),
discourse analysis and narrative analysis – and then consider how these can be used
in combination. In each chapter we will be providing a history of the method and
careful consideration of when and how it might be used. We will look at why we
might want to use more than one qualitative method, and what this might tell us
about the topic of inquiry and about the research process. By the end of the book
you will have insight to the detailed use and application of qualitative research
methodology, and an understanding of why and how to select a single method or
pluralistic approach to your qualitative research.
Each chapter in the book provides a history of each method, it aims to put into
context the way in which the beginnings of a desire by psychology researchers
to look beyond objective measurement and rating of causal behaviour led to new
ways to elicit ‘thick’ description (Geertz, 1973) of human experience. The chapters
will discuss how each qualitative method can be employed singly to examine data
to illuminate meanings and insights not available without considering aspects of
the research process such as the role played by the researcher, the context of the
data elicitation and the uniqueness of the participant perspective. The book will
consider how research questions are developed and how these infl uence the choice
of method. It will focus on the philosophies and assumptions underlying each
approach so that as researchers you can make an informed choice about the
methodological framework within which you approach your research.
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4 Chapter 1 Qualitative Research in Psychology
We focus in this book on four of the most commonly used methods, and they
demonstrate the many aspects of qualitative data inquiry. They range from ways of
examining language use (e.g. discursive psychology, discourse analysis) to looking
through data for themes and codes (e.g. IPA, grounded theory) to seeking out stories
and their meanings in accounts provided by participants (narrative analysis). What is
striking about these methods is that there is always a choice of how to apply them,
which models to employ and the reasons for using them in pursuit of meaningful
research outcomes. It is this plurality within single methods that led to the
development of Part 2 of this book. This looks at plurality across methods in pursuit
of a more holistic understanding of the phenomenon under inquiry.
Table 1.1 Methods focused on in this book
Grounded Theory Asks questions about a range of psychological processes. It
asks about what is happening as well as how and why.
Discourse Analysis Asks questions about how language is used. It investigates
what is said as well as why it might be said.
Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis (IPA)
Asks questions about how individuals make sense of their
world. It seeks insight to the meanings that events and
experiences hold for people.
Narrative Analysis Asks questions about how individuals make meaning using
stories. It seeks understanding of the unique perspective
brought by individuals to make sense of their external and
internal worlds.
Combining Methods
The combining of different methods of inquiry in psychology is not new. Mixed-method approaches to research have used qualitative and quantitative methods
in combination for some time. Mixed-method approaches might be used to enrich
or populate data, to fi nd a way to triangulate fi ndings or to conduct a pilot study in
order to inform a large-scale quantitatively orientated project (Todd et al., 2004).
Mixed-method approaches are commonly found in health psychology and medically
related research, and in market research, where funders are often keen to see
numbers, objectivity and generalisability, but where researchers want to support the
process with rich description of experience from the perspective of the individual
patient, client, practitioner or consumer. Several developments in approaches to
research have arisen from the application of mixed-method approaches. These
include pragmatism (e.g. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005), bricolage (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2000; Kincheloe, 2001; 2005) and multiperspectival analysis (Kellner,
1995). All seek to access as much meaning as possible from data but are applied in
slightly different ways depending on the research questions and rationale for the
research.
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Combining Methods 5
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is commonly regarded simply as a means with which research questions
can be addressed and an approach that does not take too much account of the
underlying epistemologies of the approaches used to do this. Pragmatic researchers
may use science, art and social interaction in any combination in order to obtain a
richer account of experience (Yardley & Bishop, 2008). They are less concerned
with the epistemological debates underlying method, and instead set out to use
whichever techniques will answer or address the research question. For example,
they may use a mixed-method approach in the pursuit of practical outcomes, as
seen in clinical practice, or for other pragmatic reasons such as to satisfy funders.
The research question becomes central to the research process, and the issue of
deciding which methods to use to answer it becomes more important than the
philosophies or paradigms underlying the methods. The ‘pragmatic’ approach
(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005), in common with the
bricolage approach (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Kincheloe, 2001; 2005), advocates
the combining of methodological ontologies in the pursuit of a more extensive
understanding of the needs of human beings (Howard, 1983).
Problem-based question
You are a student researcher interested in pursuing a career in counselling
psychology. While on placement you have been invited to join a research
team made up of psychotherapists, psychiatrists and mental health service
users. The aim of the research is to investigate the outcomes of six weeks of
cognitive behavioural therapy sessions. It is decided to use both quantitative
and qualitatively orientated approaches to investigate this. Why might you use
each approach to research this topic?
Bricolage
Bricolage, fi rst outlined by Denzin and Lincoln (2000), is a research approach that
promotes interdisciplinarity as a way of drawing on many methods of inquiry. It
regards the research process as consisting of many elements and is concerned with
the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of these as well as with the object,
topic or phenomenon or other artefact under study. It is an approach that seeks to
avoid the limitations imposed by employing a single method, such as limitations of
its epistemology, and the ‘traditional practices of’ (Kincheloe, 2001: 681) or ‘the
historicity of certifi ed modes of knowledge production’ (Kincheloe, 2001: 681), by
seeking out a rigour that leads to new ontological insights. This means that context
is paramount in the bricolage approach, and objects of inquiry are regarded as
fi rmly embedded within their social and cultural construction, historical situatedness
and the language used to describe them. By examining the object within this context,
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Frost, N. (2011). Ebook : Qualitative research methods in psychology: combining core approaches. ProQuest Ebook Central <a
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6 Chapter 1 Qualitative Research in Psychology
using whatever methods necessary the bricoleur views the research from many
perspectives in order to gain multiperspectival insight to its complexity.
Question
What do you think are the main differences between bricolage and prag-
matism?
Multiperspectival analysis
The notion of multiperspectival analysis has been promoted by Kellner (1995). It too
draws on multimethodological research strategies and does so to introduce a variety
of ways of ‘seeing and interpreting in the pursuit of knowledge’ (Kincheloe, 2001:
682). This approach reduces the impact of assumptions and limitations brought to
the research process by allowing the researcher to see the phenomenon in more
dimensions than if they employed a single-method approach. The multiperspectival
approach can be taken by employing fl exible use of one particular method (see
Mason, 2006) or by drawing on many methods or disciplines to enhance dimensional
insight and illuminate the complexity of the phenomenon under study.
The three approaches highlighted above are described in order to enable some
of the issues that may arise in considering a pluralistic qualitative approach to be
illuminated. Issues of the role of epistemology, ontology, purpose and approach to
the research are all of great importance when considering how you will fi nd out
more about your topic of inquiry.
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Frost, N. (2011). Ebook : Qualitative research methods in psychology: combining core approaches. ProQuest Ebook Central <a
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Triangulation 7
Triangulation
The notion of using more than one method to ‘fi nd out more’ about a phenomenon has traditionally been used to verify or support fi ndings. Researchers use more
than one method (often a qualitative one with a quantitative one) in order to
‘triangulate’ the outcomes of measurements and observations (Todd et al., 2004).
Qualitative researchers, however, are not seeking to validate any claim about the
experiences or their possible meanings, but to explore how understanding of them
can be enhanced. Qualitative researchers using phenomenological or constructivist
paradigms are not in pursuit of a defi nitive truth about experience. They do not
regard reality as fi xed, but instead understand individuals to bring a unique
perspective to the way they see and comprehend the world around them. The
researcher into these experiences may use different methods to bring different ways
Employing a fl exible narrative analysis approach (Frost, 2009b)
In a fl exible use of narrative analysis I employed different models of narrative
analysis to work with data gathered to explore the transition from fi rst- to second-
time motherhood among middle-class British white women (see Frost, 2006;
2009b). I sought to extract as much meaning as I could about each woman’s
hopes, fears, fantasies, expectations and realities during this time from the
transcripts of semi-structured interviews I conducted with them. I used different
approaches to analyse narratives I located within the data. These included
systematically reducing the text using approaches such as Labov’s structural
model (1972), Gee’s linguistic model (1993), Riesmann’s performative model
(1993), and Emerson and Frosh’s critical model (2004). This allowed me to
examine the meaning brought to the text by particular linguistic features, and to
critically consider my role in the research process by investigating the stories and
the way they were told in the interviews. The fl exible narrative analysis approach
draws on the strengths offered by each model it employs to privilege the narrator’s
words. It takes guidance from the interview text in each phase of analysis, and
layers of understanding of the account are built up. The initial understanding
of the story is gradually enriched by systematic exploration of the text until a
new story emerges. Each fi nding contributes to the resultant multidimensional
understanding of the meaning of the narrative. The approach resembles
triangulation methods in its ambition to view data from different perspectives,
seeking not to verify meanings but to add texture to the interpretation of them.
For full details of this study, see Frost, N. (2009b) ‘Do you know what I mean?’:
the use of a pluralistic narrative analysis approach in the interpretation of
an interview. Qualitative Research, 9(1), 9–29. It is also discussed further in
Chapters 5 and 7.
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8 Chapter 1 Qualitative Research in Psychology
of understanding the data, and to highlight complementary, contradictory or absent
fi ndings within it.
Recent work (Moran-Ellis et al., 2006) has identifi ed different forms of triangula-
tion that can be derived from the combining of methods in pursuit of ‘knowing
more’ (Moran-Ellis et al., 2006: 45) about a phenomenon. These researchers dis-
tinguish between ‘integration’ of methods, which can be understood as ‘a particular,
practical relationship between methods, sets of data, analytic fi ndings and per-
spectives’ (Moran-Ellis et al., 2006: 46), and ‘triangulation’, which ‘incorporates an
epistemological claim about the research’ (Moran-Ellis et al., 2006: 46). They
emphasise that the meaning of triangulation has been extended beyond seeking
increased confi dence (or validity) in results, as might traditionally have been its
reason for use in mixed qualitative-quantitative research. This is an evolution of the
traditional approach to triangulation, which uses different methods in order to
counter biases and assumptions brought by one method alone, and regards
differences in fi ndings as examples of fl aws or biases in measurement. When using
methods of different epistemologies (whether positivist and interpretivist, as may be
found in some quantitative-qualitative combinations, or social constructionist and
critical realist, as may be found in some qualitative-qualitative mixing) triangulation
can offer a more in-depth, multidimensional insight to the complexity of the social
world. It can generate ‘complementarity’ (Moran-Ellis et al., 2006: 48) instead of
highlighting fl aws in measurements. It can ‘refl ect different aspects of a phenomenon’
(Moran-Ellis et al., 2006: 48), and inform researchers about both the phenomenon
under study and the research process. This broadening of the meaning of triangulation
within social science supports the pragmatic researchers who are more concerned
with the technical framework of pluralistic research than the epistemological or
theoretical one.
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In our pluralistic work with interviews elicited from women making the transition
to second-time motherhood (Frost, 2006; Frost et al., 2010) none of our fi ndings
appeared to contradict each other and so we understood this approach to have
provided us with a way of ‘generating complementarity’ (e.g. Greene, Caracelli
& Graham, 1989). It provided us with different understandings of the phenomenon
under study to be refl ections of its different aspects (Moran-Ellis et al., 2006).
Our approach was a pragmatic one that was interested in both the insight gained
to the phenomenon of transitioning to second-time motherhood, and the process
by which we came to derive our understanding of individual experience.
In adopting this approach we focused on the role of the researchers as well
as on the techniques of analysis that they employed. Epistemological claims
were social constructionist so that we took the view that each researcher
entered into their own relationship with the data, and that this played a unique
role in transforming the data to a presentation of the fi ndings (see Frost et al.,
2011).
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Paradigms in competition 9
Paradigms in competition
While both qualitative and quantitatively orientated approaches to research serve valuable purposes in furthering research aims, mixed-method
approaches have been criticised for combining qualitative and quantitative
paradigms. It is argued by some that the differing philosophies underlying each of
these designs mean that they cannot be combined. The results of such criticisms
have been to see the paradigms placed in competition with each other. Many
eminent researchers have taken issue with this. Ann Oakley labelled the criticisms
‘a paradigm war’ (Oakley, 1999); she argues against this, saying that there is a place
for both approaches and that without both it is not easy to see whether, for example,
personal experiences are individual or collective oppression (1999: 251). She
highlights that she has perceived animosity directed at her work on the basis that it
leans too much towards one paradigm or another. She expresses her ‘puzzlement’
(1999: 248) at having her work labelled as ‘old Oakley’ and ‘new Oakley’, based on
the methodologies that she employed over the years, at being asked to account for
the difference in her writing and at being accused of ‘letting the qualitative and
feminist sides down’ (1999: 248). Importantly, Oakley emphasises that ‘all methods
must be open, consistently applied and replicable by others’ (1999: 252). She stresses
that, instead of undergoing some sort of conversion away from qualitative research,
it is more important to ask why different research methods are seen as opposing in
the fi rst place.
This question, fi rst asked in 1999, is now increasingly regarded as moot.
Subsequent debates about mixing methods (e.g. Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; 2003)
have led to a ‘paradigm peace’ (Bryman, 2006), and other questions, such as those
about quality criteria and evaluation of mixed-method research, are being asked
(Bryman, 2006). Researchers have taken positions in which they either choose to
overlook or marginalise issues of coherence/incoherence in epistemology and
ontology in favour of applying methods best suited to the research question. The
research question is paramount and it is assumed that ‘Mixed methods research can
answer research questions that the other methodologies cannot.’ (Teddlie and
Tashakkori, 2003: 14, cited in Bryman, 2006: 118).
C A S E S T U D Y
As a fi nal-year undergraduate student you have the choice of choosing any topic you like to carry out research. You decide to focus on something of
which you have personal experience: the death of a close family member. You
decide to research how other students have experienced bereavement. To
begin the study, you want to fi nd out how many students in your cohort have
had this experience. How will you do this, bearing in mind that this is a
sensitive topic that may upset people?
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10 Chapter 1 Qualitative Research in Psychology
Pluralism in qualitative research
In our research we have adopted many of the same reasons for combining qualitative methods with each other as mixed-method researchers do: we take a
largely pragmatic view that it is important to fi nd the best methods to address the
research question; we are concerned to conduct research that is useful and
worthwhile. We concur fully with Oakley that the research methods must be open,
and would also agree with Bryman and others that quality criteria that are applicable
to one method are not always the best to be applied to another (e.g. Bryman, 2006;
2007). The pluralistic approach that we adopt may be seen to be more towards the
agnostic end of a range that places methods as a means of profi ling political and
ethical issues at one end (e.g. Parker, 1992) and a focus on understanding how
methods can illuminate specifi c phenomena or processes at the other (Willig &
Stainton-Rogers, 2008). As Bryman says in relation to mixed-method research, we
are concerned to ‘access as much as possible within the data’ (Bryman, 2006) in our
adoption of a qualitative pluralistic approach.
Areas of research in which pluralism has been used include studies into
anomalous experience (Coyle, 2010), the movement of youth identity through space
and time (Katsiafi cas et al., 2011), and the management and repair of shame (Leeming
& Boyle, 2004). It has been discussed in a Special Issue of Qualitative Research
(2006) in relation to triangulation (Moran-Ellis et al., 2006) and multi-modal
ethnography (Dicks, Soyinka & Coffey, 2006). The PQR team have published papers
on the impact of researchers on pluralistic work (Frost et al., 2010), and on issues of
interpretation in pluralistic work (Frost et al., 2011). A forthcoming Special Issue of
the Qualitative Research in Psychology journal will focus on a variety of questions
raised by employment of a pluralistic qualitative approach through invited papers
(Frost & Nolas, Eds 2011). Some research methods incorporate pluralistic working as
Once you know who has been bereaved you want to explore what it was
like for them. How would you gather such data?
Once this decision is made you start analysing the data you have collected.
You have some numbers and some words. What might you do with them?
In doing the analysis you sometimes fi nd yourself feeling upset and
reliving your own experience of being bereaved. What will you do about this?
You may not be able to answer all these questions yet, particularly if you
are new to research. They are designed to start you thinking about how much
you already know about conducting research and what aspects you may want
to focus on when using this book. For example, were you clear about which
methods to choose? What about defi ning your research question? How were
you going to address the ethical considerations of this study, and how were
you going to bring refl exive practice into your research?
qualitative research methods - final.pdf 20 14/06/2011 14:07
Frost, N. (2011). Ebook : Qualitative research methods in psychology: combining core approaches. ProQuest Ebook Central <a
onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank) href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from ashford-ebooks on 2021-08-11 22:18:23.
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Pluralism in qualitative research 11
an essential part of their approach. One example is memory work, in which
researchers form a collective within which each member contributes a memory and
the group analyses it (see Frost et al. (forthcoming) for more details of some of the
issues that arose for one group in carrying out this approach). With the re- emergence
of pluralism in psychological research (early calls were made in 1983 (Howard) and
have surfaced periodically since then (e.g. Burck, 2005; Mason, 2006)) the arguments
about whether, and how, methods with differing assumptions can be combined
with each other considered what constitutes knowledge and reality.
We examine some of these arguments throughout this book by considering
the perspectives and insight brought by each method. Perspectives may be informed
by epistemological or ontological positions and also by the personal assumptions,
cultural knowledge and other contextual information that each researcher brings
to their employment of the chosen method(s). The chapters about the different
ways in which each method might be employed (Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5) consider
in detail the epistemological and refl exive practice arguments and their infl uence
on application. The remaining chapters (Chapters 6, 7 and 8) consider practical
and theoretical concerns in carrying out research with a pluralistic approach.
Why might you want to carry out qualitative
research pluralistically?
As we have seen, there can be many reasons for carrying out research pluralistically.
It may be to achieve the richest experience possible, as in the pragmatic approach,
to draw on the most appropriate tools to address the research question, as in the
bricolage approach, or to gain different perspectives on a phenomenon, as in the
multi-perspectival approach. Different methods may be employed in combination
in order to achieve different forms of triangulation of the data. In this book we focus
on using only qualitative methods in combination. We discuss how this may help in
gaining greater insight to a number of research topics. As researchers you may want
to gain as much insight as you can to individual experience, you may want to gain
insight to previously under-researched areas, to include participants in the research
process, to fi nd news ways of looking at a previously researched phenomenon, to
highlight lack of research in some areas of psychology or to use your own experiences
to gain insight to others’ experiences of culture or language difference. In all cases
you will be considering, at the very least, the context in which the research is being
conducted, the uniqueness of the participants’ perspective in their recounting of
their experiences, your role in the process and the methods you have brought to the
transformation of the data. By bringing refl exivity, context and interpretation to the
research process the …
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