wk2 - Education
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Week 2 - Discussion
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Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses. Refer to the Discussion Forum Grading Rubric under the Settings icon above for guidance on how your discussion will be evaluated.
Action Research Selection
Your written response to this discussion prompt assesses your ability to both describe the action research proposal process and formulate evidence-based recommendation for selecting an appropriate action research topic. This discussion also supports your achievement of Course Learning Outcome 5.
According to the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL), “Action research is inquiry or research in the context of focused efforts to improve the quality of an organization and its performance. It typically is designed and conducted by practitioners who analyze the data to improve their own practice,” (as cited in Action Research, n.d., para. 1), As you read this week in the Instructor Guidance and Chapter 3 of the your text, keep in mind the NCREL definition of action research as you select your study to peer review for the Week 6 assignment.
Initial Post: Post an initial response that addresses the following areas:
· First, select one action research study from your list of peer-reviewed sources from the Week 1 assignment.
Bringing evidence-based Child Mental Health Services to the Schools
· Next, post the full 6th edition APA reference entry for this selected source. SEE ATTACH Bringing evidence-based Child Mental Health Services to the Schools
· Finally, in two to three paragraphs, discuss why you chose this topic and in particular this action research proposal. How does this topic support your current professional role or future professional goals?
Guided Response: Review the posts of your classmates and the responses of the instructor. Substantively reply to at least two peers with your reaction to the initial posts. Discuss how their justifications may be similar to or different than your own. Also, skim the action research proposal they have provided, discuss interesting items you found in the proposal and how it is similar to or different than the one you posted.
Though two replies are the basic expectation, for deeper engagement and application of the material, you are encouraged to provide responses to any comments or questions others have given to you (including your instructor) before Day 7. This ongoing engagement in the discussion will deepen the conversation while providing opportunities to demonstrate your content expertise, critical thinking, and real-world experiences with this topic.
WEEK 2 INSTRUCTOR GUIDANCE
Welcome to Week 2 of EDU 694:Capstone 1: Educational Research. Please be sure to review the Week 2 homepage for this course to see:
· The specific learning outcomes for the week
· The schedule overview
· The required and recommended resources
· The introduction to the week
· A listing of the assessments
Next, be sure to read this entire Instructor Guidance page.
Overview
Recall that in Week 1 you discussed the overarching understanding of Action Research in relationship to the education profession. Week 2 is designed to ensure expansion upon your early understandings of Action Research.
As part of the Week 1 Discussion 1, you were encouraged to review the weekly homepages for the course and take note of the assessments each week. Now is an appropriate time to revisit the Week 6 Final Project instructions and Grading Rubric to be sure you understand the scope of what you will do in that assessment and how your participation in Week 2 supports your success.
Intellectual Elaboration
Why Bother with Research?
It would be so much easier, in our post-modern world, to self-appoint ourselves as experts based on our experiences, our intuitions, our “gut feelings.” After all, who knows better than we do about the things we have experienced, thought, and felt? Further, and more to the point, there are many people who would be just fine with this. The presence of the internet, as it is with many things, is in part is responsible for this. (Visit this website for a lengthy explanation of post-modernism (Links to an external site.)
. Go to this website for a much shorter explanation of post-modernism (Links to an external site.)
). In the post-modern world, everyone can be their own “expert.” Long held notions of expertise and scholarship have been called into question, and thus must be defended.
Research relies on following a well-worn path, developed over several centuries by scholars, scientists, and others, to find answers to questions. In essence, the researcher seeks, through following this path, to satisfy curiosity, to advance thinking, to devise and invent solutions, and to make the world better. Research, then, is vital to human progress, and is equally vital in advancing professional practice in education.
Of course, there are many aspects to research, for our purposes in this class, we will focus more on Action Research, a type of research that educators can use well for their professional purposes.
Action Research.
Action Research is a key type of research aimed specifically at what I call “street level practitioners.” O’Brien (1998, paragraphs 23 and 24) notes that Kurt Lewin is generally considered the ‘father’ of Action Research. A German social and experimental psychologist, and one of the founders of the Gestalt school, he was concerned with social problems, and focused on participative group processes for addressing conflict, crises, and change, generally within organizations. Initially, he was associated with the Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Boston, but soon went on to establish his own National Training Laboratories.
Lewin first coined the term ‘Action Research’ in his 1946 paper “Action Research and Minority Problems”, characterizing Action Research as “a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action”, using a process of “a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action.”
Action Research, when considered from an education viewpoint, is tied with the work of John Dewey (Links to an external site.)
, as noted in the Week 1 Instructor Guidance, whose experiential view of education was suited to both students and teachers. As such, it is very versatile. Teachers, while conducting Action Research, seek to find solutions to practical classroom problems. Some examples of Action Research can be found in all curricular subjects, student management issues, improvements of teaching technique(s), etc. Action Research can also be conducted by individuals, teams of teachers, or entire schools. In sum, Action Research works well for educators.
Closing Remarks
Understanding the conduct, potential value, and professional necessity of research in general, and Action Research in particular, arms you with the necessary tools to not only conduct your own research, but to enhance our profession. By offering a substantial alternative to post-modern modes of thinking as applied to education, you can proceed with your professional practice with renewed confidence.
Assessment Guidance
This section includes additional specific assistance for excelling in the discussions for Week 2 beyond what is given with the instructions for the discussions. If you have questions about what is expected on any discussion for Week 2, contact your instructor before the due date.
Discussion 1: Action Research Selection
For this discussion, you will be choosing the Action Research proposal in which you will review during this course and for your final assignment. It is important that you choose a proposal that is in keeping with your topic you chose during Week 1 Discussion 2. As well, that the proposal you choose is also one that you identified as a peer-reviewed sources from Week 1 Assignment 1.
Journal: Reflection
This journal assesses your ability to apply collaboration and cooperation as it relates to Action Research proposals. You will be reflecting on the value of Action Research within the education profession. Be sure to support your reflection with information from the Lloyd (2002) article provided in the course and your textbook. It is important with this journal assignment to really reflect on how Action Research can have an impact on and within the education profession.
References
Aylesworth, G. (2005, September 30). Postmodernism (Links to an external site.)
. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2013/entries/postmodernism/
Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). John Dewey (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160445/John-Dewey
OBrien, R. (1998). An overview of the methodological approach of Action Research (Links to an external site.)
. University of Toronto. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjqrd7l4KfqAhXVIDQIHV6pBXkQFjAAegQIBRAB&url=https\%3A\%2F\%2Fyouthsextion.files.wordpress.com\%2F2011\%2F04\%2F14action-research.pdf&usg=AOvVaw00Ue9wcIH5FsoZtCn0UKEO
PBS. (n.d.). Postmodernism (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/postm-body.html
Required Resources
Text
Mertler, C. A. (2017).
Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators
(5th ed.) [Electronic version]. Sage Publications.
· Chapter 1: Introduction to Action Research
Multimedia
Conscious Educating. (2009, November 7). Action research in the classroom part 1 (Links to an external site.)
[Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDVH0u4tUWo
· In this first (10 minute) video, teachers are introduced to the topic of action research, including theory, benefits, and methods of classroom action research. Action research is compared to non-applied research methods (Parts 1 and 2). This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Conscious Educating. (2009, November 7). Action research in the classroom part 2 (Links to an external site.)
[Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZHvpgU7pc8
· In this second (10 minute) video, teachers are introduced to the topic of action research, including theory, benefits, and methods of classroom action research. Action research is compared to non-applied research methods (Parts 1 and 2). This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
University of Washington Libraries. (2011, July 19). What is a scholarly journal article (Links to an external site.)
[Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PuyCJnv3auk
· This (2:56 minute) video discusses how to differentiate between peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed articles. As well as, how to find peer reviewed or scholarly journal articles. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Web Pages
Refworks (Links to an external site.)
. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.refworks.com/refworks2/default.aspx?r=authentication::init
· This is an online bibliographic management program that allows users to create a personal database of references and generate bibliographies in a variety of formats, including APA. Please use the group code RWAshfordU. You can also find the link in the University of Arizona Global Campus Library. Click on Getting Research Help and then Citation Help. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Websites
ERIC: Institute of Education Sciences (Links to an external site.)
. (https://eric.ed.gov)
· This site provides access to educational research documents on a variety of topics housed by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Jing (Links to an external site.)
. (http://www.techsmith.com/jing.html)
· Website for the web-based screen recording software that allows for up to five minutes of narration for on-screen content, including a presentation, with a free account. Web-based publishing of recordings is possible as well through the associated screencast service with a free account. This is a recommended source for the Post Your Introduction discussion.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Microsoft PowerPoint (Links to an external site.)
. (http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/powerpoint)
· Website offering access to resources for download, such as templates, and references for use of the widely used Microsoft Office PowerPoint software. This is a recommended source for the Post Your Introduction discussion.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
YouTube (Links to an external site.)
. (http://www.youtube.com)
· Website for the web-based video creation and distribution service, which allows for webcam recordings, video uploads, video editing and narration and captioning options, and much more for public, unlisted, and private videos. If you want a video to be viewable only by those who have a direct link, select “unlisted” as the option for distributing your video. This is a recommended source for the Post Your Introduction discussion.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Recommended Resources
Articles
Head, A. J., & Eisenberg, M. B. (2010, November 1). Truth be told: How college students evaluate and use information in the digital age (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED535166.pdf
· This report details college students’ information-seeking strategies and research difficulties as part of Project Information Literacy. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Rheingold, H. (2009, June 30). Crap detection 101 (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from http://blog.sfgate.com/rheingold/2009/06/30/crap-detection-101/
· This City Bright’s blog from SFGate.com features prominent local citizens and experts with unique perspectives on digital media and other 21st-century literacy issues. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Multimedia
Corwin. (2012, February 23). The rewards of action research for teachers (Links to an external site.)
[Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sp37PkjTPx8
· This approximate two-minute video features the author of The Action Research Guidebook. Richard Sagor hits briefly on the impact that educational research can have on teacher self-efficacy and student achievement. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Web Pages
Evaluating Resources (Links to an external site.)
. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/evaluating-resources
· This at-a-glance document from the Regents of the University of California provides tips for finding credible sources. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Websites
Bing. (http://www.bing.com)
· Optional search engine that will support your exploration of comparing scholarly searches to other search formats. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Google (Links to an external site.)
. (http://www.google.com)
· Optional search engine that will support your exploration of comparing scholarly searches to other search formats. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
Yahoo (Links to an external site.)
. (http://www.yahoo.com)
· Optional search engine that will support your exploration of comparing scholarly searches to other search formats. This resource will be used to support your work on the discussion this week (i.e., Topic Selection) and this week’s assignment (i.e. Finding Nemo? No, Finding Research?).
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Developing inclusive practices through collaborative action research
Article in European Journal of Special Needs Education · May 2009
DOI: 10.1080/08856250902793586
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European Journal of Special Needs Education
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Developing inclusive practices through collaborative action research
Vassilios S. Argyropoulos a; Magda A. Nikolaraizi a
a Department of Special Education, University of Thessaly, Argonafton & Filellinon, Volos, Greece
Online Publication Date: 01 May 2009
To cite this Article Argyropoulos, Vassilios S. and Nikolaraizi, Magda A.(2009)Developing inclusive practices through collaborative
action research,European Journal of Special Needs Education,24:2,139 — 153
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European Journal of Special Needs Education
Vol. 24, No. 2, May 2009, 139–153
ISSN 0885-6257 print/ISSN 1469-591X online
© 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/08856250902793586
http://www.informaworld.com
Developing inclusive practices through collaborative
action research
Vassilios S. Argyropoulos* and Magda A. Nikolaraizi
Department of Special Education, University of Thessaly, Argonafton & Filellinon,
Volos, Greece
Taylor and FrancisREJS_A_379528.sgm10.1080/08856250902793586European Journal of Special Needs Education0885-6257 (print)/1469-591X (online)Original Article2009Taylor & Francis242000000May [email protected]
This paper highlights the framework and discusses the results of an action research
network which aimed to promote academic access in two general educational
settings within which a pupil with blindness and a deaf pupil were educated
respectively. The persons involved in this collaborative scheme were general
teachers, a school counsellor, academic staff and student teachers. The findings of
the study indicate that the implementation of the action research network resulted
in the development of inclusive and collaborative thinking and the adoption of
relevant teaching practices which promoted the children’s access to the curriculum
and supported the teachers’ and student teachers’ professional development. The
outcomes of this action research network raise concerns about the access and the
status of membership of children with special needs in general educational classroom
and provide insights for the pivotal role of action research in understanding
educational contexts and situations from a number of different perspectives.
Keywords: action research; inclusive and reflective practices; collaboration; co-
teaching; deaf; blindness
Introduction
Today, the notion of inclusion and its multi-level structure is high on educational
agendas and has led to many educational reforms. Clifton (2004, 77) argues that
‘inclusion, and thereby participation, in the educational system, is more than simply
access to education’. Since inclusion refers to a wider community which embodies a
number of cultural and linguistic diversities, educators have to strive to highlight the
complexity of inclusion and encourage the development of an ‘inclusive ethos’
accompanied with a flexible curriculum and classroom management (Armstrong and
Moore 2004). This perspective has led to the necessity of changing classic techniques
and strategies and reflecting on collaborative research projects (action research
projects) conducted by teachers, pupils and researchers which seek to advance an
agenda for inclusion bringing or conveying changes to institutional cultures and
practices (Ainscow et al. 2003; Argyropoulos and Stamouli 2006; Langerock 2000;
Lloyd 2002; Schoen and Nolen 2004).
At the same time, inclusive education challenges issues of classic pedagogy and as
such leads to conflicts between different set of values and goals (Armstrong and
Moore 2004). According to Rodney (2003), inclusive education is not just a matter of
inaugurating a new term in the educational terminology. It is a shift from one set of
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
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140 V.S. Argyropoulos and M.A. Nikolaraizi
beliefs to another. Principles that are underpinned by notions such as empowerment,
emancipation and equity are embedded in the context of inclusion and often practitio-
ners and their co-researchers confront dilemmas and difficulties (Armstrong and
Moore 2004; Thompson 2004).
In particular, Greek national and local policies seem to diverge from the principles
of inclusion and as such they are open to challenges, dilemmas and critical analyses
by researchers and practitioners. Many cases are reported where children with special
needs are integrated or included in regular educational settings ‘due to lack of any
special education facilities’ (Vlachou 2006, 42) and not due to inclusive policy prac-
tices. Integration in Greece was supported to a greater extend by the latest legislation
(Law 2817/2000) ensuring the right of every single child with special educational
needs to be educated in regular educational settings. More specifically, there are three
main models adopted for the integration of Greek blind and deaf pupils in primary and
secondary regular schools. The first refers to the simple placement of the pupils with
special needs in the general classrooms without a particular kind of support. The
second model refers to the usage of resource rooms which are located in the general
schools and a special education teacher responsible for the pupils with special needs
who are enrolled in the resource rooms. The third model describes a context which
consists of two teachers in the same classroom – the general teacher and the special
education teacher, who is normally qualified in issues pertinent to special education.
The theoretical perspectives of the latter model are underpinned by the notion of co-
teaching or team-teaching, a teaching model that occurs when two or more profession-
als collaborate to plan, decide and deliver instruction to a certain number of students
in the same physical place (Luckner 1999). A co-teaching model allows general and
special education teachers to share their skills and knowledge, to face difficulties and
solve problems together enabling them to respond more effectively to the diverse
needs of their students (Luckner 1999), facilitate their access to learning (Jiménez-
Sánchez and Antia 1999; Kirchner 1994) and as such promote ‘inclusive thinking’.
This study refers to a collaborative teaching model which was developed within
an action research network that lasted for one school year in Greece (November
2006–June 2007). The aim of this network was to promote the academic access of
two children, a child with blindness and a deaf child, in two general classrooms. The
members in this network involved two general teachers and a school counsellor of the
particular local education authority, two researchers and two student teachers who all
collaborated in order to facilitate the aforementioned children’s access to learning and
classroom activities. The research questions which can best shape these collaborative
action research projects are the following:
(1) What was the impact of the action research project on the general teachers’
professional development?
(2) What was the impact of the action research project on student teachers’ profes-
sional development?
(3) What was the impact of the action research project on the academic access of
the two pupils with special educational needs?
Method
Action research is a methodology that fulfils two important conditions; one is that it
seeks the improvement of teachers’ practice in order to improve their students’
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European Journal of Special Needs Education 141
understanding, using any appropriate tool, and the other is that it seeks an under-
standing of the educational setting and context in general (Feldman and Minstrell
2000; Kemmis and McTaggart 1988). The aforementioned conditions were apparent
in both projects and led us to believe that the framework of action research was the
best choice to shape our collaboration.
According to Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) there is a group of four fundamental
aspects in action research: planning, acting, observing and reflecting. They highlight
the dynamic complementarity of the four aspects in action research which end up in a
cycle, and ultimately in a spiral of such cycles. These aspects were present in the
projects of the present study and converged to the fulfilment of the ultimate target of
action research which is ‘change’.
Participants
The collaborative action research network consisted of two projects that concerned a
nine-year-old pre-lingually deaf girl (Anna) who attended the second grade of a
general primary school with 17 hearing children, and a 12-year-old girl (Maria) with
blindness who attended the sixth grade of another general primary school with 18
sighted classmates. The action research network group consisted of the school coun-
sellor, who took the initiative for these projects, two academic researchers and two
student teachers from the Department of Special Education, University of Thessaly
and two general teachers from the two different general schools within which Anna
and Maria were educated.
Procedures – preliminary stages
The overall strategy of the collaborative action research network involved three inter-
linked cycles. A number of meetings took place during which all the members of the
action research network group discussed the children’s and the general teachers’ needs
and the most appropriate type of support for them. Also, the researchers obtained
information about the children’s and the general teachers’ needs as well as the inter-
actions between them through classroom observations. All these collected data were
very useful in order to ‘map the process of change in schools’ (Ainscow, Hargreaves
and Hopkins 1995). The action research network group ended up with a cyclical
collaborative planning and reflecting network, consisting of two projects which would
take place in the classrooms within which the two pupils were integrated. Also, when
the baseline data were determined for both schools the action research network group
was divided into two validation groups. The first validation group consisted of the
school counsellor, one researcher specialised in the education of the deaf, one student
teacher and Anna’s general/classroom teacher. The second validation group consisted
of the school counsellor (same person in both validation groups), one researcher speci-
alised in the education of the blind, one student teacher and Maria’s general/classroom
teacher.
Action research project 1: assisting the deaf student
The general teacher had many concerns about Anna’s performance in school, espe-
cially in the area of literacy. She mentioned that Anna had low levels of reading
comprehension and could not write even a simple sentence. Also, the teacher felt that
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142 V.S. Argyropoulos and M.A. Nikolaraizi
she could not communicate with Anna or support her effectively. Through discus-
sions, the researcher went on to elucidate that a general educational classroom is a
challenging environment that does not consider a deaf child’s needs, such as visual
communication, visual educational material and a normal rate of speech and conver-
sation (Jiménez-Sánchez and Antia 1999; Stinson and Antia 1999). Hence, there was
a consensus about the importance of additional teaching support and the development
of educational material according to Anna’s needs.
The following collaborative teaching model was suggested. Initially, the
researcher would write down some guidelines regarding general educational practices
and techniques which could facilitate Anna’s access to the curriculum (Easterebrooks,
Stephenson and Mertens 2006, Luckner, Bower and Carten 2001; RNID 1999).
Following this, the student teacher in collaboration with the general teacher (team-
teaching situation) would support the child on a daily basis in the academic area of
‘language’. Finally, the textbooks that are used in Greek schools in the academic area
‘Language’ would be adjusted by the researcher and the student teacher in collabora-
tion with the school counsellor and the general teacher in order to meet Anna’s needs
and specifically enhance her reading comprehension and creative writing skills.
According to the team meetings and the observed data during the ‘preliminary stages’,
Anna had poor skills in the aforementioned areas, which were considered as very
important for her access to the curriculum.
Action research project 2: assisting the blind student
The second validation group reached a consensus about the implementation of team-
teaching (general teacher and student teacher) in the classroom where Maria was
integrated. It was also agreed to inform the staff of the school about the project on a
regular basis. The selected interventions were the following: the student teacher in
collaboration with the general teacher would support Maria on a daily basis, mainly
in mathematics. The researcher in turn would give some notes and written sugges-
tions regarding modifications of the activities planned by the two teachers. These
suggestions were based mainly on the principles of haptic apprehension (Argyropou-
los 2002; Millar 1994) and on data obtained from literature review (Millar 1997;
Roberts and Wing 2001).
The road map of action research project 1
First cycle – planning
The new material included the following adjustments: (a) the reading texts in the text-
books were reduced but not simplified and visual information (pictures, diagrams)
was added, mainly in the title of each reading text, in order to help Anna activate or
acquire prior knowledge before reading the main text, based on schema theory princi-
ples (Schirmer 2000); (b) reading comprehension exercises were added to check
whether Anna understood the new reading texts; (c) the grammatical and vocabulary
exercises were enriched with visual information.
Apart from the preparation of the material, the general and student teacher got
prepared for their new role, since neither of them had a similar teaching experi-
ence of a team-teaching situation. The researcher asked the two teachers to write
down their comments, based on the their daily observations, providing feedback
about the appropriateness of the material, the child’s behaviour and interaction
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European Journal of Special Needs Education 143
with the rest of the hearing children and their role as they experienced it in the
classroom.
First cycle – acting and observing
The student teacher supported Anna in the following way: (a) repeated or explained
what the general teacher or the hearing children were saying in class; (b) gave infor-
mation about the adjusted educational material; (c) explained unknown words or
grammatical issues; (d) monitored Anna’s reading comprehension level; and (e)
encouraged Anna to participate in the classroom’s activities.
The whole project was under continuous assessment. Unfortunately, only the
student teacher provided a daily written feedback, whereas the general teacher
never did so. As a result the researcher suggested an alternative way to get the
general teacher’s feedback. At the end of each lesson, the student teacher had a
short meeting with the general teacher (informal discussions) and kept notes regard-
ing: (a) the appropriateness of the material; (b) their roles as teachers; and (c)
Anna’s behaviour and performances in class. Then, the student teacher shared all
this information with the researcher, who kept weekly telephone contact with the
general teacher to discuss the progress of the project. Based on the assessment
during the first cycle, the following observations and the subsequent changes were
made.
The reading texts appeared to be difficult and Anna could not answer the reading
comprehension questions. There was a need for a further reduction of the reading texts
and enrichment with more visual information to facilitate Anna’s reading comprehen-
sion. Also, it was difficult for Anna to understand what to do in some exercises, since
the adjusted material presented the exercises in a different way to that which Anna was
accustomed to. Therefore, one or two examples had to be included in each exercise
and the student teacher would devote some time to explain analytically the exercise to
Anna.
Regarding the general and the student teachers’ roles, the general teacher felt
awkward, she tried to keep visual contact with Anna, but she interacted mainly with
the hearing children. Also, the student teacher felt stressed. She sat next to Anna in
order to support her and did not interact with the hearing children. As a result, Anna
relied heavily on the student teacher; she did not work on her own and did not participate
in the classroom’s activities.
First cycle – reflecting
After two months a reflection meeting took place, where an evaluation of the project
was made. Both teachers felt that there was a need for more visual material, smaller
reading texts and fewer grammatical exercises, because these were too demanding for
Anna. The general teacher stressed that ‘if the educational material is difficult, then
Anna will be too dependent on the student teacher, whereas if the level of the material
could be better adjusted to Anna’s needs, then I believe that Anna would become more
independent and participate more in the classroom’s activities’.
Furthermore, the discussion was also focused on teachers’ roles, because it was
difficult for them to adjust to the new situation. The student teacher – as an under-
graduate student – was not experienced and it was the first time for her supporting a
deaf child in a general classroom in collaboration with a general teacher. On the
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144 V.S. Argyropoulos and M.A. Nikolaraizi
other hand, the general teacher had always been the single teacher in the classroom
and had never had the chance to teach a deaf child. Considering and adapting to
Anna’s needs and collaborating with a student teacher on a daily basis was some-
thing new for her.
Finally, this was the first time that a child in the classroom used adjusted educa-
tional material and both teachers could not find a way to exploit this material so as to
help Anna and at the same time not isolate her but enable her to follow a similar pace
with the rest of the hearing children in her classroom.
Second cycle – planning
The new reading texts were smaller and also included more visual information. Up
to now only the title of the reading text was enriched with visual information,
namely pictures, aiming to help Anna draw information and make predictions about
the forthcoming text. At the beginning of this cycle, new visual information was
inserted within the text. Also, a further reduction of the exercises was made in order
to enable Anna to complete them within the required time and follow the pace of the
classroom.
Finally, the researcher encouraged the student teacher and the general teacher to
interact with all children rather than keeping separate roles. Specifically, the
researcher suggested that the student teacher should support hearing children too,
instead of always sitting next to Anna. Similarly, it was suggested that the general
teacher interact more with Anna by asking her simple written questions and checking
whether Anna was able to understand what she was saying to her.
Second cycle – acting and observing
The new reading material was helpful for Anna, who gradually seemed to improve
her understanding, answering the reading comprehension questions and completing
the exercises on her own without asking constantly for the student teacher’s help.
Also, she became a more active participant and sometimes raised her hand to answer
a question that the general teacher posed.
The student teacher also felt more comfortable and she gradually distanced herself
from Anna and dedicated time to the hearing children too. When she supported Anna,
she encouraged her: to raise her hand to answer a question, to interact with her class-
mates and to ask questions directly to the general teacher when she was confused
during the lesson.
The general teacher interacted more often with Anna and also seemed to be less
anxious and more comfortable with the presence of the student teacher in the classroom.
She encouraged Anna to participate in the classroom’s activities and she dedicated time
to check whether Anna had grasped things that were going on in class and, if needed,
provide some useful tips to her.
Second cycle – reflecting
The second reflection meeting involved all the team members of the first validation
group. The general teacher highlighted that Anna had made major progress during the
project and commented that she felt more secure and able to respond to Anna’s needs.
According to her, Anna became more self-dependent and she participated more and
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European Journal of Special Needs Education 145
more. Nevertheless, there was still a need for Anna to participate more actively in
common tasks with her hearing classmates.
As mentioned in the previous cycle, both teachers were concerned with how to use
the adjusted material in such a way that did not isolate Anna from the rest of the class.
At that time the researcher and the school counsellor proposed that the adjusted read-
ing material could also be shared with the rest of the hearing children. For example,
some of the reading comprehension questions or exercises could be administered as
handouts to the hearing children1 so that Anna and her hearing classmates could
participate in joint activities.
Third cycle – planning
As Anna’s performance improved the reading texts became more extended and the
exercises more complicated. There was a constant use of visual information within the
texts and the exercises because this was an essential element which helped Anna to
understand the reading text and also to complete the exercises.
Third cycle – acting/observing and reflecting
The general teacher started to write some of the reading comprehension questions on
the blackboard, which pleased Anna and encouraged her and her classmates to partic-
ipate in the same activity. An additional observation that was made by the two teachers
was that Anna indicated an improvement in her spoken language. More specifically,
at the beginning of the project she used to make sentences consisting of one or two
words, while now she attempted to make complete sentences. Furthermore, her writing
skills were also improved and she managed to make simple complete and correct
sentences.
In conclusion, Anna became an independent learner who interacted more with her
peers and her classroom teacher and less with the student teacher. The general
teacher commented that she felt more confident and alert about …
EDUCATION AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN Vol. 29, No. 2, 2006
School-Based Prevention and Intervention
Programs for Children v̂ îth Emotional
Disturbance
Linda A. Reddy and Laura Richardson
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Abstract
Children and adolescents with emotional disturbance (ED) exhibit chronic and
diverse academic, emotional, behavioral, and/or medical difficulties that pose
significant challenges for their education and treatment in schools. Histori-
cally, children with ED have received fragmented inadequate interventions
and services that often yielded unfavorable school and community outcomes.
Numerous child/family, diagnostic, and organizational barriers limit access
to appropriate and effective treatment. Given this information, two U.S. Presi-
dential commissions (U.S. Surgeon General Report, 2000; Presidents Freedom
Commission on Mental Health, 2003) have called for the transformation of the
mental health system emphasizing the early identification and intervention
of children at risk for and with ED in school and public health care settings.
In this manuscript, three school-based prevention and intervention programs
for children at risk for and with ED are presented as examples of exemplary
programs. These programs were selected based on a review of over 26 pub-
lished school-based outcome studies with this population and the availabil-
ity of at least three published outcome studies (including follow-up data) for
each. Considerations for future school prevention and intervention programs
are offered. Finally, priorities for training school personnel are outlined.
Cbildren witb emotional disturbance (ED) are one of tbe mostunderidentified and untreated cbild clinical subpopulations
(Wagner, 1995; Fomess & Kavale, 2001; Presidents New Freedom
Commission, 2003). As indicated in tbe Surgeon Generals report on
mental bealtb (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000),
one in five cbildren display a diagnosable mental disorder eacb year
and approximately 5\% bave an ED tbat significantly impacts tbeir
daily functioning at bome and scbool. Similarly, cbildren witb ED
represent about 5\% of youtb diagnosed witb mental disorders and
Correspondences to Linda A. Reddy at Fairleigh Dickinson University, Child/Adolescent
ADHD Clinic, 1000 River Road, Teaneck, NI. 07666; E-mail: [email protected] or
[email protected]
Pages 379-404
380 REDDY and RICHARDSON
about 1\% of those children diagnosed with ED are treated (Oswald &
Coutinho, 1995; Walwarth, Nickerson, Crowel, & Leaf, 1998). Research
has found that the number of students classified as ED varies by state
and school district. For example, in a study representing over 14,000
school districts, Coutinho and Oswald (2005) found that state and local
variations in ED classification are due, in part, to the childs gender
with males overrepresented as ED (e.g., male: female odds ratios
ranged from approximately 2 to 6 for ED in comparison to 1.7 to 2.7
for LD students). It is unknown whether gender differences are due to
a higher prevalence rate of ED among males and/or under diagnosis
of ED among females.
The identification of children with ED is hindered by vague di-
agnostic/eligibility criteria which impacts access to effective school-
based interventions (Forness &.Kavale, 2001; Reddy, 2001). Scholars
have attributed the identification problem, in part, to the Individual
Disability Education Act definition (IDEA, 1997, 2005). According to
IDEA, ED is one of 12 disability categories that is defined as a condi-
tion exhihiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long
period of time and to a marked degree which adversely affects school
performance: (a) an inability to learn which cannot be explained by
intellectual, sensory, or health factors, (b) an inability to build or rtiain-
tain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers,
(c) inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circum-
stances, (d) a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression,
(e) a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with
personal or school problems (IDEA, 1997, 2005). The five ED criteria
in IDEA are not supported by research on the subtypes of children
with emotional and behavioral disorders (Schroeder & Gordon, 2002).
In addition, there is a clause requiring adverse educational perfor-
mance (e.g., poor grades) which may be interpreted by some profes-
sionals to exclude children who have marginal grades (e.g., Ds), but
who exhibit social and behavioral difficulties at school. Also, IDEA
includes an exclusionary criterion of social maladjustment which is
not fully defined and thus may misled some professionals to exclude
children diagnosed with conduct disorder. Research has found that
conduct disorders often co-occur with attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), reading disabilities, depressive disorders, and anx-
iety disorders (Hinshaw, Lahey, & Hart, 1993; Reddy & DeThomas, in
press). Nelson (1992) asserted that the field does not have evidence
to differentiate betw^een conduct disorders and other emotional and
behavioral disorders. In fact, students with ED who exhibit disruptive
behavior or symptoms of conduct disorder constitute the largest sub-
group of youth placed in ED classrooms (Greenhaum et al., 1996; U.S.
PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION PROGRAMS 381
Department of Healtb and Human Services, 2000; Wagner, 1995).
Historically, tbere bas been a reliance on restrictive educational
and out-of-home placements (e.g., residential care) for cbildren witb
ED. However, witb the advent of managed care, tbe use of restrictive
placements has decreased, and as a result, schools and community
agencies bave increasingly become tbe system of care for cbildren
witb ED (Reddy & Savin, 2000; Weist, Evans, & Lever, 2003). Treat-
ment outcomes (e.g., reduced aggressive and disruptive behaviors)
acquired in restrictive placements are often temporary and limited
in scope (e.g., behavioral control and containment). Many restrictive
placements also do not successfully transition cbildren back into tbeir
bomes, scbools, and neigbborboods (Epstein, Kutash, & Ducbnowski,
1998; Hansen, Litzelman, Marcb, & Milspaw, 2004).
Despite national initiatives (e.g.. Presidents New Freedom Com-
mission, 2003; Surgeon General Report, 2000), parents and scbools
struggle to educate and treat cbildren witb ED (U.S. OSEP, 2001).
Described by some as mad, bad, sad, and cant add (Friedman &
Kutasb, 1986), these cbildren are prone to academic failure, family/
peer rejection, restricted educational placements, and in some cases
out-of-home placements and bospitalizations. As Osber, Osber, and
Smith (1994) stated, educating children with ED is one of tbe most
stressful, complex, and difficult challenges facing public education
today, and perbaps one of our greatest failures (p. 7). Researcb bas
sbown tbat cbildren witb ED bave lower grades than otber disability
groups, significant academic and language deficits, and bigb grade
retention and absenteeism rates (Armstrong, Derick, & Greenbaum,
2003). Research bas also sbown tbat children with ED are more likely
to drop out of school, receive school suspensions and expulsions, fail
one or more courses, not graduate, and have difficulties socially inte-
grating at scbool than other disability groups (Ducbnowski, 1994; U.S.
OSEP, 2001; Wagner, 1995).
Numerous personal, diagnostic, and organizational barriers
interfere witb treatment success for cbildren witb ED in school and
home (Reddy, 2001). For example, youngsters witb ED represent a
complex mix of emotional, behavior, educational, and medical/neu-
rological difficulties that make the diagnostic, teaching, and learning
process difficult. School and family treatments are further compli-
cated by higb rates of family psycbopatbology, inadequate parenting
skills, and limited support systems and resources. In addition, lack of
knowledge of services and programs offered by otber agencies (e.g.,
schools, social service, juvenile justice), differential use of terminol-
ogy between agencies, and ineffective interagency collaboration of-
ten interfere with treatments. Limited or poor school preservice and
382 REDDY and RICHARDSON
inservice training on internalizing and externalizing symptoms in the
classroom and behavioral techniques (e,g,, use of aversive techniques,
physical restraints, positive behavioral techniques) are also found.
Other barriers may include limited placement options (e.g., access to
intermediate levels of care) and support services (e.g., respite for par-
ents and teachers) (Reddy, 2001), Despite these barriers, innovations in
school-based programming continue. In the past decade, new school
prevention and intervention programs have emerged from school,
agency, and/or university partnerships and offer promising new ap-
proaches for educating and treating children with ED,
The purpose of this paper is to present exemplary school preven-
tion and intervention programs for children and adolescents at risk
for and with ED. Three school prevention and intervention programs
are described for their mission and objectives, treatment components,
required material and training, and outcome findings. Considerations
for future school prevention and intervention programs are offered.
Finally, priorities for training school personnel are proposed.
School Prevention and Intervention Programs
To enhance the readers appreciation of the variety of school pre-
vention and intervention programs for children with ED, a descriptive
overview of three model programs are provided, A comprehensive
literature review of over 26 published outcome studies from 1998 to
2005 in over 12 peer reviewed journals was completed. Each study
was reviewed on several variables (e,g,, sample characteristics, treat-
ment components, and outcome findings). As a result of the review,
three programs were selected based on five criteria: (a) each program
was designed specifically for children at-risk for or with ED, (b) each
program focused on academic and behavior outcomes, (c) outcome
data for each program was available, (d) each program had at least
three published outcome studies (including follow-up data), and (e)
each program was nominated by experts in the field of school psy-
chology and child mental health as an excellent program. Based on the
five criteria, two prevention ^ programs. First Step to Success (Walker
et al,, 1998) and Parent Teacher Action Teams {PTAR; Kay & Fitzgerald,
1997) and one intervention ^ program Integrated Mental Health Program
(IMHP; Roberts, Jacobs, Puddy, Nyre, & Vernberg, 2003) were select-
ed. The choice of these programs does not represent a special status.
Studies were most frequently cited in the Journal of Emotional and Behavior
Disorders.
A prevention program is defined as one that targets children that may be at-risk
for a problem, but have not developed the problem itself.
An intervention program is defined as one that targets children who already have
developed the problem.
PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION PROGRAMS 383
but rather were selected to illustrate examples of well-designed data-
driven school prevention and intervention programs for children at
risk for and with ED, Following the summary and critique of the pro-
grams, we offer considerations for future school prevention and inter-
vention programs for this population.
First Step to Success
First Step to Success is a home and school prevention program
for at-risk kindergartners with early signs of antisocial behavior such
as difficulties with peer and teacher relationships, aggressive and dis-
ruptive behavior, and internalizing behaviors such as anxiety, inatten-
tion, and withdrawn behavior in the classroom (Walker et al,, 1998),
The primary objective is to train at-risk children (preschool through
third grade) to interact appropriately with peers and adults at school
to prevent the development of long-term and more serious anti-social
behavior patterns. First Step includes three modules: a proactive uni-
versal screening process; consultation-based school intervention with
the child, peers, and teacher (CLASS); and intensive parent training
focused on improving academic performance and adjustment (home-
Base).
Screening
The centerpiece of First Step is proactive universal screening, a
multi-stage process that evaluates at-risk kindergarteners for emerg-
ing antisocial behavior patterns and identifies children who would
most benefit from the program. During Stage one, each teacher is
asked to list five children in their classroom who match a standard-
ized description of the targeted externalizing behaviors and five chil-
dren who matched standardized description of the targeted internal-
izing behaviors, A child cannot be placed on both lists. Teachers are
asked to rank-order students in terms of the level of severity of their
behavior.
During Stage two, teachers evaluate the three highest ranked chil-
dren on each of the externalizing and internalizing lists using the Early
Screening Project (ESP) procedure (Walker, Severson, & Feil, 1994), an
extension of The Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD)
procedure (Walker & Severson, 1990). The ESP is a multi-method,
-agent, and -setting screening procedure that includes teacher rank-
ings, ratings, and behavioral observations across the screening stages
for children three to five years (Walker et al,, 1998), Measures included
in this procedure are the ESP Adaptive Behavior Rating Scale (Walker
et al., 1998), the ESP Maladaptive Behavior Scale (Walker et al,, 1998),
4 For a more detailed description of ESP and SSBD see Severson and Walker (2002),
384 REDDY and RICHARDSON
ar\d tbe Aggression Subscale of tbe Teacber Report Form (TRF, Acben-
bach, 1991a). Tbe goal of Stage tv^o is to assess tbe childrens adaptive
and maladaptive behaviors cornpared to normative behaviors by hav-
ing tbe teachers complete tbe ESP Adaptive Bebavior Rating Scale,
ESP Maladaptive Bebavior Rating Scale, and tbe TRF. Students v^ho
met criteria (i.e., exceed ESP normative criteria) move to Stage tbree.
The ESPs psychometric validity is wfell establisbed and includes a na-
tional standardization sample of 2,853 cbildren from three to six years
(Walker, et. al., 1998).
During Stage three, the cbildren are observed in their classrooms
by an independent group of observers from tbe Oregon Research In-
stitute (ORI), who implement tbe Academic Engaged Time (AET)
rneasure (Rich & Ross, 1989). AET assesses tbe time the cliild attends
to tbe teacber, follows directions, and/or asks for help. ORI members
conduct tbe post-intervention and follow-up observations. Tbe AET
results are used for screening and baseline data for those enrolled in
the program. Inclusion criteria are an AET of 65\% or lower and/or T-
score of one or more standard deviations above the mean on tbe TRF
Aggression scale.
Treatment Components
School Intervention: CLASS. First Step uses a modified version of
tbe CLASS Program (Hops & V^alker, 1998). The program runs for 30
days witb daily performance criteria eacb child must meet. The pro-
gram consultant monitors tbe program in tbe regular classroom. Ap-
propriate behaviors (e.g., attending to tbe teacber and remaining in
seat) are rewarded, while inappropriate behaviors (e.g., calling out,
being out-of-seat, and otber disruptive behaviors) are given negative
feedback. Cbildren repeat a program day if tbey do not meet tbe crite-
ria. On average, students take about two months to complete the pro-
gram. Eacb day involves two 20 to 30 minute sessions wbere the con-
sultant (e.g., a trained scbool counselor, scbool psychologist, resource
teacber, or behavioral specialist), works one-on-one witb the child
and provides continuous feedback (i.e., use of red or green cards) on
the appropriateness of the childs behavior. The cbild earns points for
displaying behaviors sucb as following directions, completing work,
and appropriate self-control. For cbildren witb less-tban-average
intelligence, pictorial aids and consumable rewards are substituted
into tbe program. If tbe cbild meets tbe criteria for the two 20 minute
sessions, a home-privilege is given to tbe child that day. Home privi-
leges are negotiated witb parents and may include extra play time or
another reinforcing activity for tbat child. By day 15, tbe use of the
red/green cards is discontinued, and the time period that the cbild
PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION PROGRAMS 385
must be appropriate to earn the rewards is gradually increased from
30 seconds to 10 minutes. Criteria are met if the child displays ap-
propriate behavior (e.g., follow directions, complete assigned work)
for multiple days (i.e., more than 3 days) in a row. During the main-
tenance phase of the program (i.e., days 21 through 30), the child is
rewarded primarily with verbal praise from both his/her teacher and
parents. Tangible awards are given to a child for behaviors that con-
sistently improve over three or more days (e.g., following directions
and rules).
The consultant starts the program, trains teachers, negotiates
with parents about appropriate rewards, and works directly with the
child through day five of the program. The consultant also explains
the program to the teacher, parents, child, and the childs peers and
serves as a model for the teacher and parents (Walker et al., 1998). On
day six, the classroom teacher then assumes responsibility for pro-
gram implementation (i.e., providing awards and points, supervising
group activities, and collaborating with parents).
Home Intervention: homeBase. The home intervention is a six week
curriculum that includes six one-hour lessons that enhance childrens
competencies and skills in the following areas: communication and
sharing in school, cooperation, limit setting, problem solving, friend-
ship making, and the development of confidence (Walker et al. 1998).
Consultants teach homeBase lessons to parents in their homes, and par-
ents are encouraged to practice skills with their children 10 to 15 min-
utes daily. The homeBase program begins after the child has finished
day ten of the school program.
Training/Implementation. First Step uses a trainer-of-trainers mod-
el in which program consultants (e.g., graduate students, teachers,
school counselors, and teacher aides) receive intensive training and
on-going supervision from project coordinators. Training consists of
standardized lectures, videotaped demonstrations and role playing,
group discussion and detailed feedback by the program coordinators.
Staff and consultant training is one and one half days and teacher
training is one day. On average, each consultant is assigned two to
three cases over a three-month period. The consultants work with par-
ents to help them implement home interventions for their children.
The parent training is one session (one hour) per week, for six weeks
to allow them to understand the basic behavioral principles involved
in the program and to review specific content that they must imple-
ment with their child. After each training session, the parent is given
a handbook and set of skill-based games and activities to teach their
child (Golly, Stiller, & Walker, 1998).
386 REDDY and RICHARDSON
Outcome Results
Several outcome studies support the efficacy of First Step. Results
from a four-year randomized, experimental, wait-list control study
found that First Step yielded statistically significant improvements
in adaptive and maladaptive behaviors and sustained treatment out-
comes across grade levels and home and school settings in a sample of
46 kindergarteners (Walker et al., 1998). In comparison to the wait-list,
significant group differences (favoring First Step) were found on the:
Adaptive Teacher Rating Scale, Maladaptive Teacher Rating Scale,
TRF Aggression Scale, and AET. However, no group differences were
found for internalizing behaviors.
A replication study of 20 kindergarteners, using the same pro-
cedures as Walker et al. (1998), found similar findings on the Adap-
tive Teacher Rating Scale, Maladaptive Teacher Rating Scale, AET, and
CBCL Aggression Scale (Golly, Stiller, & Walker, 1998). Participants
reported high levels of satisfaction with the training and program.
However, a control group was not used. Similar to Walker et al. (1998),
improvements in internalizing behaviors (e.g., social, withdrawal)
were not found.
Golly, Spraque, Hill, Beard, and Gorham (2000) investigated the
efficacy of First Step with a multiple-baseline design with two sets of
identical Caucasian male twins (age 5 years). Both sets of twins at-
tended regular education classrooms. The intention of this investiga-
tion was to eliminate genetic differences by assigning one twin from
each pair to the whole-class social-skills training only and then to the
First Step program (i.e., CLASS, homeBase). Unfortunately, twin pair
number one moved before the study could be completed and only
received the teacher portion of the program (i.e., did not receive the
homeBase intervention) and twin pair number two did not receive
homeBase due to parents refusal to participate. Thus, this study only
included the whole-class social-skills training and teacher interven-
tion. Results revealed significant improvements in appropriate class-
room behavior (e.g., talking out, out of seat, touching others) for all
four participants and significant improvements in AET for those par-
ticipants who received the teacher intervention.
Overton, McKenzie, King, and Osborne (2002) conducted a rep-
lication study of Walker et al. (1998) involving 22 kindergartners (16
males, five to six years old) from five school districts. The ethic break-
down was five Caucasians, seven African Americans, five African
American and Caucasian, one Hispanic, three Native Americans and
one Native American and Caucasian. Results were somewhat com-
parable to the Walker et al. (1998) study. For example, positive im-
provements in AET at post-test and one-year follow-up were found.
PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION PROGRAMS 387
Reductions in externalizing bebavior as measured by tbe CBCL and
TRF Externalizing Scales at program completion were found, but were
not maintained at one-year follow-up. Differences in outcome findings
may be attributed to population differences. For example, tbis study
included families from communities with high rates of poverty and
Walker et al. (1998) included families from communities with high
rates of middle-class incomes.
Beard and Sugai (2004) compared tbe effectiveness of First Steps
teacher-directed versus teacher and parent-directed components on
reducing antisocial behavior in the classroom. A total of six Cauca-
sian kindergartners (four males) in two kindergarten classes were
randomly assigned to two interventions. Four of the cbildren lived in
low income and two lived in middle income neighborhoods. Results
revealed that child problem behaviors (i.e., talking out, touching otb-
ers and property, being out of seat, and non-compliance) reduced to
almost zero and AET increased to 90 \% on average. Improvements in
bebavior problems and AET were maintained at five montb follow-
up for four of tbe six students. Results suggested tbat the First Step
components were equally effective in improving AET and problem
behaviors in tbe classroom.
Commentary
First Step is a promising empirically supported program for
young children at-risk for antisocial bebavior patterns used in 12
states, three Canadian provinces, Australia and New Zealand. Tbe in-
tegration of comprehensive screening, scbool, and home training and
interventions are distinguishing features of First Step. Scbool success
is promoted through teaching cbildren adaptive bebavior such as at-
tending to tasks, getting along witb teachers, and developing positive
peer relations. Parent participation is a critical element of this pro-
gram. Parents are trained to reinforce childrens school behavioral
improvements at home, forging a collaborative partnership between
parents and scbool personnel.
First Step is described as a prevention program, but more accu-
rately fits into tbe category of an indicated prevention intervention
in tbat an at-risk group is targeted as having minimal but detectable
symptoms tbat foreshadow a behavioral and/or emotional disorder,
but do not presently meet tbe criteria of a diagnostic disorder (Pfei-
ffer & Reddy, 1997). Tbis program does not target tbe entire school
population and tbus does not constitute a universal prevention pro-
gram. As part of tbe universal screening process, teacbers are asked to
nominate and rate cbildren wbo represent externalizing and internal-
izing bebavior patterns, complete five checklists, and conduct behav-
ioral observations. Although the screening process is noteworthy, it
388 REDDY and RICHARDSON
may be difficult for some scbool districts to implement.
Some program limitations are also noted. For example, the pro-
gram does not reduce internalizing distress often associated with ex-
ternalizing problems. In the outcome investigations reviewed, teacber
raters were not blind to the childrens assignment to treatment. First
Step is not designed for cbildren witb autism, severe language prob-
lems, and families wbo require intensive interventions and support
services. Since tbis program uses a combined treatment approach,
it remains unclear wbicb component of the program contributes to
outcomes. Finally, replication studies tbat include wait-listed control
groups are needed.
Parent Teacher Action Research (PTAR)
Like First Step, the PTAR Team approach is a prevention pro-
gram for cbildren at-risk for antisocial bebavior patterns in elemen-
tary scbool. However, PTAR is a primary prevention program tbat
provides whole-class social skills instruction and universal screen-
ing to all students. Based on 50 years of educational action research,
PTAR offers a structure for parents and regular education teachers to
work as collaborative partners in identifying goals and designing and
implementing action plans (Kay & Fitzgerald, 1997). Participatory ac-
tion research, a collaborative problem solving process, fosters equal
partnerships between parents, teacbers, and other professionals. Ac-
tion research involves defining a problem, gathering and organizing
data related to tbe problem, taking action to address tbe problem,
evaluating data, and then beginning the cycle again as needed (Kay
& Fitzgerald, 1997). Action research teams work flexibly together and
use understandable language to define goals and action plans.
PTAR allows teacbers choice of social skills curricula and tbe
PTAR teams choice of interventions for an individual cbild. Tbis flex-
ible approach permits tbe PTAR team to customize a program around
the childs needs. The team includes individuals involved in tbe childs
life at home and school (e.g., regular education teacber, parent(s), par-
ent liaison, and a PTAR staff member).
Screening
Similar to First Step, PTAR includes a multi-step screening proce-
dure, tbe Systematic Screening for Bebavior Disorders (SSBD; Walker
& Severson, 1990; Severson & Walker, 2002) tbat includes parents and
teacbers as informants. For Step One, teacbers are given a list of exter-
nalizing behaviors (e.g., calls out in class, does not follow directions)
A primary prevention program is defined as one that provides services to all chil-
dren, not just those who are at-risk for a problem or have a problem.
PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION PROGRAMS 389
and internalizing behaviors (e.g., withdraws, does not talk to peers).
Teachers are asked to select children who represent the top five exter-
nalizers and five internalizers in their class. Teachers are then asked
to rate the children on the SSBD Critical Events Index (CEI) and Com-
bined Frequency Index of Adaptive and Maladaptive Behaviors,
For Step Two, children are matched on whether they are internal-
izers or externalizers (based on SSBD ratings) and matched by gender
(i.e., for research purposes only). In Step Three, parents are invited
to participate and asked to complete the Teachers Report Form (TRF:
Achenbach, 1991a), In Step Four, TRF Total Problems Scale scores are
added to the matching criteria and the children are re-matched on the
basis of all three criteria: (a) internalizer vs, extemalizer, (b) gender,
(c) TRF Total Problem Scale. Rematching is conducted to yield compa-
rable levels of problems among children. For research purposes, chil-
dren are then randomly assigned to a PTAR team or control group.
Parent consent is required before a referral is made to the team. Parent
participation is critical for effective team functioning.
Treatment Components
Each PTAR team consists of the childs regular education teach-
er, parent(s), a parent liaison who is recruited from the local commu-
nity to assist low-income families and a facilitator from the Achiev-
ing, Behaving, Caring (ABC) project staff (credentials are not specified
by authors). Other professionals (e,g,, school psychologists, speech/
language specialists) are invited to participate in the team as need-
ed. Making Action Plans, an adaptation of the McGill Action Plan-
ning System (MAPS: Forest & Pearpoint, 1992), identifies childrens
strengths, parents hopes for their children, mutual parent-teacher
goals, and observable indicators for goals, MAPS helps parents and
teachers focus on childrens strengths and adheres to the following
rules: (a) parents …
Action Research
Improving Schools and Empowering Educators
Fifth Edition
Craig A. Mertler
Arizona State University
FOR INFORMATION:
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
Names: Mertler, Craig A., author.
Title: Action research : improving schools and empowering educators / Craig A. Mertler.
Description: Fifth edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016007234 | ISBN 978-1-4833-8905-9 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Action research in education.
Classification: LCC LB1028.24 .M47 2016 | DDC 370.72—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016007234
978-1-5063-8745-1
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Acquisitions Editor: Terri Accomazzo
Development Editor: Jessica Miller
eLearning Editor: Robert Higgins
Editorial Assistant: Erik Helton
Production Editor: Olivia Weber-Stenis
Copy Editor: Erin Livingston
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Ellen Brink
Indexer: Jean Casalegno
Cover Designer: Gail Buschman
Marketing Manager: Ashlee Blunk
Preface
Purpose of the Text
Most, if not all, graduate students in education—and, in particular, in-service teachers seeking graduate degrees—are required to complete a course in educational research methods. The majority of these methods courses provide a broad overview of educational research methods, designs, and techniques. However, I would argue that graduate-level research methods courses taught to in-service teachers could be more suitable provided the appropriate instructional materials were available to instructors and students, such that they focus on a classroom-based approach to research. Most research methods courses—and, therefore, their appropriate textbooks—follow the description that I offer above, in that they are “survey” courses (i.e., those that provide an overview of a variety of research methods). There are numerous texts on the market that meet this description.
In contrast, there are relatively few books that focus specifically on action research as a methodology, and there are even fewer that do so with the target audience of practicing educators in mind. The purpose of this book is to introduce educators to the process of conducting their own classroom-based or school-based action research. Detailed but practical information describing each step of the cyclical, iterative process is presented in a sequential manner. Educators are provided with an overview of traditional educational research prior to examining action research as a mechanism for designing and conducting their own applied research projects. The focus is not on the theoretical aspects of educational research but rather on the practical facets of conducting applied classroom and/or school research. As presented in this textbook, action research is not simply a means of conducting applied research. It is also a mechanism for engaging educators in reflective practice and customizing professional development opportunities in order to capitalize on the unique interests of individual educators or teams of educators.
The reason behind my desire to write a textbook on this topic is fairly straightforward. I have taught educational research methods for more than 20 years. The vast majority of the students enrolled in this course are in-service teachers seeking master’s degrees in various fields, including curriculum, teaching, administration, and counseling. This course is intended to serve as an overview of research methods used to conduct research in the broad field of education, focusing primarily on quantitative methods. The focus is on very formal methodological approaches, such as descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative, experimental, and quasiexperimental research methods. The educators enrolled in a research methods course—especially those who intend on remaining in the K–12 setting—typically experience substantial difficulty in being able to see the application of these formal methodological approaches in their educational settings. The bottom line is that they do not really need to understand the application of these approaches to conducting research, since the majority will likely never design or conduct such formal methodological procedures. It is my belief that this is the case for many graduate programs in education across the country.
On the other hand, when we reach the topic of action research, the discussion typically piques student interest. The students can actually see how this methodological approach could be used in their schools, in their classrooms, with their students, and so on. Since action research is conducted by practitioners—yet still incorporates a good degree of rigor—students begin to see themselves designing and carrying out action research studies. By focusing our attention on a broad overview of research methods, I feel that we are doing an injustice to these practicing educators. We are not providing them with the tools necessary to design and conduct research studies that provide meaningful and immediate solutions to local-level problems. In other words, we are not adequately preparing them to investigate problems and seek solutions in their local settings and in a professional manner.
The practical nature of the book stems from the fact that it focuses on research methods and procedures that teachers, administrators, counselors, intervention specialists, and so forth, can use in conjunction with their everyday instructional practices and activities in schools and classrooms. Educators are shown how to design and conduct school-based research in order to make their instructional practices more effective. The numerous examples—many of which are supplied by me, while others come from published action research studies—of the principles, procedures, and techniques discussed in the narrative make it easy for students to understand the material in this book. Theoretical aspects of research as well as highly technical concepts and procedures, which are unlikely to be used by practicing educators, are de-emphasized—producing a textbook that provides comprehensive coverage of action research methods for practicing educational professionals without being unnecessarily technical; that is, it is a practical book for educators. This book provides them with the knowledge and skills necessary to design research studies that seek solutions to local-level problems, conduct those studies, and communicate the results to local stakeholders and other interested parties. Although it is based on the research literature, the book takes a very practical approach, never losing sight of its intended audience—the practicing educator.
Text Targets Graduate Students, Educators
This book was written with graduate students as the primary target audience. Specifically, this audience includes but of course is not limited to K–12 classroom teachers, administrators, counselors, special educators, and intervention specialists. In all likelihood, this text would be used as the primary book for a graduate course in action research, although it could also serve as a supplemental text for other graduate-level courses not focusing on research methods (e.g., courses in curriculum, supervision). The book is appropriate for educators in all areas of education (e.g., elementary and secondary mathematics, science, social studies, languages, music, art, physical education, special education, administration, counseling, and special education); examples as well as sample articles throughout the book come from a variety of settings and situations.
Text Organized Sequentially, Like an Action Research Study
The main topics covered in the book pertain most closely to designing and conducting classroom-based applied research. These general topic areas—and the chapters where they are addressed in the book—include the following:
· An overview of educational research (Chapter 1)
· An overview of action research (Chapter 1)
· The characteristics of action research (Chapter 1)
· The action research process (Chapter 2)
· Identifying an area of focus for action research (Chapter 3)
· Reviewing related literature (Chapter 3)
· Designing an action research study (Chapter 4)
· Collecting and analyzing data (Chapters 5 and 6)
· Developing an action plan (Chapter 7)
· Writing an action research report (Chapter 8)
· Sharing the results of an action research study (Chapter 9)
· Reflecting on the process of action research (Chapter 9)
The book is arranged in this manner because it presents, in sequential order, the process of designing and conducting an action research study—beginning with the development of the topic to be investigated, reviewing related research, designing the study, actually carrying out the procedures, developing an action plan, and ultimately sharing the results and reflecting on the process. It is, however, important to note that action research proceeds through this process in a cyclical manner.
Pedagogical Features and Benefits to Students (as Well as Instructors)
When compared with other action research books currently on the market, this book provides similar coverage of content. There are, however, several aspects that distinguish it from similar works. These aspects include the following:
· Since the book takes an extremely applied approach, it includes numerous examples—not simple discussions or descriptions—of such things as data collection instruments (e.g., checklists, attitude surveys, interview protocols, and journal prompts) and presentation of research results (e.g., tables and graphs resulting from the analysis of quantitative data; summary tables resulting from the analysis of qualitative data; actual reports of action research).
· In addition to the various narrative examples that appear throughout the book, two detailed case studies of action research, called “Action Research Portraits,” are developed in Chapter 1 and are extended in each subsequent chapter throughout the book. In each chapter, the case study discussions continue from the previous chapter, highlighting the application of content from the particular chapter as integrated into two practically based action research studies, one of which is conducted by an individual teacher (at the elementary level) and the other by a pair of teachers (at the high school level). In addition, a third “Action Research Portrait” appears on the book’s accompanying website (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e).
· Numerous online resources are available for teachers to use in order to learn more about action research, address questions that they may have about the process, or promote dissemination of their action research results. A section titled “Related Websites” is included near the end of each of the nine chapters.
· Special sections, titled “Writing Up Action Research,” are also included in Chapters 3 through 7 and Chapter 9. These sections provide annotated excerpts from published or otherwise disseminated action research reports, highlighting specific concepts presented in each particular chapter.
· On the first page of each chapter is a visual organizer for the main contents of that chapter.
· Three appendices follow Chapter 9. The first two include complete written reports of teacher-conducted action research projects. We have also included additional complete written reports of teacher-conducted action research projects on the website (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e). The third appendix contains developmental templates to guide the novice action researcher. These templates are also included on the website.
· Each chapter includes a bulleted “Summary” of the main points included in the chapter.
· Each chapter also includes a final section titled “Questions and Activities” that can be used to extend student knowledge, understanding, and application.
· The text also includes a complete glossary of terms related to action research, a list of references used to compile the book, and a comprehensive subject and author index.
Video Clip of Dr. Mertler discussing the new features of the 5th edition.
New Features in the Fifth Edition
There are several new features in the fifth edition of Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators:
· The discussion of rigor in Chapter 1 has been enhanced.
· Social justice advocacy has been added as an important application of action research.
· The discussions of ethics in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 have been enhanced.
· The “Writing Up Action Research” sections that appear in Chapter 3 to 7 and Chapter 9 have been supplemented with call-out boxes highlighting the important aspects of each excerpt.
· Substantially enhanced presentations of establishing the quality of both qualitative and quantitative data have been added to Chapter 5.
· A discussion of the inclusion of abstracts has been incorporated into Chapter 8.
· The developmental templates shown in Appendix C—in addition to being provided in an interactive, electronic format on the Student Study Site (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e)—are now also available at TeachersPayTeachers.com, called the Action Research Mentor Portfolio.
· Finally, two new complete action research reports have been added as Appendix A and Appendix B. Both reports are new to this edition. The complete written reports of teacher-conducted action research projects from all previous editions are available on the website that accompanies this book (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e).
Ancillary Material on the Web
Open-Access Student Study Site:
edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e
This web-based Student Study Site provides a variety of additional resources to enhance students’ understanding of the book’s content and take their learning one step further. The site includes the following:
· Interactive PDF Action Research Developmental Templates are provided to assist and guide the novice action researcher through many of the steps and decisions in the process of designing and conducting original action research.
· Video vignettes of the author and several practitioner-researchers discussing various aspects of conducting action research. These vignettes are integrated with specific chapter content throughout the book.
· Web quizzes allow students to independently assess their progress in learning course material.
· eFlashcards are study tools to reinforce student understanding and learning of key terms and concepts that are outlined in the chapters.
· Chapter-specific PowerPoint presentations offer assistance by highlighting essential content, features, and artwork from the book.
· A
Learning From SAGE Journal Articles
feature provides access to recent, relevant full-text articles from SAGE’s leading research journals. Each article supports and expands on the concepts presented in the chapter.
· Carefully selected, web-based video resources feature relevant content for use in independent and classroom-based exploration of key topics.
· Links to relevant web resources direct students to additional tools for further research on important chapter topics.
·
Sample Action Research Reports
are also included.
A Note About Action Research Projects
One concern that both instructors and students face is how to fit into one semester both the content coverage of the book and the completion of a student-conducted action research project. My advice is first to reinforce with students who are just learning about action research that the important aspect of an action research project as a course assignment is to become familiar with the process of designing and conducting action research and that they should worry less about the final product of their study. If they can become familiar and comfortable with the process as a whole, they will later be able to design and conduct larger-scale research projects that may require more time.
For a typical 15-week academic term, I might suggest the following week-by-week activities, for both content coverage of the book and the associated action research project:
For a typical 10-week academic term, I might suggest the following week-by-week activities:
A Final Note for Students of Action Research
I enjoy and value classroom-based/school-based action research because it has the potential to empower educators, to engage them directly in the process of educational improvement, and to provide a mechanism for customizing professional development. I will not mislead you into thinking that this is necessarily an easy road to travel. Learning how to conduct action research studies that will enhance your professional practice does, in fact, take time and practice. However, by gaining familiarity and experience with designing and conducting action research projects, you will, I trust, realize the substantial and positive professional, reflective outcomes of action research discussed repeatedly throughout this book. I sincerely wish you the best of luck in your action research endeavors!
In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there are several icons that reference links (videos, journal articles) to additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not live, all content referenced may be accessed at edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e . This URL is referenced at several points throughout your electronic edition.
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the contributions of several individuals to this project. I would like to recognize and sincerely thank my editorial team at Sage Publications—namely, Terri Accomazzo (acquisitions editor). I’ve worked with Terri for many years on several projects and she amazes me with each successive endeavor. I would also like to thank Jessica Miller (associate editor) and Georgia McLaughlin (editorial assistant) for their support and timely responses to all of my questions. I would like to thank Olivia Weber-Stenis (production editor) and Erin Livingston (copy editor) for their assistance in working with me on the drafts and on the final appearance of the book. Thanks also to Robert Higgins (eLearning editor) for his assistance on the student study site ancillaries. Finally, I would like to thank Ashlee Blunk (marketing manager) and her staff for their continued support of the book. I offer my sincere thanks to those individuals who served as reviewers for this revised edition—their comments and feedback were greatly appreciated and extremely helpful:
· Ronald Beebe, University of Houston–Downtown
· Tyrone Bynoe, University of the Cumberlands
· Stacy Hill, Whitworth University
· Kimberly Livengood, Angelo State University
· Gene Schwarting, Fontbonne University
· Michelle Szpara, Cabrini College
· Gay Ward, University of Wisconsin–River Falls
Also, I would like to recognize and thank those individuals who provided helpful feedback on previous editions:
· Katherine Egan Cunningham, Manhattanville College
· Elizabeth Dore, Radford University
· Gabrielle Kowalski, Cardinal Stritch University
· Yoon-Joo Lee, CUNY System Office–New York
· Ida Malian, Arizona State University
· Darcy Miller, Washington State University
· Barbara Taylor, Western New Mexico University
· Robert Wolffe, Bradley University
· Maryann Byrnes, University of Massachusetts Boston
· John Huss, Northern Kentucky University
· Terrence Stange, Marshall University
· Tamara Walser, University of North Carolina at Wilmington
· Eugene Bartoo, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
· Kevin Carr, George Fox University
· Dana Fredebaugh, Nova Southeastern University
· Terrance Jakubowski, California State University, Northridge
· Maja Miskovic, National Louis University
· Phillip Mutisya, North Carolina Central University
· Cynthia Williams Resor, Eastern Kentucky University
· Gail Ritchie, George Mason University
· Margaret Waterman, Southeast Missouri State University
· Lois McFadyen Christensen, University of Alabama at Birmingham
· Christopher J. Della Pietra, Southeastern Louisiana University
· Michael P. Grady, Saint Louis University
· K. Fritz Leifeste, Angelo State University
· Marilyn Lichtman, Virginia Tech
· Jeanne M. McGlinn, University of North Carolina at Asheville
· Jill C. Miels, Ball State University
· Cathy Mogharreban, Southern Illinois University Carbondale
· Ted J. Singletary, Boise State University
· Shelley H. Xu, California State University, Long Beach
As always, I would like to thank my wife, Kate, for her continued support of my extensive writing projects and for her feedback on numerous aspects of the book, from a classroom teacher’s perspective, and our son, Addison, for providing the invaluable student’s perspective. My books begin to take on a different level of meaning now that Addison is studying to become a professional educator himself.
About the Author
Craig A. Mertler
has been an educator for 30 years, 20 of those in higher education. He is currently an Associate Professor and Director of the EdD Program in Leadership and Innovation at Arizona State University. He teaches doctoral courses focused on the application of action research to promote educator empowerment, school improvement, and job-embedded professional development and also teaches quantitative research methods, introductory statistical analysis, multivariate statistical analysis, and educational assessment methods. He is the author of 20 books, 4 invited book chapters, 18 refereed journal articles, two instructors’ manuals, and numerous nonrefereed articles and manuscripts. He has also presented more than 35 research papers at professional meetings around the country as well as internationally. He conducts workshops for in-service educational professionals (at all levels) on classroom-based action research and on the broad topic of classroom assessment. His primary research and consulting interests include classroom-based action research, data-driven educational decision making, professional learning communities, and classroom teachers’ assessment literacy. Before teaching and researching at the university level, he taught high school biology and earth science and also coached track and volleyball. In his leisure time, he enjoys traveling with his family and playing golf. Dr. Mertler can be reached at [email protected] or [email protected] for consulting, professional development, and speaking engagements.
CHAPTER 3 Planning for Action Research & Reviewing Related Literature
Chapter 3 Organizer
·
Identifying a Topic for Research
· Preliminary Considerations
· Limiting a Topic
·
Gathering Preliminary Information
·
Reviewing the Related Literature
· Sources for Related Literature
· Searching the ERIC Database Online
· Searching Google Scholar
· Writing a Literature Review
·
Related Websites: Sources for Research Topics and Related Information
·
Summary
· ➤
Questions and Activities
· ➤
Key Terms
· ➤
Student Study Site
The first crucial steps in any research study are to clearly identify the topic under investigation and to examine the existing research and any other related information associated with the topic. In this chapter, we will explore various aspects of identifying a topic for research, including the whys and hows of gathering preliminary information and ways to narrow the focus of a topic. In addition, we will look at activities associated with reviewing related literature. These activities include identifying appropriate sources to consult for related literature, finding ways to search those sources, and writing a literature review. The steps of topic selection and reviewing related literature constitute two of the three initial steps when planning for action research.
3.1 Identifying a Topic for Research
Identifying the topic to be investigated in an action research study is obviously the first step in the process of conducting the actual study. It is, however, also one of the most important steps in the process. Nothing shapes the remainder of a research study as much as the research topic or problem and the research questions that follow (Hubbard & Power, 2003). If the research topic is too broad or too vague, the researcher may become overwhelmed with too many possible variations in the data collection, too much data, and too little time. If the topic is too narrow, it may not be possible to collect appropriate data in order to be able to answer the question at hand. The matter of limiting the focus of a research topic will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
The research topic should address a realistic classroom problem, such as an academic problem or an issue of classroom management (Rousseau & Tam, 1996). Johnson (2008) provides an overview of three main topic areas within which many action research studies fall. These three possibilities are as follows:
1. Trying a new teaching method. Teachers often consider trying a new teaching method or technique; action research allows for the systematic investigation of the effectiveness of new teaching methods.
2. Identifying a problem. Frequently teachers will notice when there is a problem or when things are not going as well as they should, whether the problem occurs in an individual classroom or schoolwide; an organized and logical examination can help educators better understand the problem and its possible causes and can help them explore various solutions.
3. Examining an area of interest. Teachers are professionals, and as such, their curiosity about particular topics in education is often aroused; action research can be used quite effectively to study such topics in an exploratory fashion.
Mertler and Charles (2011) have expanded this list by providing several categories of topics that could conceivably be considered for action research studies. They list the following categories, with only a few sample topics included here:
· Classroom environment—Topics in this category include the various aspects of the physical and psychosocial environments in classrooms and school buildings and their impact on student learning.
· Instructional materials—Topics might include the appropriateness of textbooks and other printed materials with respect to gender and ethnicity, the extent to which teachers find the materials useful and to which they support the curriculum, or the perceptions that students have of those materials.
· Classroom management—Possible research topics might include the level of satisfaction that both teachers and students have with the methods of managing student behavior, the degree to which the methods of managing behavior allow students to learn without unnecessary distraction, or how limiting those methods are with respect to the ability of teachers to teach as they would like.
· Instructional methods—Topics might include the effect of a given teaching method on student learning, the impact that different teacher personality styles can have on student learning or motivation to learn, or methods of providing effective feedback to students on their academic performance.
· The relation of human growth patterns to education—Possible topics might include ways to incorporate individual students’ interests and learning preferences or teaching strategies that support self-regulated learning, or those that support individual rates of learning.
· Grading and evaluation—Teachers often have questions about the effects that grades and other forms of evaluative decisions have on student motivation, stress, achievement, and attitudes or on effective methods of incorporating authentic assessment and other nontraditional means of assessing students.
· Conferencing—Possible topics might involve (a) the ways in which parents and teachers value individual conferences or (b) strategies for improving the effectiveness of parent-teacher conferences.
This list of categories represents merely a sampling of possible topic areas for action research investigations. There is a multitude of additional research topics that do not necessarily fall into these categories—curriculum, special education, counseling, psychological services, athletics, the arts, exceptionality services, student organizations, and gifted education. Bear in mind that in the broad field of education, you will not find a shortage of possible research topics for your action research projects.
Video Clip 3.1 View a clip of Dr. Mertler discussing how to identify a topic for study.
A “5 Why Process” for Problem Identification template appears in Appendix C and can also be found as an interactive PDF on the Student Study Site.
It is important to note that it is never too early to begin paying attention to research ethics. Even in the very early stages of developing your ideas for an action research study, it is critical to consider, plan for, and factor into your planning appropriate attention to various issues dealing with the ethical treatment of any and all participants in your study. These are the types of considerations and decisions that you do not want to have to “fix” later in your study—when you may realize that you need to do things differently.
Many techniques exist to help action researchers narrow down a topic. One of these is known as the “5 Why Process.” The 5 Why Process, originally developed and used by the Toyota Motor Corporation, is a technique used to explore possible cause-and-effect relationships that may underlie a particular problem. The goal of the technique is to help determine the root cause of the problem. The “five” in the 5 Why Process is not critical; one may be able to identify a root cause in fewer why’s—or it may take more than five why’s. As an example, consider the teacher who wants to know why her students do not perform well on spelling tests. This example appears in Figure 3.1.
Preliminary Considerations
Once you have decided on a general topic area that you are interested in examining further, it is a good idea to evaluate it against several important and practical considerations (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Schwalbach (2003) believes that such considerations as these help establish the parameters of your research project. First, you should have a personal interest in your potential topic. The level of personal interest should probably stem from the fact that the topic is associated with positive experiences or is associated with some unpleasant concern. In either case, the topic continues to suggest itself to you. If this is the case, the particular topic is likely one you should consider. In addition, you will be spending some amount of time investigating this topic—it might be as brief as a couple of months, or it might last an entire school year. It is important to identify a topic with which you will enjoy working. Imagine spending an entire year engaged in an in-depth study of a topic that you really do not like.
Second, the topic you identify should be important; the results of your action research study should make some sort of difference—or should at least have the potential to make some sort of difference—in some aspect of education. If you believe that investigation of the topic will not result in such a difference, it should probably not be pursued. You may wish to discuss the potential benefit of your study with colleagues and administrators.
Third, it is important at this point in the process to reflect on (notice that we are already beginning to engage in the reflective process) and anticipate the amount of time that the study will require. You must compare the time requirements of the study with the time you have available. The last thing you want to happen is that your action research project begins to take time away from your regular teaching duties. All things being equal, it may be better to select a topic for investigation such that the study can be completed in a relatively short period.
Figure 3.1 Sample “5 Why Process,” Using the Template Provided in Appendix C
Fourth, it is also critical to reflect on the anticipated difficulty of investigating the proposed topic. For a variety of reasons—many of them methodological in nature, as you will see in the next chapter—interesting topics are often difficult or simply impossible to research. To reiterate, the research topic must be practical. It is also important to design a research study within your personal research skill level. It is not wise to propose to undertake a study that will involve research skills beyond your individual capabilities. If you had absolutely no experience in conducting interviews, you probably would not want to select a topic that required that interviews be conducted and their transcriptions analyzed.
Fifth, consideration should also be given to the potential monetary costs associated with investigating the topic. If you select and develop a topic that will require you to spend money on supplies, materials, travel, and so on, you will likely want to find a different topic or, at a minimum, alter your ideas for the original topic. There are many good topics that will not involve monetary costs.
Finally, action researchers need to be cognizant of research ethics. Generally speaking, it is unethical and sometimes illegal to conduct research that exposes participants (i.e., students, teachers) to harm of any kind, including physical, emotional, and psychological harm. All of these are considered mistreatment of human beings and are unacceptable in the field of educational research.
Limiting a Topic
Once a topic has been selected and evaluated against the considerations above, it usually must be refined or limited before it can be effectively researched. This is due to the fact that most topics are too broad, too vague, or too complex (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The process of evaluating your topic against the preliminary considerations as presented above will establish your research parameters and will typically help focus the size of your topic. Focusing the size of your topic usually requires that the topic be narrowed in scope. If you do not have a specific and clear focus to your action research study, the project can wander aimlessly, and you may waste valuable time (Schwalbach, 2003). In addition, the topic may need to be clarified—that is, reworded so that it is clear and unambiguous. Schwalbach (2003) suggests that when trying to narrow the topic, you should be mindful to choose a focus that will ultimately help your students learn. Provided in Table 3.1 are several examples of broad research topics and their revised, more focused counterparts.
Once the topic is adequately narrowed and clarified, the process of specifically focusing it is continued by stating specific research questions or hypotheses directly related to the topic. Research questions and hypotheses will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.
3.2 Gathering Preliminary Information
As mentioned in Chapter 2, after identifying and narrowing the scope of a research topic, the next step is to gather preliminary information. As a starting point, I often suggest simply talking with other teachers, administrators, or counselors in your school or district. The purpose of engaging them in this activity is to gauge their perceptions of your proposed research topic. Undoubtedly, they may have experiences that differ from yours and that may give you further insight into your ideas for action research. They may also provide you with additional matters of importance about your topic—and perhaps its feasibility as a researchable topic—that you had not previously considered. You may want to ask them for ideas or for feedback on your ideas. During this step, you will also want to read quickly through recent editions of teachers’ manuals or other types of curricular guides, teacher magazines or newsletters from professional educator organizations, and various other resource guides, all for suggestions that may inform your topic. Finally, do not forget that you have a wonderful and easily accessible resource in the Internet (please see the Related Websites section later in this chapter).
While considering the ideas and suggestions of others is important, it is critical to examine your own beliefs, knowledge, and context in which you are considering your potential action research topic. This process, which Mills (2011) calls reconnaissance, involves taking time to reflect on your own beliefs and to gain a better understanding of the nature and context of your research problem. The act of engaging in reconnaissance takes three forms: self-reflection, description, and explanation. When you try to gain insight into your area of action research, Mills (2011) suggests that you begin by reflecting on your own understanding of the following:
· The educational theories that impact your instructional practice
· The values that you hold about education
· Ways in which your work in schools, in general, contributes to the larger context of schooling
· The historical context of your school and teaching in that school and how they came to be that way
· The historical contexts about how and why you hold the beliefs that you do about teaching and learning
These activities do not produce the changes you might be seeking. However, they provide the necessary groundwork upon which to build your ideas about how to solve a problem or answer an educational question through action research.
The next step in doing reconnaissance is to describe as completely as possible the situation or problem that you want to change or improve. In order to accomplish this, you must focus your descriptive activities on the who, what, where, when, and how of your problem. Through careful description of these aspects, you ultimately clarify for yourself the true area of focus for your action research. Otherwise, there is sometimes a tendency to focus on too many things at once, making the action research endeavor appear too “chaotic” and disorganized. For example, you may want to collect information that would allow you to describe the following:
· What evidence exists that what you perceive as a problem really is a problem?
· Who are the students that (i.e., which groups) are affected by the problem?
· How is this material, concept, or skill currently taught?
· How often is the material, concept, or skill taught and/or reinforced?
· How is student mastery of the material, concept, or skill currently assessed?
· Where is the material taught in the scope and sequence of the course content?
· When during the school year is the material taught?
A final step in doing reconnaissance is to take this description of the current problem that you have developed and then try to explain why the problem occurs. In light of the description of your problem that you have developed above, are you able to offer possible explanations for the reasons behind the occurrence of the problem? Based on these possible explanations for the problem, a hypothesis to guide your action research study is typically developed at this point. Recall that a hypothesis is a tentative but informed guess about the findings of a study, made before the study begins. You are now at a point in the action research process where you can make an informed prediction. It is being informed by self-reflection about your beliefs about and the historical context of teaching and learning in your school. Furthermore, it is being guided by your close and careful scrutiny of the current state of affairs with respect to the condition you want to change or improve.
3.3 Reviewing the Related Literature
The next major step in the action research process that serves many purposes is reviewing the related literature. A literature review is “an examination of journal articles, ERIC documents, books, and other sources related to your action research project” (Johnson, 2008, p. 75). By reviewing related literature, you can identify a topic, narrow its focus, and gather information for developing a research design as well as the overall project (Rousseau & Tam, 1996). You may also find examples of classroom applications, research questions, hypotheses, methods of data collection, and data analysis techniques (Johnson, 2008). A review of literature can reveal a study that could be systematically replicated in your classroom or provide you with potential solutions to the research problem you have identified.
The literature review can also help establish a connection between your action research project and what others have said, done, and discovered before you (Johnson, 2008). There is no reason to reinvent the wheel when it may not be necessary. A literature review allows you to use the insights and discoveries of others whose research came before yours in order to make your research more efficient and effective. In a manner of speaking, conducting a review of related literature can actually save you time in the development of your action research project (Mills, 2011). Instead of becoming bewildered in the research process because you are not sure of what to ask and how to pursue finding an answer, reflecting on your problem or situation through someone else’s perspective can prove very informative. Finally, conducting a literature review can enable you to become more of an expert in the area you are proposing to study, not to mention a more knowledgeable professional educator. Not only does a literature review guide you in many phases of your action research project; it also will likely enhance your ability to teach (Johnson, 2008). Figure 3.2 depicts the ways in which a review of related literature can inform various aspects of an action research study.
Before you actually begin searching for literature related to your topic, you should be aware of several things. First, there is an extremely wide range in the quality of books, articles, and conference papers that you will come across. Just because something has been published does not necessarily mean that it is of high quality. When you find an article, for example, it is important to consider whether it is simply someone’s opinion or whether it has been well researched (Schwalbach, 2003). Well-researched articles and other types of manuscripts are based on the collection of original data; these types of studies are referred to as empirical research. Empirical studies are not inherently better, but they are based on data other than solely the author’s individual opinions and perceptions.
A second key aspect of the research you locate is its objectivity. You will undoubtedly enter into your action research with some sort of expectation as to what you will discover at its end. Often, practitioner-researchers will examine the related literature only for works that support what they anticipate finding. If you are to do a thorough job of gathering all—or at least, a representative cross section—of the literature related to your topic, you should look for books, articles, and other published literature that both support and contradict your views (Schwalbach, 2003). For example, if you are proposing to study the effectiveness of whole-language instruction, you should also examine the literature related to the effectiveness of phonics instruction. Because things change in the field of education, there is often a historical context embedded within any body of literature. It is important to examine the entire body of literature in order to better understand how and why those things changed.
Third, be aware of the timeliness of the literature you find. Although it is important to examine the body of literature in its entirety, it is most applicable to your study to focus your review on the thinking and empirical research that is most current in that particular discipline (Schwalbach, 2003). If you did not consider the historical context and the fact that things change, and if you only examined literature from 20 years ago, you would very likely be missing out on newer, innovative, and more timely research findings. Although it will vary from topic to topic, my recommendation is to initially look at literature produced or published within the last 5 years. Of course, there will be situations where you may need to look to older publications or other sources of related information. For example, if your topic is one that received much attention a decade or two ago and then experienced a lack of research attention but has now resurfaced as an area of interest in the field, it would likely be wise to examine those older sources of information.
Finally, there are two questions related to literature reviews that I am probably asked most by my students: (1) How many references do I need? (2) How much review of related literature is enough? My typical response is something to the effect of “Well, I don’t really know the body of literature that you’re reviewing, so I have no way of knowing.” Although they generally do not care for that response, it is usually accurate. Having said that, it is important to recognize that it is often very easy to get bogged down in reviewing literature related to your topic, especially if you are examining a topic that already has a large research base. My recommendation is that you know you have done a reasonably good job of reviewing literature on a given topic when you begin to see the same articles and the same authors being cited in those articles. When you begin to recognize the big names in the field, you can be more confident that you most likely have not missed any substantial information (Schwalbach, 2003). The bottom line is that you must be comfortable with the level of review you have done. Johnson (2008) offers a good rule of thumb with some specific numbers of sources. Master’s theses typically call for 25 or more sources, whereas doctoral dissertations require 50 or more. Action research projects designed to be published in journals, presented at conferences, or shared with peers might use anywhere from 2 to 15 sources. Schwalbach (2003) suggests some important questions whose answers may help you better make this determination: Do you understand the current trends in the field? Do you understand the historical context of your topic? Have you uncovered research that examines both—or all—sides of the issue? Do you believe that you have enough information to design a good action research project? If you answer yes to these questions, you can probably stop reviewing literature related to your topic.
Sources for Related Literature
Sources for related literature can be broken down into two types: primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources are firsthand accounts of original research. Common primary sources include journal articles, monographs, and papers presented at professional research conferences (Mertler & Charles, 2011). In contrast, secondary sources of information are not firsthand accounts; they do not consist of original research. Rather, they are summaries, compilations, analyses, or interpretations of primary information (i.e., original research) made by other individuals. They include such publications as encyclopedias of research, handbooks of research, reviews of research, scholarly books (e.g., a textbook), and perhaps magazine and newspaper articles. As a general rule, it is best to examine secondary sources first, in order to gain some perspective on the body of literature you will be examining in terms of trends and general conclusions (Mertler & Charles, 2011). However, your literature review should focus predominantly on primary sources of information.
Figure 3.2 Integration of the Literature Review Into the Action Research Process, Depicting Steps at Which It Provides Information
Source: Adapted from Schwalbach, 2003.
Secondary sources are typically found in the reference section or other specific sections of the library and can be located by searching the library’s main catalog (Mertler & Charles, 2011). In the past, these catalogs consisted of small index cards located in numerous drawers (hence the name “card catalogs”). However, most libraries now have all of their holdings cataloged electronically and provide computers for you to be able to conduct an efficient search for these various secondary sources. Reference books, such as the Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Review of Educational Research, the National Society for the Study of Education yearbooks, and various handbooks of research, can usually be found in the library’s main reference section. Newspaper stories can be located and reviewed through the library’s computer system via Newspaper Abstracts. The original newspaper articles can then be read in their entirety on microfiche or microfilm. Similarly, magazine articles can be located and reviewed through the use of Periodical Abstracts.
Primary sources are most often found by searching specialized indexes or databases (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Most of what you will identify by searching these databases are original research articles, either published in academic journals or presented at professional research conferences. There are literally hundreds of different academic journals published in the field of education. The purpose of academic journals is to inform the field of education or a more specific discipline within the educational field (Johnson, 2008). Most journal articles are written by researchers or other academicians (usually college and university professors). Manuscripts are submitted to the editor of the journal and then sent out for peer review, which means that they are reviewed usually by three to six experts in the field in order to check for quality, accuracy, validity, and overall contribution to the field. Each reviewer provides evaluative comments and makes a recommendation for publication. If the article is accepted for publication, there are typically a couple of rounds of revisions that must be made prior to its appearance in the journal. Some journals have acceptance rates of 50\%, whereas others may have acceptance rates as low as 5\%.
Although there are numerous electronic databases in operation, the ERIC database is arguably the most popular among education researchers. ERIC, or the Educational Resources Information Center, was established in 1966 by the U.S. Department of Education. It is the largest database for locating research in education. However, it is important to be cautious of what you may find. ERIC has historically been a clearinghouse, meaning that the manuscripts submitted are not peer reviewed in the same manner as they are for academic journals; therefore, the quality varies quite a bit (Schwalbach, 2003). On the other hand, ERIC has recently undergone a substantial revamping. The new ERIC digital library opened to the public on September 1, 2004. Now, two advisory panels provide research, technical, and content expertise (Institute of Education Sciences, n.d.b). One of these panels, the advisory panel of content experts, provides recommendations for selecting journals and nonjournal materials for inclusion in the ERIC database (Institute of Education Sciences, n.d.a). Members of the panel of content experts provide expertise in the following areas:
· Adult, career, and vocational education
· Assessment and evaluation
· Community colleges
· Counseling and student services
· Disabilities and gifted education
· Education management
· Elementary and early childhood education
· Higher education
· Information and technology
· Languages and linguistics
· Reading, English, and communication
· Rural education and small schools
· Science, mathematics, and environmental education
· Social studies/social science education
· Teaching and teacher education
· Urban education
The ERIC online system provides the educational community with the capability to search the ERIC bibliographic database of more than 1.6 million citations dating back to 1966. Over 1,000 journals are indexed in ERIC. More than 350,000 full-text nonjournal documents, previously available through fee-based services only, are now available free of charge (Institute of Education Sciences, n.d.b). The ERIC database can be searched from its main page, affiliated with the U.S. Department of Education (http://www.eric.ed.gov). The process of searching the ERIC database will be discussed in the next section.
Many, but not all, other databases require the public to pay some sort of subscription or user fee. Searching ERIC is a free service; all you need is access to the Internet. However, it is important that you not limit yourself only to one database or only to full-text articles that are available online. Granted, this is an easier way to gain access to related literature; however, you limit your review of the entire body of literature if you use only certain databases or succumb to the lure of not having to leave your computer in order to print copies of articles. All it takes is a little time—and some loose change—to go to your college or university library and make photocopies of articles you locate.
Of course, there exist numerous other searchable, free-of-charge Internet databases. Google Scholar is one example. According to its website (http://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/about.html),
Google Scholar provides a simple way to broadly search for scholarly literature. From one place, you can search across many disciplines and sources: articles, theses, books, abstracts and court opinions, from academic publishers, professional societies, online repositories, universities, and other websites. Google Scholar helps you find relevant work across the world of scholarly research. (para. 1)
When you search for a topic in Google Scholar, the database not only returns to you a list of relevant articles but also ranks the documents in terms of the full text of each document, where it was published, who wrote it, and how often and how recently it has been cited in other scholarly literature. Information about searching Google Scholar is presented in more detail later in this chapter.
ProQuest (http://www.proquest.com/about/ or http://proquest.umi.com/login) is another searchable database containing not only published articles and conference papers but also dissertations and theses. ProQuest calls itself “an information partner, creating indispensable research solutions that connect people and information.” Many of the articles housed within the database are accessible in full-text format. Although dissertations and theses are not available in full text but only for purchase through the site, you can preview selected pages from them.
Finally, the Internet can be a valuable source for related information, as well as for exploring ideas for research topics. There is a wide variety of search engines available on the web. Search engines organize websites by keywords. When you search for a specific keyword or words, the results yield a list of related websites and usually an attempt to rank them in terms of relevance to the topic (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Many professional associations also maintain websites and include links to related webpages. These sites are often very useful in identifying or narrowing a topic, as well as for locating related literature and other information. The premier professional association in education is the American Educational Research Association (AERA). AERA (http://www.aera.net) is divided into 12 divisions, based on broad disciplines. In addition, there are numerous special interest groups (SIGs). More information related to search engines and professional associations is provided in the Related Websites section later in this chapter.
Searching the ERIC Database Online
ERIC is composed of two indexes, both of which are searchable online. The Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE) cites and presents abstracts of journal articles published in education and closely related fields. Resources in Education (RIE), on the other hand, cites and abstracts documents that have not appeared in education journals. These include such documents as papers read at conferences, technical reports, reports of evaluations of federally funded programs, and any other original research that has not been published elsewhere (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The main search page for the site is shown in Figure 3.3. For more information on advanced search options, users should click on Advanced Search Tips (see Figure 3.4).
Notice that, initially, one can search for a single term or combinations of terms or specifications, based on one of several criteria (as indicated on the Advanced Search Tips page), including searching by keyword, title, and author. Most searches are conducted by keyword, at least during the initial stages. Let us consider a concrete example: Suppose we wanted to locate published research on the topic of teachers’ classroom assessment practices. We might search under the terms educational assessment and classroom techniques. Since this search contains two key phrases (i.e., educational assessment and classroom techniques), I used Boolean operators. Boolean operators are keywords that enable the retrieval of terms in specific combinations. The most common operators are “and” and “or”—if “and” is used, only those documents that contain both keywords as descriptors will be retrieved (i.e., a narrower search); if “or” is used, every document with either of these two keywords as descriptors will be retrieved (i.e., a broader search). We will use “and” for our example—therefore, we are searching for documents that contain both “educational assessment” and “classroom techniques.” We then click on Submit to begin our search of the database. The results of our search are shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.3 The Main Page for ERIC (http://www.eric.ed.gov)
Figure 3.4 Advanced Search Tips for ERIC
Figure 3.5 Sample of ERIC Search Results
First, you will notice that ERIC retrieved 2,778 documents containing these two descriptive keywords, entirely too many to search through. By using the various filtering options that appear on the left-hand side of the search results window, you can reduce the number of citations returned by selecting options under “Publication Date,” “Descriptor,” “Source,” “Publication Type,” “Education Level,” or “Audience.” For the purposes of this search, I narrowed the focus by selecting “Descriptor: Educational Practices” and “Author: Mertler, Craig A.,” thus reducing the number of citations returned to two documents. The documents are initially screened by the user for relevance by examining the titles. If you are interested in exploring a given document more closely, this can be accomplished by simply clicking on the title of the document. This will take you to a new page that provides citation information for that document. For example, if you click on the title for the first citation (in this case, Teacher-Centered Fallacies of Classroom Assessment Validity and Reliability), you are provided with the document’s citation (see Figure 3.6).
The first thing you may notice, on the right-hand side of the screen, is an indicator that this was a peer-reviewed article. The ERIC number (as shown in Figure 3.6) serves as the document’s identification within ERIC but also informs you as to whether the document was published in an academic journal (EJ) or exists in one of several unpublished forms (ED). Documents listed as EJ will include the citation information for the journal in which the document appears. This is important information, since you will need it in order to locate the article on the appropriate library shelves.
Figure 3.6 Document Citation From ERIC
Documents listed as ED may have originally been written as papers to be presented at academic conferences, position papers, technical reports, research reports, and so on. The accession number is again of vital importance here, since all ED documents appear on microfiche and are cataloged by the six-digit ED number. This number is the only means of locating the correct microfiche in your library’s microfiche stacks.
Also of great importance to the researcher is the abstract. This is a brief summary of the contents of the document, including the results and conclusions of the study, if appropriate. Only by reading the document abstract can you really be sure whether you want to obtain the full document for complete review. It is always best to study the abstract prior to investing the time required to locate the complete article. Finally, all keywords under which this particular document is catalogued within ERIC are provided in the section labeled “Descriptors,” which provides hotlinks to other articles catalogued with the same descriptors.
Because of the flexibility of the searchable ERIC database, it takes some practice and experience in order to be able to work with it effectively. The idea of combining keywords in a single search—or even combining keywords with authors’ names, and so on—can be a little intimidating to the beginning researcher. However, novice researchers should not hesitate to experiment with searches of ERIC. Online access to the ERIC database is certainly a valuable research tool of which all researchers—at any level of experience—should take advantage.
Searching Google Scholar
Similar to ERIC, Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com) allows you to search across a broad cross section of research and scholarly literature. The default options in the main search screen (see Figure 3.7) will return hits from a wide variety of document types, including theses and dissertations, journal articles, books, abstracts, legal documents, and court opinions. Furthermore, these documents come from a diverse list of sources, including academic publishers, professional societies, online databases, and university and other websites. Some of the distinct features of Google Scholar include the fact that you can do the following:
· Explore related works, citations, authors, and publications
· Locate the complete document through a local university library or online
· Track recent developments in a specific area of research
· Check who is citing your publications and how many times they have been cited (if you are an author yourself)
When searching Google Scholar, you will notice that search results are sorted by relevance; however, you can search by dates using the options in the left sidebar. If the document is available in full text online, you will find a link to the entire document in the right sidebar (see Figure 3.8). Additionally, you can search by the name of the author using Google Scholar’s “author:” operator. For example, if you wanted to search for my name, you would simply enter “author: ca mertler” into the search bar.
Figure 3.9 presents a single search result returned by Google Scholar—which just happens to be the book you are currently reading. Clicking on the title link ([BOOK] Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators, in this example) takes you either to a website featuring this document/book or to the entire electronic version (if it is available online, in full text). If you click on “Cited by 106,” Google Scholar will return all 106 documents that have listed this book in their citations. The “Related articles” link will return other documents, listed in the Google Scholar database, that also address this topic (in this case, clicking on the link will return 101 similar documents). The “All 5 versions” link takes you to a page with links to or citations of any other versions (e.g., five, in this case) of this same original document. Finally, the “Cite” link opens another window that provides the citation for this document in MLA, APA, and Chicago style formats (see Figure 3.10). You then have the option of copying and pasting the citation into a word-processing document or importing the citation into one of several reference citation software programs (i.e., BibTeX, EndNote, RefMan, or RefWorks).
Video Clips 3.2 & 3.3 View clips of practitioner-researchers discussing how to identify a topic and writing a literature review.
Writing a Literature Review
Writing a review of related literature is, in my opinion, one of the more difficult aspects of writing up any type of research. What makes it so difficult is that every study is different, and every body of literature is different. Therefore, there is no easy, prescriptive, step-by-step process for writing such a review. One of the best ways to learn how to write a literature review is to examine how others have accomplished the task. With that in mind, I will offer several suggestions that will hopefully help you organize your review and get it down on paper.
Figure 3.7 The Main Search Page for Google Scholar
Figure 3.8 A Google Scholar Results Page, Highlighting Options in the Left and Right Sidebars
Figure 3.9 A Single Google Scholar Search Result, Highlighting Additional Search Options
Figure 3.10 The Bibliographic Citation Option in Google Scholar
It is initially important to keep in mind the purpose to be served by a written review of related literature. Its purpose is to convey to all individuals interested in the particular topic of the action research project the following:
· The historical context of the topic
· The trends experienced by the topic
· How theory has informed practice and vice versa
For each study that you review, encapsulate it into a brief summary that reflects any aspect of the study that has relevance to your topic (Mills, 2011). This may include the variables studied, the methodology employed, the participants studied, and the conclusions obtained. However, the literature review should emphasize the findings of previous research (Pyrczak & Bruce, 2003)—that is, what will influence your study most.
An Examining Background Information & Related Literature template appears in Appendix C and can also be found as an interactive PDF on the Student Study Site.
Once you have done this, develop an outline for the review, beginning with an introduction that communicates the organization—often using subheadings—of your review (Pyrczak & Bruce, 2003). Again, your organization and subheadings should focus on the aspects of the body of literature that are relevant to your topic and study. As you begin to use this organizational outline to write the actual review, it is important to keep in mind that it should not be written in the form of an annotated list (i.e., one study summarized in a paragraph, followed by another summarized in the next paragraph) but rather as a cohesive essay that flows smoothly for the reader (Pyrczak & Bruce, 2003). This creates a better view of the trends that your topic has seen over time. All literature related to a given subtopic is cited during the discussion of that topic.
Another key organizational aspect of writing a literature review is how the topics are to be ordered. Essentially, a well-written literature review will begin with the subtopics that are least related to your specific proposed study. As you proceed through the development of your literature review, the subtopics begin to focus more and more. In other words, they become more closely related to your topic. This “design” somewhat parallels a funneling effect (see Figure 3.11). As you write—and someone reads through—your literature review, the scope of the research being summarized is continually narrowed; in other words, you are “funneling the reader’s attention” in the direction of your specific topic. The logic behind this practice is that the final subtopics presented in your literature review will be those most closely related to your study (which you will present next as your study’s methodology). For example, a recent study of mine focused on the perceptions held by teachers of the influence that No Child Left Behind (NCLB) has had on their classroom assessment practices. The subheadings (beginning with the more broad literature and progressing to the more focused) of my literature review were as follows:
· The Impact of “No Child Left Behind”
· Teachers’ Perceptions of “No Child Left Behind”
· “No Child Left Behind” and Classroom Assessment
You can see how the literature review moves from research that is broadly related (i.e., NCLB, in general) to the research that most closely aligns with what I specifically studied (i.e., the connection of NCLB to actual classroom practice).
Figure 3.11 Depiction of the Narrowing Focus (Funneling Effect) of a Literature Review
A concluding summary paragraph is extremely useful because it provides a starting point for your study, based on what previous research has found (Mills, 2011). It also provides support for your study by placing it into a relevant context and demonstrating how your study will potentially contribute to that particular body of literature. Finally, it provides a brief overview of the existing research for the benefit of those individuals who have not had the opportunity to review it as thoroughly as you have. More in-depth information related to the act of writing up action research is presented in Chapter 8.
WRITING UP ACTION RESEARCH: TOPICS AND LITERATURE REVIEWS
In the Writing Up Action Research sections, which begin in this chapter (below) and continue throughout the remainder of the book, excerpts from actual published—or otherwise disseminated—action research studies are presented. These passages demonstrate how to write up the specific section of a research report addressed in the particular chapter. This section in the current chapter includes excerpts from two published articles, illustrating the introduction of the research topic and review of related literature:
Proponents of mathematics reform have argued that traditional mathematics instruction, the predominant form of instruction in our nation’s schools, has been unsuccessful in promoting conceptual understanding and application of mathematics to real-life contexts. Battista (1999) asserts that, “For most students, school mathematics is an endless sequence of memorizing and forgetting facts and procedures that make little sense to them” (p. 426). A major thrust of the current reform movement is to get students actively involved in their study of mathematics and to encourage them to see the big picture (Ross, 1996). Data suggests that most classroom instruction is geared toward the development of rote procedural skills. Existing teaching methods do not develop the high levels of conceptual understanding or the reasoning, problem solving, and communication skills that students will need to be competitive (Silver & Stein, 1996).
Source: Alsup & Sprigler, 2003.
I have found two major advantages to using cloze sheets in my classroom. First, the use of cloze sheets increases the likelihood that students will complete reading assignments, and second, completed cloze sheets can be used by the students as a study guide. A majority of my students verbally describe cloze sheets as helpful. Such anecdotal evidence from my students indicates that the use of cloze sheets aids in their learning. However, at the time of the study I was unsure whether the perceived gains justified the amount of time required for teacher preparation and student usage.
Source: Weldon, 1995.
Action Research Portrait 1: Improving Reading Comprehension in a Title I Program
Planning for Action Research
Recall that Kathleen is a Title I reading specialist in a small, suburban elementary school. She has always striven to improve her reading instruction but has had trouble targeting a specific area for the upcoming year. She talked with several of her fellow teachers, who reminded her that students in their building have always seemed to have trouble with reading comprehension. Kathleen agreed, noting that in the 5 years she has served as a reading specialist, she has noticed that her intermediate-level (i.e., fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade) students struggle most with reading comprehension. She has several sources of evidence for this fact. First, she can tell from the daily observations of her students. Kathleen generally has students read short sections of chapter books aloud and then engages them in several related activities, including having them respond to either written or oral comprehension questions or having them complete a book project. The students seldom answer more than one half of the questions correctly. In addition, the book projects require that extended time be spent on rereading. Second, Kathleen administers diagnostic reading tests on several occasions throughout the school year.
Her students consistently experience their lowest performance on the reading comprehension section. Finally, these diagnostic test results have also been supported by the results of the standardized test administered each spring. Although the reading comprehension section is not lengthy, her students continue to perform low.
Kathleen would like to try something new this year with her students in order to improve their reading comprehension skills. Currently, she relies on both oral and written comprehension questions—asked of students on an individual basis—following a reading assignment, as well as small-group discussions and book projects that focus on comprehension skills. One day during her planning time, she conducted a brief search of ERIC in the computer lab. She found several articles that provided her with ideas for ways to improve her students’ comprehension skills. Several of the techniques showed promise, although she read a number of articles that also criticized the potential effectiveness of those techniques.
A couple of the articles that Kathleen read showed that matching classroom, teacher-made assessments to a format similar to that of a standardized test results in increased student performance on that test. She decided to continue teaching reading comprehension as she typically had in the past but to provide students with additional, different types of assessments. She planned to have students read brief passages taken from reading-level-appropriate books and then provide them with written multiple-choice and extended-response types of items addressing their level of comprehension. She would still teach and assess reading comprehension, but students would additionally become more familiar with the format of items they would see on the standardized reading comprehension test.
Action Research Portrait 2: Conceptual Understanding of Mitosis and Meiosis
Planning for Action Research
Recall that Sarah has been a high school biology teacher for 3 years, and Tom has been a biology teacher for 12 years. Both have been aware for some time that their students, who are typically in Grades 9 and 10, struggle with many aspects of the introductory course in biology. They often have difficulties with the vocabulary as well as with their conceptual understanding of many of the scientific concepts discussed in the course. Knowing that they wanted to address at least some of their difficulties, Sarah and Tom collaborated on a list of these common difficulties experienced by their students. In doing so, they arrived at the following list:
· Structure (and organelles) in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
· Cell division (i.e., mitosis and meiosis)
· Microbes (e.g., bacteria and viruses)
· Biological classification
· Photosynthesis
· Life cycles of various plant life
Since most of the topics on the list fell under the category of microbiology, Sarah and Tom decided to focus their attention on biological concepts at the cellular level. They also believed that these concepts would be important to target, since they serve as requisite knowledge for the majority of students who continue on to take a second-level biology course in Grade 11. Within this category, the teachers determined that students struggle most with the concepts of mitosis and meiosis. They find the terminology (e.g., interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis, chromosome, chromatid, centromere, centriole, spindle fibers) difficult to comprehend and truly learn. Furthermore, their students have difficulty later in the year with the unit on heredity, where many of these terms are reintroduced and students are expected to know them.
Sarah began to search for some background information on different ways to teach mitosis and meiosis. Tom located and obtained a few articles, written by other high school biology teachers, in a science education journal. However, what they were really interested in finding was information or suggestions for alternative ways to teach these topics. In the past, Sarah and Tom both relied on lecturing on the topic and supplementing discussions with artists’ renderings of the process (see below). For each stage, students are then typically required to identify the stage, label its various components or structures, and briefly describe what happens during that step.
Unfortunately, the two teachers believed that the students see this as an exercise in rote memorization. They wanted to find better, more meaningful ways to teach the material and examine what type of impact changes in instruction might have on the students’ mastery of the concepts. One of the journal articles mentioned the use of simulations to help students understand complex processes. Sarah decided to investigate this idea further on the Internet, while Tom continued to search for additional related research. After only a couple of sessions of searching online after school, Sarah identified four websites that provided either Java-based animations of the processes of both mitosis and meiosis or interactive quizzes or activities that provided students with opportunities for reinforcement. After reviewing the websites, Sarah and Tom decided that they would heavily integrate these websites into their instruction and later measure the impact they have on students’ learning.
Action Research Checklist 3
Planning for Action Research
· □ Identify several possible topics for action research and evaluate them for viability as action research projects against the various preliminary considerations.
· □ Using one of your identified topics, engage in reconnaissance in order to gain insight into your action research topic.
· □ Using ERIC, Google Scholar, or other databases, find several sources of published literature related to your topic; identify each as either a primary or a secondary source.
· □ Develop an outline for summarizing the literature related to your topic.
· □ Determine whether you need to add more resources to your review of literature.
3.4 Related Websites: Sources for Research Topics and Related Information
Several websites and groups of websites are described below. All provide good suggestions or sources for ideas for research topics as well as for related research and other information. This list is certainly not intended to be exhaustive.
· Internet Search Engines
You read a bit about Internet search engines earlier in this chapter. Search engines provide an excellent resource for preliminary investigations into a potential research topic. Some of these available search engines, listed with their respective URLs, include the following:
· ○ Ask http://www.ask.com
· ○ Excite http://www.excite.com
· ○ Google http://www.google.com
· ○ WebCrawler http://www.webcrawler.com
· ○ Yahoo! http://www.yahoo.com
· Professional Associations
You also read about using professional associations to generate ideas for research topics. A sampling of other prominent professional associations is listed below:
· ○ American Psychological Association
http://www.apa.org
· ○ Association for Educational Communications and Technology
http://www.aect.org
· ○ Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
http://www.ascd.org
· ○ Council for Exceptional Children
http://www.cec.sped.org
· ○ International Reading Association
http://www.reading.org
· ○ International Society for Technology in Education
http://www.iste.org
· ○ National Association for the Education of Young Children
http://www.naeyc.org
· ○ National Council for the Social Studies
http://www.ncss.org
· ○ National Council of Teachers of English
http://www.ncte.org
· ○ National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
http://nctm.org
· ○ National Education Association
http://www.nea.org
· ○ National Science Teachers Association
http://nsta.org
· ○ Phi Delta Kappa
http://www.pdkintl.org
· ○ Research to Practice: Guidelines for Planning Action Research Projects
http://literacy.kent.edu/Oasis/Pubs/0200-08.htm
· ○ Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages
http://www.tesol.org
In the section titled “Identify the Question,” Nancy and Gary Padak provide a foundational overview of three major characteristics of good research topics and questions.
· ○ Classroom Action Research: Starting Points https://staffdevweb.madison.k12.wi.us/node/235
This page on the Madison (Wisconsin) Metropolitan School District website offers a process for developing good research topics and questions. Included are several incomplete statements for teachers to consider, such as “I would like to improve . . . ,” “I am really curious about . . . ,” and “An idea I would like to try out in my class is . . .”
Summary
· Identifying a topic for action research is one of the most important steps in the process.
· Action research topics should address realistic classroom problems or issues.
· Research topics should also be weighed against several practical considerations, including your personal interest in the topic, its potential importance, the amount of time it will require, the anticipated difficulty, potential costs, and any ethical issues.
· Narrowing a topic can be accomplished by addressing practical considerations and also through self-reflective, descriptive, and explanatory activities.
· Preliminary information related to the topic should be gathered.
· This information can be gathered by talking with other educators, reviewing curricular materials, or examining professional publications.
· Information can also be gathered through reconnaissance, with involved self-reflection, description, and explanation.
· A literature review is described as a systematic examination of research and other information related to your research topic.
· Literature reviews help establish a connection between your given project and what has been done before.
· Literature reviews can provide guidance in helping to identify and narrow a topic, formulate research questions and hypotheses, select appropriate data collection methods, and identify appropriate techniques for data analysis.
· When reviewing related literature, it is important to consider its quality, objectivity, and timeliness.
· When trying to locate related literature, it is best to begin with secondary sources and then move to primary sources. Furthermore, it is best to focus your review on primary sources.
· If it becomes necessary to write a formal review of related literature, bear in mind its purpose: to convey to all individuals interested in the topic the historical context of the topic, the trends experienced by the topic, how theory has informed practice, and vice versa.
· A literature review should not consist of an annotated list of summaries of research, but rather it should flow smoothly for the reader as a cohesive essay.
QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
1. Think of a preliminary topic you are interested in investigating. Complete the table below by addressing the considerations discussed in the chapter.
2. Make a list of ethical considerations with which you might want to be concerned in an action research study.
3. What do you believe might be the most difficult aspect of doing reconnaissance related to a potential action research topic?
4. What do you believe might be the most difficult aspect of conducting a review of literature related to a potential action research topic?
5. Searching databases and the Internet for related literature can sometimes seem a daunting task. Begin small by identifying a preliminary topic of interest and find one of each kind of the following: a published journal article, a paper presented at a professional conference, and an Internet website.
6. Assume that you will write a literature review for only the three items you located in Number 5 above. Draft an outline of your review based on the contents of those three sources.
Key Terms
· abstract 69
· Boolean operators 66
· Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) 64
· empirical research 61
· Google Scholar 65
· literature review 60
· primary sources 62
· ProQuest 66
· search engines 66
· secondary sources 62
Review → Practice → Improve
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