Fluent Essays

With a clear purpose in place, quantitative researchers have a roadmap for crafting their research questions and hypotheses that will further focus the approach they will take to investigate their topic (i.e., their study’s research design). Discussion: Evaluating Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Quantitative Research Designs With a clear purpose in place, quantitative researchers have a roadmap for crafting their research questions and hypotheses that will further focus the approach they will take to investigate their topic (i.e., their study’s research design). The selection of a research design is guided by the study’s purpose and research questions and hypotheses, and the design then links the research questions and hypotheses to the data that will be collected. You should keep in mind, however, that the research process is interactive, not necessarily proceeding in a linear fashion from one component to the next. Rather, the writing of research questions could, for example, necessitate adjustments to the study’s purpose statement. Nevertheless, when presented together, the various components of a research study should align. As you learned last week, alignment means that a research study possesses clear and logical connections among all of its various components. In addition to considering alignment, when researchers select a research design, they must also consider the ethical implications of their choice, including, for example, what their design selection means for participant recruitment, procedures, and privacy. For this Discussion, you will evaluate quantitative research questions and hypotheses in assigned journal articles in your discipline and consider the alignment of theory, problem, purpose, research questions and hypotheses, and design. You will also identify the type of quantitative research design the authors used and explain how it was implemented. Quasi-experimental, casual comparative, correlational, pretest–posttest, or true experimental are examples of types of research designs used in quantitative research. With these thoughts in mind, refer to the Journal Articles document for your assigned articles for this Discussion. If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. By Day 4 Post a critique of the research study in which you: · Evaluate the research questions and hypotheses. The Research Questions and Hypotheses Checklist serves as a guide for your evaluation. Please do not respond to the checklist in a Yes/No format in writing your Discussion post. · Identify the type of quantitative research design used and explain how the researchers implemented the design. · Analyze alignment among the theory, problem, purpose, research questions and hypotheses, and design. Be sure to support your Main Issue Post and Response Post with reference to the week’s Learning Resources and other scholarly evidence in APA Style. Read a selection of your classmates’ postings. By Day 6 Respond to a classmate who was assigned a different article than you by further supporting his or her critique or respectfully offering a differing perspective. Submission and Grading Information Grading Criteria To access your rubric: Week 5 Discussion Rubric Post by Day 4 and Respond by Day 6 To participate in this Discussion: Week 5 Discussion REFERENCES Babbie, E. (2017). Basics of social research (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. · Chapter 5, “Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement” Burkholder, G. J., Cox, K. A., Crawford, L. M., & Hitchcock, J. H.  (Eds.). (2020). Research designs and methods: An applied guide for the scholar-practitioner. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. · Chapter 4, “Quantitative Research Designs” Research Theory, Design, and Methods Walden University © 2016 Laureate Education, Inc. Page 1 of 2 Research Questions and Hypotheses Checklist Use the following criteria to evaluate an author’s research questions and/or hypotheses. Look for indications of the following: • Is the research question(s) a logical extension of the purpose of the study? • Does the research question(s) reflect the best question to address the problem? • Does the research question(s) align with the design of the study? • Does the research question(s) align with the method identified for collecting data? If the study is qualitative, does the research question(s) do as follows? • Relate the central question to the qualitative approach • Begin with What or How (not Why) • Focus on a single phenomenon • Use exploratory verbs • Use nondirectional language • Use an open-ended format • Specify the participants and research site If the study is quantitative: • Do the descriptive questions seek to describe responses to major variables? • Do the inferential questions seek to compare groups or relate variables? • Do the inferential questions follow from a theory? • Are the variables positioned consistently from independent/predictor to dependent/outcome in the inferential questions? • Is a null and/or alternative hypothesis provided as a predictive statement? Research Theory, Design, and Methods Walden University © 2016 Laureate Education, Inc. Page 2 of 2 • Is the hypothesis consistent with its respective research question? • Does the question(s) and/or hypothesis specify the participants and research site? If the study is mixed methods, do the research questions and/or hypotheses do the following? • Include the characteristics of a good qualitative research question (as listed above) • Include the characteristics of a good quantitative research and/or hypothesis (as listed above) • Indicate how the researcher will mix or integrate the two approaches of the study • Specify the participants and research site • Convey the overall intent of the study that calls for a mixed methods approach Research Questions and Hypotheses Checklist Research Theory, Design, and Methods Walden University Journal Articles Locate your program below for the assigned journal articles to use for the Discussion assignments in Weeks 3, 4, 5, and 7. Please follow the instructions in the week’s unit and find these articles in the Walden . If your program is not listed, your Instructor will post an announcement with your assigned journal articles. You will focus on one article in each of these weeks for your Main Question Post; however, you are expected to read and familiarize yourself with all the articles listed to effectively participate in the discussion. Consult the week’s Discussion area for instructions on completing the assignment. For quick access, press CTRL + left-click on your program’s link below. CRIMINAL JUSTICE Week 3 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. Article A: Forster, M., Grigsby, T. J., Unger, J. B., & Sussman, S. (2015). Associations between gun violence exposure, gang associations, and youth aggression: Implications for prevention and intervention programs. Journal of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/963750 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Article B: Ibarra, P. R., Gur, O. M., & Erez, E. (2014). Surveillance as casework: Supervising domestic violence defendants with GPS technology. Crime, Law and Social Change, 62(4), 417-444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-014-9536-4 Week 4 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article B. Article B: Ibarra, P. R., Gur, O. M., & Erez, E. (2014). Surveillance as casework: Supervising domestic violence defendants with GPS technology. Crime, Law and Social Change, 62(4), 417-444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-014-9536-4 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article A. Article A: Forster, M., Grigsby, T. J., Unger, J. B., & Sussman, S. (2015). Associations between gun violence exposure, gang associations, and youth aggression: Implications for prevention and intervention programs. Journal of Criminology.  https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/963750 Week 5 If your last name starts A through I, use Article A. Article A: Dank, M., Lachman, P., Zweig, J. M., & Yahner, J. (2014). Dating violence experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(5), 846-57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9975-8 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Hishinuma, E. S., Chang, J. Y., Goebert, D. A., Helm, S., Else, I. R. N., & Sugimoto-Matsuda, J. (2015). Interpersonal youth violence perpetration and victimization in a diverse Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescent sample. Violence and Victims, 30(2), 225-249. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00043 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Long, L., & Ullman, S. E. (2016). Correlates of problem drinking and drug use in black sexual assault victims. Violence and Victims, 31(1), 71-84. https:// doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00024 Week 7 If your last name starts A through I, use Article A. Article A: [This is article is available online and is no longer in the Walden Library.] Alqahtani, A. (2014). Awareness of the potential threat of cyberterrorism to the national security. Journal of Information Security, 5(4), 137-146. https://www.scirp.org/pdf/JIS_2014091911584817.pdf If your last name starts J through R, use Article B. Article B: Seda, L. (2014). Identity theft and university students: Do they know, do they care? Journal of Financial Crime, 21(4), 461-483. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-05-2013-0032 If your last name starts S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Powell, M. B., Guadagno, B. L., & Cassematis, P. (2013). Workplace stressors for investigative interviewers of child-abuse victims. Policing, 36(3), 512-525. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2012-0039 EDUCATION Week 3 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. Article A: Picard, D., Martin, P., & Tsao, R. (2014). iPads at school: A quantitative comparison of elementary schoolchildren’s pen-on-paper versus finger-on-screen drawing skills. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 50(2), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.50.2.c If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Article B: Swan, B., Coulombe-Quach, X.-L., Huang, A., Godek, J., Becker, D., & Zhou, Y. (2015). Meeting the needs of gifted and talented students: Case study of a virtual learning lab in a rural middle school. Journal of Advanced Academics, 26(4), 294–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X15603366 Week 4 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article B. Article B: Swan, B., Coulombe-Quach, X-L, Huang, A., Godek, J., Becker, D., & Zhou, Y. (2015). Meeting the needs of gifted and talented students: Case study of a virtual learning lab in a rural middle school. Journal of Advanced Academics, 26(4), 294–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X15603366 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article A. Article A: Picard, D., Martin, P., & Tsao, R. (2014). iPads at school: A quantitative comparison of elementary schoolchildren’s pen-on-paper versus finger-on-screen drawing skills. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 50(2), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.50.2.c Week 5 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Canfield, M. L., Kivisalu, T. M., van der Karr, C., King, C., & Phillips, C. E. (2015). The use of course grades in the assessment of student learning outcomes for general education. Sage Open, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015615921 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: McConnell, A. E., Martin, J. E., & Hennessey, M. N. (2015). Indicators of postsecondary employment and education for youth with disabilities in relation to GPA and general education. Remedial & Special Education, 36(6), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932515583497 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Hogenes, M., van Oers, B., Diekstra, R. F. W., & Sklad, M. (2015). The effects of music composition as a classroom activity on engagement in music education and academic and music achievement: A quasi-experimental study. International Journal of Music Education, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761415584296 Week 7 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Dahl, P. (2016). Factors associated with truancy: Emerging adults’ recollections of skipping school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 31(1), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558415587324 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Izumi-Taylor, S., Ito, Y., Lin, C. H., & Lee, Y.-Y. (2014). Pre-service teachers’ views of children’s and adults’ play in Japan, Taiwan, and the USA. Research in Comparative and International Education, 9(2), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.2304/rcie.2014.9.2.213 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Collins, I. (2015). Using international accreditation in higher education to effect changes in organisational culture: A case study from a Turkish university. Journal of Research in International Education, 14(2), 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240915592589 HEALTH SCIENCES Week 3 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. Article A: Spencer, M. S., Rosland, A. M., Kieffer, E. C., Sinco, B. R., Valerio, M., Palmisano, G., Anderson, M., Guzman, J.R., & Heisler, M. (2011). Effectiveness of a community health worker intervention among African American and Latino adults with type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Public Health, 101(12), 2253–2260. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.300106 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Article B: Greenhalgh, T., Clinch, M., Afsar, N., Choudhury, Y., Sudra, R., Campbell-Richards, D., Claydon, A., Hitman, G.A., Hanson, P., & Finer, S. (2015). Socio-cultural influences on the behaviour of South Asian women with diabetes in pregnancy: Qualitative study using a multi-level theoretical approach. BMC Medicine, 13(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0360-1 Week 4 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article B. Article B: Greenhalgh, T., Clinch, M., Afsar, N., Choudhury, Y., Sudra, R., Campbell-Richards, D., Claydon, A., Hitman, G.A., Hanson, P., & Finer, S. (2015). Socio-cultural influences on the behaviour of South Asian women with diabetes in pregnancy: qualitative study using a multi-level theoretical approach. BMC Medicine, 13(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0360-1 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article A. Article A: Spencer, M. S., Rosland, A. M., Kieffer, E. C., Sinco, B. R., Valerio, M., Palmisano, G., Anderson, M., Guzman, J.R., & Heisler, M. (2011). Effectiveness of a community health worker intervention among African American and Latino adults with type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Public Health, 101(12), 2253–2260. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.300106 Week 5 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Flynn, P. M., Ridgeway, J. L., Wieland, M. L., Williams, M. D., Haas, L. R., Kremers, W. K., & Breitkopf, C. R. (2013). Primary care utilization and mental health diagnoses among adult patients requiring interpreters: A retrospective cohort study. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(3), 386–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-012-2159-5 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Kwate, N. O., & Goodman, M. S. (2015). Cross-sectional and longitudinal effects of racism on mental health among residents of Black neighborhoods in New York City. American Journal of Public Health, 105(4), 711–718. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302243 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Blank, M. B., Himelhoch, S. S., Balaji, A. B., Metzger, D. S., Dixon, L. B., Rose, C. E., Oraka, E., Davis-Vogel, A., Thompson, W.W., & Heffelfinger, J. D. (2014). A multisite study of the prevalence of HIV with rapid testing in mental health settings. American Journal of Public Health, 104(12), 2377–2384. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301633 Week 7 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Dale, C. M., Angus, J. E., Seto Nielsen, L., Kramer-Kile, M., Pritlove, C., Lapum, J., Price, J., Marzolini, S., Abramson, B., Oh, P., & Clark, A. (2015). “I’m no Superman”: Understanding diabetic men, masculinity, and cardiac rehabilitation. Qualitative Health Research, 25(12), 1648–1661. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314566323 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Hunleth, J. M., Steinmetz, E. K., McQueen, A., & James, A. S. (2016). Beyond adherence: Health care disparities and the struggle to get screened for colon cancer. Qualitative Health Research, 26(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315593549 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Spyridonidis, D., Hendy, J., & Barlow, J. (2015). Leadership for knowledge translation: The case of CLAHRCs. Qualitative Health Research, 25(11), 1492–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315583268 HUMAN SERVICES AND SOCIAL WORK Week 3 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. Article A: Hickman, G. P., & Wright, D. (2011). Academic and school behavioral variables as predictors of high school graduation among at-risk adolescents enrolled in a youth-based mentoring program. Journal of At-Risk Issues, 16(1), 27–33. If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Article B: Smith, Y. (2014). Rethinking decision making: An ethnographic study of worker agency in crisis intervention. Social Service Review, 88(3), 407–442. https://doi.org/10.1086/677846 Week 4 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article B. Article B: Smith, Y. (2014). Rethinking decision making: An ethnographic study of worker agency in crisis intervention. Social Service Review, 88(3), 407–442. https://doi.org/10.1086/677846 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article A. Article A: Hickman, G. P., & Wright, D. (2011). Academic and school behavioral variables as predictors of high school graduation among at-risk adolescents enrolled in a youth-based mentoring program. Journal of At-Risk Issues, 16(1), 27–33. Week 5 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Raskin, J. D, & Brett, B. L. (2014). Does the reverse golden section hold? Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 27(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720537.2014.879522 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Cardi, V., Di Matteo, R., Gilbert, P., & Treasure, J. (2014). Rank perception and self-evaluation in eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47(5), 543–552. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22261 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: de la Sablonnière, R., Auger, E., Taylor, D. M., Crush, J., & McDonald, D. (2013). Social change in South Africa: A historical approach to relative deprivation. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52(4), 703–725. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12003 Week 7 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Perrin-Wallqvist, R., & Lindblom, J. (2015). Coming out as gay: A phenomenological study about adolescents disclosing their homosexuality to their parents. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 43(3), 467–480. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2015.43.3.467 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Roberts, R. E. (2014). The child maltreatment survivor’s description of the process of becoming a parent: A grounded theory study. Qualitative Report, 19(24), 1–27. If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Christiansen, B., Borge, L, & Fagermoen, M. S. (2012). Understanding everyday life of morbidly obese adults-habits and body image. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health & Well-Being, 7, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v7i0.17255 MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY Week 3 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. Article A: Flynn, C. B., Smither, J. W., & Walker, A. G. (2016). Exploring the relationship between leaders’ core self-evaluations and subordinates’ perceptions of servant leadership: A field study. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 23(3), 260-271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051815621257 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Article B: Parboteeah, K. P., Seriki, H. T., & Hoegl, M. (2014). Ethnic diversity, corruption and ethical climates in sub-Saharan Africa: Recognizing the significance of human resource management. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(7), 979–1001. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.815251 Week 4 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article B. Article B: Parboteeah, K. P., Seriki, H. T., & Hoegl, M. (2014). Ethnic diversity, corruption and ethical climates in sub-Saharan Africa: Recognizing the significance of human resource management. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(7), 979–1001. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.815251 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article A. Article A: Flynn, C. B., Smither, J. W., & Walker, A. G. (2016). Exploring the relationship between leaders’ core self-evaluations and subordinates’ perceptions of servant leadership: A field study. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 23(3), 260-271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051815621257 Week 5 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Fu, N., Flood, P. C., Bosak, J., Morris, T., & O’Regan, P. (2015). How do high performance work systems influence organizational innovation in professional service firms? Employee Relations, 37(2), 209–231. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-10-2013-0155 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Chang, K., Hsu, C., Hsu, Y., & Chen, M. (2019). How green marketing, perceived motives and incentives influence behavioral intentions. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 49, 336-345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.04.012 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: DeRue, D. S., Nahrgang, J. D., Hollenbeck, J. R., & Workman, K. (2012). A quasi-experimental study of after-event reviews and leadership development. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(5), 997–1015. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028244 Week 7 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Cope, J. (2011). Entrepreneurial learning from failure: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(6), 604–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.06.002 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Cassia, L., De Massis, A., & Pizzurno, E. (2012). Strategic innovation and new product development in family firms: An empirically grounded theoretical framework. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 18(2), 198–232. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551211204229 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Arando, S., Gago, M., Jones, D. C., & Kato, T. (2015). Efficiency in employee-owned enterprises: An econometric case study of Mondragon. International Labor Review, 68(2), 398–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793914564966 NURSING Week 3 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. Article A: Wollenhaup, C. A., Stevenson, E. L., Thompson, J., Gordon, H. A., & Nunn, G. (2017). Implementation of a modified bedside handoff for a postpartum unit. The Journal of Nursing Administration, 47(6), 320-326. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.000000000000048 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Article B: Falkenstrom, M.K. (2017). A qualitative study of difficult nurse-patient encounters in home health care. Advances in Nursing Science, 40(2),168-183. https://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.0000000000000156 Week 4 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article B. Article B: Falkenstrom, M.K. (2017). A qualitative study of difficult nurse-patient encounters in home health care. Advances in Nursing Science, 40(2),168-183. https://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.0000000000000156 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article A. Article A: Wollenhaup, C. A., Stevenson, E. L., Thompson, J., Gordon, H. A., & Nunn, G. (2017). Implementation of a modified bedside handoff for a postpartum unit. The Journal of Nursing Administration, 47(6), 320-326. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.000000000000048 Week 5 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Jamison, T.R., & Schuttler, J. O. (2015). Examining social competence, self-perception, quality of life, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescent females with and without autism spectrum disorder: A quantitative design including between-groups and correlational analyses. Molecular Autism, 6(53), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-015-0044-x If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Lachs, M. S., Teresi, J. A., Ramirez, M., van Haitsma, K., Silver, S., Eimicke, J. P., & ... Pillemer, K. A. (2016). The prevalence of resident-to-resident elder mistreatment in nursing homes. Annals of Internal Medicine, 165(4), 229-236. https://doi.org/10.7326/M15-1209 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Zelenikova, R, Beach, M., Ren, D., Wolff, E., & Sherwood, P. (2014). Faculty perception of the effectiveness of EBP courses for graduate nursing students. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 11(6), 401–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/wvn.12068  Week 7 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Scheepmans, K., Diercks de Casterie, B., Paquay, L. von Gansbeke H., & Milisen, K. (2014). Restraint use in home care: A qualitative study from a nursing perspective. BMC Geriatrics, 14, 17. If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Aburn, G., & Gott, M. (2014). Education given to parents of children newly diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: The parent’s perspective. Pediatric Nursing, 40(5), 243- 256. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043454211409585 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Tingsvik, C., Hammarskjöld, F., Mårtensson, J., & Henricson, M. (2018). Patients’ lived experience of intensive care when being on mechanical ventilation during the weaning process: A hermeneutic phenomenological study. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing, 47, 46–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iccn.2018.03.004 PSYCHOLOGY AND COUNSELING Week 3 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. Article A: Stedman-Smith, M., DuBois, C. L., & Grey, S. F. (2015). Hand hygiene performance and beliefs among public university employees. Journal of Health Psychology, 20(10), 1263–1274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105313510338 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Article B: Wilhelmy, A., Kleinmann, M., König, C. J., Melchers, K. G., & Truxillo, D. M. (2016). How and why do interviewers try to make impressions on applicants? A qualitative study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(3), 313-332. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000046 Week 4 If your last name starts with A through L, use Article B. Article B: Wilhelmy, A., Kleinmann, M., König, C. J., Melchers, K. G., & Truxillo, D. M. (2016). How and why do interviewers try to make impressions on applicants? A qualitative study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(3), 313-332. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000046 If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article A. Article A: Stedman-Smith, M., DuBois, C. L., & Grey, S. F. (2015). Hand hygiene performance and beliefs among public university employees. Journal of Health Psychology, 20(10), 1263–1274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105313510338 Week 5 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Davies, B., Griffiths, J., Liddiard, K., Lowe, K., & Stead, L. (2015). Changes in staff confidence and attributions for challenging behaviour after training in positive behavioural support within a forensic medium secure service. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 26(6), 847–861. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2015.1072574 If your last name starts with J through R, use Article B. Article B: Ivcevic, Z., & Brackett, M. A. (2015). Predicting creativity: Interactive effects of openness to experience and emotion regulation ability. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 9(4), 480–487. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039826 If your last name starts with S through Z, use Article C. Article C: Morillas-Romero, A., Tortella-Feliu, M., Balle, M., & Bornas, X. (2015). Spontaneous emotion regulation and attentional control. Emotion, 15(2), 162–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000016 Week 7 If your last name starts with A through I, use Article A. Article A: Lord, S., Després, C., & Ramadier, T. (2011). 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Exploring how transit practitioners navigate nervousness. Public Administration Quarterly, 44(1), 31-68. © 2021 Walden University, LLC Page 19 of 19 International Journal of Music Education 2016, Vol. 34(1) 32 –48 © The Author(s) 2015 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0255761415584296 ijm.sagepub.com The effects of music composition as a classroom activity on engagement in music education and academic and music achievement: A quasi- experimental study Michel Hogenes The Hague University, The Netherlands Bert van Oers VU University, The Netherlands René F.W. Diekstra The Hague University, The Netherlands Marcin Sklad University College Roosevelt, The Netherlands Abstract The present study aims to contribute to the understanding of the effects of music education, in particular music composition as a classroom activity for fifth- and sixth-graders. The intervention (experimental condition) focused on a three-step-model for music composition, based on the Cultural Historical Activity Theory of education, and has been compared with a teacher-centered approach mainly based on students’ reproduction of music (control condition). Results indicated that after the six-month intervention period, students in the experimental group were more engaged in music education compared to students in the control group. The research did not show a statistical difference in learning outcomes with regard to intelligence, academic achievement and music achievement, although the students of the experimental group performed better with regard to reading comprehension than their counterparts in the control group. The authors conclude that music composition as a classroom activity is feasible and useful in elementary schools. Corresponding author: Michel Hogenes, The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Johanna Westerdijkplein 75, 2125 EN The Hague, The Netherlands. Email: [email protected] 584296 IJM0010.1177/0255761415584296International Journal of Music EducationHogenes et al. research-article2015 Research Article mailto:[email protected] http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F0255761415584296&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2015-06-04 Hogenes et al. 33 Keywords academic achievement, cognitive functioning, cultural historical activity theory, engagement, music achievement, music composition, music education Introduction For a long time, music educators have suggested that music, either in the form of music education, music practice, or exposure to music, can have a significant impact on school achievement, school attendance rates, and students’ conduct, both in elementary and secondary education (Koopman, 2005; Waller, 2007). Music education and exposure to music by listening or music-making would make children smarter and would have a positive influence on children’s motor development, social-emotional skills and even improve their chance of success in society (Bastian, 2002). The question is whether these claims are supported in available scientific studies. Besides music educa- tors and musicians, educational researchers have considered the question of what effects music education can have on child development. Some researchers claim to have found effects on cogni- tive functioning, such as an increase in concentration and academic achievement, in addition to effects in the social and emotional domain (Elliott, 1995; Gardner, 2004). Hogenes, van Oers, and Diekstra (2015) conducted a literature review on the impact of music on child functioning. Their review shows that research literature on the impact of music on child functioning can be divided into three groups: (1) the influence of music on cognitive functioning; (2) the influence of music on social-emotional functioning; and (3) the influence of music on motor functioning. They identified 21 studies that met their inclusion criteria, such as the use of an experimental or quasi-experimental research design, and age range (3–18 years). Eighteen of the 21 studies focused on cognitive functioning (1) studies in which the influence of music is examined in relation to the academic performance of children (Bastian, 2002; Bolduc, 2009; Eastlund Gromko, 2005; Geoghegan & Mitchelmore, 1996; Rossini, 2000); (2) studies with regard to enhancement of cognitive task performance (including the so called “Mozart effect”) (Bilhartz, Bruhn, & Olson, 2000; Costa-Giomi 1999; Eastlund Gromko & Smith Poorman, 1998; Hallam, Price, & Katsarou, 2002; Hallam & Price 1998; Ivanov & Geake, 2003; Koutsoupidou & Hargreaves, 2009; McKelvie & Low, 2002; Schellenberg, 2004; Schellenberg, Nakata, Hunter, & Tamoto, 2007); and (3) intervention studies in which music has been investigated as facilitator of cognitive processes (Abikoff, Courtney, Szeibel, & Koplewicz, 1996; Furnham & Stephenson, 2007; Furnham & Strbac, 2002);. Of the 18 studies on cognitive functioning all, with three excep- tions (Costa-Giomi 1999; Eastlund Gromko & Smith Poorman, 1998; McKelvie & Low, 2002), reported positive or moderate positive effects of music education on academic achievement, pho- nemic awareness, spatial reasoning, creative thinking, and cognitive task performance. In the two studies on effects on social-emotional functioning (Bastian, 2002; Ulfarsdottir & Erwin, 1999) (one of these fell also in the category of studies on cognitive functioning) a positive effect of music education was observed on interpersonal problem solving, alternative solution thinking, consequential thinking, positive interactions in the classroom, social climate in the classroom and the school as a whole. In one of the studies on social-emotional skills, positive effects were only found in the long term. A significant difference with regard to alternative solution thinking and consequential thinking was shown at the follow-up test after 7 months. The two studies identified with regard to motor functioning showed positive effects on motor independency, jumping and dynamic balance (Palmer & Meyer, 2000; Zachopouloua, Tsapakidou, & Derric, 2004). Hogenes, Van Oers, and Diekstra concluded that music education and exposure to music appear to have a positive influence on child functioning. However, the diversity in, among others, research design, 34 International Journal of Music Education 34(1) validity, dependent and independent variables of the reviewed studies made it difficult to draw robust conclusions. The aim of the present study is to gather empirical evidence with regard to the effects of produc- tive music education on engagement in music education, and both music and academic achieve- ment. The rationale for studying the connections between music education and other academic achievements is primarily to assess whether music education contributes to development in gen- eral. Our main research question is: “What are the effects of music composition as a classroom activity on engagement in music education and on academic and music achievement?” The authors specifically investigated the effect on academic and music achievement of productive music edu- cation on elementary school students compared to a teacher-centered approach, mainly based on reproduction of music with regard to singing, playing instruments, and music and movement. Engagement in music education means that students are able to, and motivated to, participate in music activities. Theoretical basis and prior research on music composition as a classroom activity Activity theory The theoretical framework for this study is the Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) of education (Cole, 1996; Karpov, 2005; van Oers et al., 2008). The starting point for this approach is Vygotsky’s assumption that education can promote students’ development by assisting them to appropriate relevant cultural tools that help them to become self-dependent participants in cultural practices (Vygotsky, 1978a; Vygotsky, 1981). More recent elaborations of the approach emphasize the importance of participation in specific cultural practices that serve as context for meaningful learning in participants (Lave & Wenger, 1991). At first newcomers in a cultural practice just play a peripheral role in the practice (for example, as an observer), but in due time these novices master the relevant tools with the help of more experienced members for the improvement of their abilities for participation. Involvement in real-life cultural practices generally confronts participants with problems that arouse new needs for knowledge and abilities. By connecting the guided learning processes in the context of such practices to the personal needs of participants, the learning is going to make per- sonal sense for them, according to Leont’ev (1981), and as such contributes to the integration of the learning outcomes in a person’s identity. Moreover, we can assume that strengthening the per- sonal sense of the learning within practices will also contribute to the transformation of formal involvement in a practice into authentic personal engagement of the students with the practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Engagement with problems, people, and domains can have a synergistic effect (Stahl, 2006). Many dimensions can be distinguished with regard to engagement in learning. The nature of a problem given to students is critical. To get students to engage with a problem, the problem has to be meaningful for them (Leont’ev, 1981; Tolman, 1999), i.e., be functionally related to the practice. It has to involve issues that make sense to students within their interpretive perspec- tives on the world. It should also be a problem that challenges their current understanding, but is within reach of their understanding. Music education From the perspective of CHAT, music is a product of cultural history that always encompasses (by definition) a number of actually present or virtual co-actors. As such, music from this perspective Hogenes et al. 35 is to be conceived as a form of distributed cognition (Cole & Engeström, 1993), produced in a col- laborative process with actual or virtual others. As a cultural phenomenon music activity can be interpreted in terms of rule-based, goal directed, and tool-mediated actions with sounds. Such musical activity can take several forms, such as reproduction of previously composed music or production of new musical pieces (composing). According to CHAT, learning to take part in such cultural activities implies getting involved in the related cultural practices with culturally more experienced people who can guide the novice towards appropriation of actions or fundamental operations (like using music notations in the case of a music activity) that are deemed relevant by the music community involved. Hence, music education can be conceived as a cultural endeavor to get children collaboratively engaged in the musical practices of the community and assist them in appropriating the roles and related tools in order to enhance their participation in such roles, as listeners, singers, players of musical instru- ments, or composers. Most of the time, however, children’s involvement in music activities in schools are of the receptive kind (learning music composed by others). Like in other subject matter domains (e.g., reading and writing texts), we assume, however, that in music activities more pro- ductive versions of music-making (i.e. composing) may contribute in new and significant ways to children’s development. Starting out such learning activities from the children’s own musical imagination and giving them the (relative) freedom to compose their own songs, makes it a form of authentic learning. Activity theory (Leont’ev, 1981) provides us with a detailed theoretical lan- guage to describe and analyze the processes involved in such activity of composing (in terms of actions, personal sense, tools to use, rules to follow, goals to achieve, automatized operations, like audiation). Music education in schools today includes several domains of musical behavior: singing, play- ing instruments, listening to music, music and movement, working with musical notation, and reflecting on listening and/or performance. Music composition can be added to this list, but can also be considered as part of, or as derivative of, the domains singing, playing instruments, and working with musical notation (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2006). Apart from listening there is a cognitive process called audiation, necessary for the understand- ing of music. The term audiation was introduced in 1975 by music education researcher Edwin Gordon. Audiation can be considered as the most important process in making music or listening to music (Gordon, 2003). It is a high-level thought process that involves mentally hearing and comprehending music, even when no physical sound is present. It is a cognitive process by which a person gives meaning to musical sounds with the help of the brain. In essence, audiation of music is analogous to thinking in a language. The term audiation should not be confused with audition, the mere perception of sound. Audiation is also more than just a musical form of auditory imagery. Developed audiation includes the necessary understanding of music to enable the conscious pre- diction of patterns in unfamiliar music. In the present study we will focus on the comparison between students’ involvement in musi- cal practices as a composer (music production) versus reproducer/performer of music. Composing music can be seen as an activity that is similar to writing texts (Hogenes, van Oers & Diekstra, 2014). Within CHAT, language is seen as an important tool for cognitive processes (van Oers, 2005; Vygotsky, 1978b). Moreover, it is a means for communication. Vygotsky mainly saw lan- guage as speech, in other words as a process of dialogically composing texts with communica- tive intentions (Vygotsky, 1981). Vygotsky also pointed out that the invention and mastery of written means for communication strongly improved the communicative possibilities of man- kind and even its thinking faculty (Scinto, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978b, pp. 105–119). A strong anal- ogy can be made between text composition and music composition. As in writing texts, in music composition students deal with problems of expressing main ideas, sequencing, classification, 36 International Journal of Music Education 34(1) and categorizing, and need special technical tools in order to become proficient as composers. Musical tools, like music notation, help them to acquire these intellectual competencies (Ruthmann, 2007; Wiggins, 1990). Although active music composition may be uncommon for most elementary school students, on the basis of our theory, we can expect that participation in composition activity with the help of an expert and peers, may enhance the student’s confidence in his or her possibilities to take part mean- ingfully in this activity (Mahn & John-Steiner, 2002), and even may stimulate his or her achieve- ment motive and engagement (Markova, 1983). One of the aims of the present study, next to the effects of composition on academic and music achievement, is to examine these assumptions. The present study Given the main research question concerning music composition as a classroom activity (produc- tive music education) a study was set up to examine the effects of music composition as a class- room activity on engagement in music education, music achievement, and academic achievement. In the present study two formats of music education: productive music education with composi- tion as a classroom activity as core activity (designated as experimental condition), and a teacher- centered approach mainly based on reproduction of music (designated as control condition) were compared. Active music listening, and music and movement were important elements of both interventions. Method Design—procedure A randomized groups pre-test–post-test–follow-up design was used for this study. Although the students were not randomly assigned to the experimental and control group, the classes were. The two music interventions were implemented in 18 weekly lessons of 45 minutes each. The lessons were given on a weekly basis in the period September 2010 through February 2011. Pre-test data on singing, listening, intelligence, language, reading comprehension, and mathematics were col- lected during the first 2 weeks of the school year, starting in September 2010. Post-test data on the same variables were collected 6 months later, right after the intervention. Follow-up data were collected at the end of the school year, 5 months after the intervention (July 2011). All measures were group-administered to students in the intervention and control groups by the first author. Data were collected and analyzed by means of standardized tests. At post-test, besides the variables mentioned above, engagement was measured by using a questionnaire. In many Dutch elementary schools, such as De Vijver, music is mainly used as a means during social occasions, like birthday celebrations. However, music education was no part of the school program. As the students had no systematic experience in music education before the intervention, it was not possible to conduct the questionnaire as pre-test. The intervention and the measures are described below. Participants All participants were students attending the elementary school De Vijver, located in the City of The Hague, comprising 500 students in 21 classes. The school works on the basis of the Dalton concept (Parkhurst, 1922/2007). The Dalton concept has been developed by Parkhurst, and is based on three principles: (1) freedom (students may choose from a limited list of optional tasks. They have freedom to choose the time on which, and the tempo in which, they work on certain subjects); (2) Hogenes et al. 37 cooperation (cooperation refers to the social character of learning and knowledge); and (3) assign- ments (students have to plan and execute tasks independently without much guidance from an adult) (Parkhurst, 1922/2007). The experimental group consisted of 31 girls (49.2%) and 35 boys (53%) comprising one fifth- grade class and two sixth-grade classes at the elementary school De Vijver in The Hague, the capital city of the province of Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands. The control group consisted of 33 girls (50.8%) and 32 boys (49.2%) comprising two fifth-grade classes and one sixth-grade class at the same school as the students of the experimental group. The music instructor for both interventions was the first author of this article (male, 40 years old, 17 years of instructional practice, who majored in music performance [electronic organ and keyboards], and music in education). The students in the experimental group had a mean age of 9.38 years (SD = .69). The students in the control group had an overall mean age at pre-test of 8.92 years (SD = .63). The vast majority of the participants were native speakers of Dutch, with 23 participants (13 in the intervention group, 10 in the control group) having a first language other than Dutch. In both groups, language and mathematics were taught the same way. The average class size was 22 students in both conditions. For the analysis of post-test and follow-up data the N differs between measures depending upon differences in missing data. The number of missing data varied from 7.7% to 10.6%. Interventions The experimental group (N = 66) was involved in a program constructed according to a CHAT approach. In this intervention students were actively engaged in the activity of composing music, in which musical notation (as a sign system) was a helpful tool for organizing the activity, provid- ing a means for effective communication about the object of the activity (in other words the music piece they were composing), and regulating specific actions to be carried out (Jones, 2011, for the role of signs in activities). Reflection played a crucial role here to keep track of the process and its (intermediate) outcomes. The music composition and music notation activities took an average of 30 minutes (2/3) per session. The experimental group worked collaboratively at music composition activities. The group work can be characterized by simultaneous interaction, positive interdepend- ence, and individual accountability (Kagan, 1994; Slavin, 1983). In contrast to the experimental group in which music composition as a form of productive music-making was central, the control group focused on reproductive music-making. The control group (N = 65) was taught from a teacher-centered approach. In this setting composing as a class- room activity played a minor role. The students of the control group mainly sang songs composed by songwriters, played music written by composers, did a lot of music and movement (activities in which aspects of sound and form are represented by movement and dance activities). The sing- ing, playing and movement took an average of 30 minutes (2/3) per session. Both groups used all kinds of musical notation (traditional music notation, graphical and pictorial notation). In both interventions the production of music was the core activity, but the experimental intervention focused on the child as composer (music production), while the control intervention focused on the child as performer (music reproduction). One could also speak of production versus re-pro- duction. Manuals for both interventions are available from the first author of this article. The manuals contain complete lesson plans with goals, activities, and guidelines for materials and classroom layout. Before the actual experimental study was carried out a pilot study was under- taken to examine the feasibility of the proposed methods and design. In 10 weekly sessions of 45 minutes two classes of 9 and 10 year olds participated in music lessons. One group executed a sequence of lessons comparable with the intervention of the experimental group of the current study. The other group executed a sequence of lessons comparable with the intervention of the 38 International Journal of Music Education 34(1) control group of this study. The pilot study showed the authors the importance of the first step of the three-step-model developed for music composition as a classroom activity, which will be described below: the creation of a common basis in order to start the process of music composi- tion. Although the authors spent time creating a common basis in music composition activities in the pilot study, the executed activities demonstrated a need for extensive attention to this phase in the process. A second issue that came up in the pilot study concerned the second step of the music composition process: creating ideas and writing the composition. Part of this step is the revision phase. The revision of a piece of music always focuses on the goal to make students think about their compositions and to help them to improve the draft version of their composition (Hogenes et al., 2014). Revision of music composition has been widely described (Hickey, 2012; Kaschub and Smith, 2009, 2013; Kratus, 2012; Wiggins, 1990) The authors consequently became aware of the need to revise pieces in three rounds: (1) on the ideas of the composer and the content of the piece; (2) the construction of the piece and its style; (3) the notation of the music. Observations showed that insufficient attention to one of the rounds and/or changing the order of the rounds delivered less interesting music compositions (e.g., insufficient use of aspects of sound and form), as well as reducing the student’s engagement. Research questions and hypotheses This study addressed the following research questions: 1. What difference can be found between the effects of a music education intervention based on music composition as a classroom activity versus a music education intervention based on a teacher-centered approach mainly comprising reproduction of music on students’ engagement in music education? 2. What difference can be found between the effects of a music education intervention based on music composition as a classroom activity versus a music education intervention based on a teacher-centered approach mainly comprising reproduction of music on intelligence, academic achievement, and music achievement? Based on previous research (Bodovski & Farkas, 2007; Engeström, Engeström & Suntio, 2002; Marks, 2000), the authors of this article expected that students in the experimental group would be more deeply engaged in music activities in the classroom than the control group (Hypothesis 1). They would outperform on nonverbal intelligence compared with the control group (Hypothesis 2). Moreover, it was expected that students of the experimental group would perform better with regard to academic skills than the control group (Hypothesis 3). Furthermore, the authors expected the students of the experimental group to develop better musical abilities, especially listening and audiation, than the control group (Hypothesis 4). The reason for this expectation is that composi- tion as a classroom activity may demand more high-level thought processes that involve mentally hearing and comprehending music (audiation) than performing music (Gordon, 2003). Measures Overview. To determine the effects of the two interventions with respect to children’s academic performance, intelligence, and music performance, a battery of tests was used: CITO1 Language Test (Spelling), CITO Reading Test, CITO Mathematics Tests, Raven Standard Progressive Matri- ces (SPM), and a Musical Abilities Test for Singing and Listening (Hogenes, van Oers & Diekstra, 2010a, 2010b). The CITO tests are part of the student monitoring system of the school. An Hogenes et al. 39 intelligence test was included because relations between music education and intelligence have been found in previous studies (Bastian, 2002). The Raven Standard Progressive Matrices is a valid nonverbal intelligence test that can be used for group testing and was therefore suitable for this study. The Musical Abilities Test for Singing and Listening was designed for this study. For this study, a pre- and post-test design was used. The pre-test was administered two weeks before the interventions started. The pre-test consisted of the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices, and the Musical Abilities Test for Singing and Listening. Also data from the student monitoring system were part of the pre-test. The post-test took place in the week upon completion of the inter- vention. The measurements from the pre-test were identically administered during the post-test. Additionally, a questionnaire was administered to measure students’ experiences with and engage- ment in the interventions. The follow-up was conducted five months after the post-test. Measurements were the same as at the post-test with the exception of the experience and engage- ment questionnaire. CITO, language test, spelling. For this study a CITO language test for spelling was used. The test has to be completed twice a year. The first test has to be conducted in the second half of the month of January or the first week of February, and the second test at the end of the school year. The test is part of the CITO student monitoring system. The spelling test assesses the ability of children to put words into word images. In grades 5 and 6 mainly two- and three-syllable words are tested for each year in 19 spelling categories. The tested words reflect the curriculum of the most frequently used language and spelling methods. The tested words are partly presented in the form of word and sentence dictation, and partly in the form of multiple-choice assignments (De Wijs & Krom, 2008; De Wijs, Krom & Van Berkel, 2007). CITO, reading tests. For this study two CITO reading tests were used: technical reading and reading comprehension. Both sets of tests are completed twice a year. Both tests are part of the CITO stu- dent monitoring system. The technical reading tests measure the accuracy and tempo of reading (Jongen, Krom & Roumans, 2009, 2010). The reading comprehension tests provide an insight into the development of reading skills of students and the differences between students. The tests cover the main objec- tives and their intermediate targets. The tests consist of multiple-choice questions with regard to texts the students have to read. Every test has two follow-up tests: an easier and a more complex one to make it possible to test the students in an adaptive way (Feenstra, 2008; Feenstra, Krom & Berkel, 2007). CITO, mathematics test. The CITO Rekenen-Wiskunde [Arithmetic-Mathematics] tests were used to assess the children’s progression during this subject. The assignments concern three domains: (1) numbers and operations; (2) measurement, geometry, time and money; and (3) ratios, fractions, and percentages. The tests were conducted twice a year. The tests are part of the CITO student monitoring system (Jansen, Scheltens, & Kraemer, 2006a, 2006b). Raven, Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM). The Raven SPM test comprised 60 items arranged in 5 sets (A, B, C, D, and E) of 12 items each. It was used to measure the students’ ability to form per- ceptual relations and to reason by analogy independent of language and formal schooling. The matrices consist of a series of patterns in upward progression. The first item of each set is almost natural …