Fluent Essays

theres 2 assignments and 1 small essay, the other is reading material in which u might need to finish the work  let me know pricing as if the price is right, i have more units of work in which i will give to you to do unit 2 notes (1).pptx UNIT 2: INDIVIDUALS Defining Adulthood Adulthood is the period of life that follows childhood and adolescence and lasts until death. Therefore, adulthood begins when adolescence ends. Emerging adulthood is a transition that begins in adolescence and continues into adulthood. What makes someone an adult? Wealth? Education? Relationship? Status? Age? Wisdom? Experience? Achievement? Parenthood? Part 1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVELOPMENT Learning goals B1.1 explain individual development throughout the lifespan, according to a variety of theoretical perspectives on development B1.2 assess research on sex-based similarities and differences as well as gender-based similarities and differences B1.3 compare theories used to explain adult development in later life Lesson 1 Individual development throughout the lifespan, according to a variety of theoretical perspectives on development Who are you and who will you be in the future? 1. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life Erik Erikson was the first psychologist to describe predictable stages of human development from childhood through adulthood. Erikson suggested that each stage presents a dilemma, in which the person in challenged to develop by new situations in life. By resolving each dilemma, the individual acquires (gets) the basic strength needed to meet the challenges of the next stage. Failure to solve the dilemma causes problems later in life. *Page 100 in textbook 2. KLAUS RIEGEL’S DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT Development in adulthood occurs not in predictable stages but as individuals adjust in response to the interaction of both internal and external changes. Theory is reflective to systems theory. Takes into account an internal biological clock and forever changing social clock. He identified four interrelated internal and external dimensions of development. Klaus’ theory explains that the pace an adult develops reflects the changing social clock. In other words, if an individual is emotionally ready for marriage, than they will get married, if they are old enough according to their culture. He suggests that development does not happen in predictable stages. This means that everyone matures at different times in ones life. Some people could mature faster in some areas than others. Dimensions of Development Individual Psychological Dimensions Individual Biological Dimensions Cultural-Sociological Dimensions Environmental Dimensions Life Course Theory Poster Activity Create a poster that explains one of the life course theories pp. 99-112. Success Criteria: Poster: Explain the main points of the theory Poster: Define key terminology Poster: Make sure it is easy for students to understand Presentation: explain the developmental tasks of emerging adults according to your theory Lesson 2 Assess research on sex-based similarities and differences as well as gender-based similarities and differences “One is not born a woman - one becomes one.” - Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986), Philosopher and literary feminist SEX Definition: The biological makeup of an individuals reproductive anatomy Ex: breastfeeding an infant Ex: reproductive roles Gender Definition: The social roles that society defines as appropriate for men and for women, including traits (character), attitudes, and behaviours. Ex: covering the breast for modesty whilst breastfeeding Activity Construct a T-Chart that identifies the differences between the male and female sexes Construct a T-Chart that identifies the differences between male and female gender in your home society. Functionalism Functionalist explain that the differences in interests and attitudes are formed through socialization so that men and women can perform appropriate gender roles in their society Task: use your textbook to define the highlighted terms Symbolic Interactionists Symbolic interactionists explain that children are influenced by the role models they observe in the media and in daily experience more than by the guidance they receive from their parents. Seat Work Read the chart on page 140 and answer questions Read the abstract on page 141 and answer questions Read the chart on page 143 and answer questions Read the article on page 144 and answer questions Lesson 3 Theories used to explain adult development in later life “We grow neither better nor worse as we get older, but more like ourselves.” - Mary Lamberton Becker (1873-1958), journalist and literary critic Theories of Aging Read p. 434 in your textbook and define the following 3 models for aging: The stability model The orderly change model The theory of random change Discussion Pretend you are 85 years old: What would you have liked to achieve before you die? How will you leave your mark on the world? Generativity A stage in middle adulthood when people want to be productive by reaching out to other people and doing something that leaves their mark on the world. Erikson’s seventh stage of life: generativity versus stagnation This stage begins at about 40 years of age. Generativity: meaning productivity, describes how people make their mark on the world. Stagnation: If you are self-indulgent, and care only for yourself, individuals can cease to develop. Daniel Levinson’s Seasons of Life Corresponds to the midlife transition At this time, individuals assess their lives and ask: What have I done with my life? What do I get and give to self and others? What do I want from myself? Individuals build a new life structure based on their answers to these questions. Individuals continue to pursue their Dreams, but look for greater meaning by giving back to others. Discussion Have you ever experiences a time where someone in middle adulthood reached out to you and guided or mentored you? Forms of Generativity According to John Kotre, there are 4 different forms of generativity: Biological, or parenthood Parental, or the raising of children Technical, or the passing of knowledge Cultural, or the sharing of culture and tradition READINGS: pp. 439-441 Part 2 THE IMPACT OF NORMS, ROLES, AND INSTITUTIONS Learning goals C1.1 assess ways in which norms, values, and expectations influence individual decisions throughout the lifespan C1.3 analyse the impact of social institutions on the socialization of individuals throughout the lifespan Lesson 1 How norms, values, and expectations influence individual decisions throughout the lifespan Lesson 1 Learning goals C1.1 assess ways in which norms, values, and expectations influence individual decisions throughout the lifespan Key Terms 1. Norms: the most common role behaviours in a group or society. 2. Values: a strongly held belief about what is valuable, important, or acceptable. 3. Expectations: a belief that something will happen or is likely to happen. 4. Influence: the power to change or affect someone or something; the power to cause changes without directly forcing them to happen. 5. Decisions: a choice that you make about something after thinking about it. Opposing worldviews Individualism is a dominant social belief in many Western cultures. It emphasizes independent and self-reliance and that favours free action for individuals. Individualism is a prime motivation for competition in a free-market economy. Collectivism is a dominant social belief in many Eastern cultures. It emphasizes the interdependence of individuals. In collectivist societies, family and societal needs take priority over the individual’s needs. A duty-based moral code encourages individuals to consider expectations of family and society, more than personal considerations, when making important decisions. Readings Read: If You’re a New Canadian, You Go to University”, p. 149 Answer Questions: 1-4 Task: create a list of the major decisions EVERY PERSON will need to make in THEIR life. Continued: what do you predict your choices will be? CONTINUED: IDENTIFY THE NORMS, VALUES AND EXPECTATIONS OF YOUR CULTURE AND FAMILY. USE A GRAPHIC ORGANIZER! HOW HAVE THESE NORMS, VALUES AND EXPECTATIONS INFLUENCED EACH OF YOUR CHOICES? Application of Exchange theory Using exchange theory, analyze each of your choice. CASE Study Read: Senjay’s quest for independence, p. 150 Answer Questions: 2 and 5 Lesson 2 Agents of Socalization discussion HOW DO INDIVIDUALS FORM AN IDENTY? SCAVANGER HUNT – define the following terms Socialization Resocialization Anticipatory socialization Identity (defined by Erikson) Identity (defined by Arnett) Identity (as explained by the theory symbolic interactionism) Self-regulation The social clock READINGS: PP. 114-117 Family * First emotional tie * Greatest impact on socialization process * First place to learn language, norms, and values of the culture * May be problematic * Parents/Guardians may reproduce negative modeling that they experienced as a child School * Opens the door to a new social world * Provides importance that society places on gender and race * Provides information to individuals understand themselves and others * Provides skills to function as a citizen and a worker * Exposure to inequality * First experience of economics and social status * Reduces opportunities for control and makes children feel less competent peers * Influential from late childhood through adolescence and early adulthood * Learn how to form relationships without adult supervision * May encourage good and bad interests * May guide short term choices * Change behaviour and personality to be accepted by peers Mass media * Represents impersonal communication directed at a certain audience * Major type of secondary socialization * Influences people’s behaviour through modeling and imitation * The mass media can create and influence/control perceptions of what is important in society selecting and stressing particular topics, views, interpretations, and themes. * Advertising secretly manipulates the audience Readings: pp. 117-119 – the influence of family and school on identity formation Readings: pp. 121-123 – the influence of family and school on forming an occupation Demonstration task TASK: Explore how your parents, school, peers, and media have acted as agents of socialization in your life. You may work alone or in groups; complete one of the following: Dramatic performance Written response Art Part 3 TRENDS, ISSUES, AND CHALLENGES Learning goals D1.1 analyse the significance of recent demographic trends relating to the lives of individuals D1.2 assess the impact of current social trends, issues, and challenges on individual development Lesson 1 Issues for Emerging Adults Issue 1: The High Cost of Education - The cost of attending university includes tuition, housing, and transportation. - There is a concern that students from families with low to middle incomes may have fewer resources for post-secondary education. - The cost of tuition fees at Canadian universities doubled between 1990 and 2005. - Nearly half of post-secondary students will borrow money to pay for their education Task - Read figures 5-13 and 5-14 - Answer all questions Key Term: Consumer Price Index An inflationary indicator that measures the change in the cost of a fixed basket of products and services, including housing, electricity, food, and transportation. The CPI is published monthly. also called cost-of-living index. Issue 2: Homelessness and Youth - Youth homelessness is defined as youth having no fixed place to sleep at night. - This includes staying at a motel until your money runs out, staying with friends, or living in unsafe conditions. - The number of homeless youth has increase in Toronto by \%80 between 1992 and 1998. - In 2009, there were approximately 65 000 homeless youth in Canada. VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibYk7bu5eRs Discussion Should the government support homeless youth? What are the causes of youth homelessness? What are the effects of youth homelessness? Causes of Youth Homelessness Disruptive family conditions: living on the street appears to be a better alternative. These conditions may range from psychical, psychological, or sexual abuse to neglect and abandonment. These conditions account for 42\% of homeless youth in Canada (2009). Residential inability: coming from a family that cant afford housing, or the parents are not allowed or do not want to provide housing. This category accounts for 63\% of homeless youth (2009). Consequences of Youth Homelessness Education is disrupted. Limited knowledge and skills leads to low self-esteem According to Erikson’s theory, this leads to role confusion, as they have not developed an identity. The may earn money through criminal activities: selling drugs or sex. Their health is compromised. Lesson 2 Issues in Middle and Later Life Discussion (p.464) According to Sigmund Freud, what two tasks are the most significant challenges of middle age? What impact does unemployment have on the individual? What id dependency? Issue # 1: Remarriage In total, 10\% of Canadians are remarried for a second time. People will often marry for romance and sexual expression. They are also more aware of the costs and benefits of marriage. Many remarriages end in divorce in the first ten years. System theory argues three reasons: 1) problems from the first marriage might continue into the second; 2) people are more deeply immersed in their work life at this stage in their life; 3) they may try to use strategies developed in their first marriage to deal with issues. Systems Theory: why do second marriages fail? An individuals problems from the first marriage might continue into the second People are more deeply immersed in their work life at this stage in their life They may try to use strategies developed in their first marriage to deal with issues in the second marriage. Stepchildren 40\% of remarriages with children end within 4 years. Causes: Changes in birth order status. Loyalties to other parents. New sibling rivalries. Stepchildren may be sexual attracted to each other. Stepparents act as healers. ISSUE # 2: Unemployment Losing a job can be a major psychological and social crisis for man because it affects his identify in so many ways. Today, as women have equal employment, it has become a similar crisis for women. Unemployment can result from a poor economy or personal incompetence. -Unemployment affects older workers more than younger workers because of the greater difficulty in finding work at a comparable salary as the one they had. The Impact of Unemployment on Life Structure Work provides the framework for an individual’s life structure (the patter of a life; a meshing of self-in-world). Unemployment or retirement can cause a deep sense of loss. Individuals respond to their loss in three predictable stages: (see next slide) How Individuals Respond to Forced Retirement or Losing their Job Stage 1: They deny the severity of the problem. They may not even apply for Employment Insurance. Stage 2: Increase distress leads to greater anxiety. Stage 3: If the individual does not find work, depression sets in. The individual experiences a loss of identity and they become alienated form society. Cooping With Unemployment A transition to unemployment or forced retirement is easier when there are opportunities for anticipatory socialization for the role change. ISSUE 3: Elder Abuse Elder Abuse: is defined as “conscious or unconscious acts involving physical, psychological, medical, financial, and legal harm”. Elder Neglect means “failure to provide care”. In Canada, 4-10 percent of older adults experience some for of neglect or abuse. Theoretical Perspectives Jigsaw: Elder Abuse Readings: pp. 479 Theories of Development.pptx Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget • Lev Vygotsky Abraham Maslow • B.F. Skinner • Erik Erickson • Howard Gardner Why Study Child & Parenting Development Theories? Theories help people: Organize their ideas about raising children. Understand influences on parenting. Discover more than one way to interact with children. Analyze the benefits and consequences of using more than one theory. Why Study the Selected Theories? The selected theories: Have been popular and influential. Represent different approaches to parent-child interaction. Offer help in the “real world” of daily child-rearing. Make good common sense. Child Development Definition: Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival. Periods of development: Prenatal period: from conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years Early childhood: 2-6 years old Middle childhood: 6-12 years old Adolescence: 12-19 years old 4 Domains of Development Development is described in three domains, but growth in one domain influences the other domains. Physical Domain: body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor development, perception capacities, physical health. Cognitive Domain: thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language. Social/Emotional Domain: self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual identity, ethnic identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others, interpersonal skills, and friendships. 5 6th - 15th centuries Medieval period Preformationism: children seen as little adults. Childhood is not a unique phase. Children were cared for until they could begin caring for themselves, around 7 years old. Children treated as adults (e.g. their clothing, worked at adult jobs, could be married, were made into kings, were imprisoned or hanged as adults.) 6 16th Century Reformation period Puritan religion influenced how children were viewed. Children were born evil, and must be civilized. A goal emerged to raise children effectively. Special books were designed for children. 7 17th Century Age of Enlightenment John Locke believed in tabula rasa Children develop in response to nurturing. Forerunner of behaviorism www.cooperativeindividualism.org/ locke-john.jpg 8 18th Century Age of Reason Jean-Jacques Rousseau children were noble savages, born with an innate sense of morality; the timing of growth should not be interfered with. Rousseau used the idea of stages of development. Forerunner of maturationist beliefs 9 19th Century Industrial Revolution Charles Darwin theories of natural selection and survival of the fittest Darwin made parallels between human prenatal growth and other animals. Forerunner of ethology 10 20th Century Theories about childrens development expanded around the world. Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention. Laws were passed to protect children, 11 Psychoanalytical Theories Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to this approach, children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. 12 Sigmund Freud Psychosexual Theory Was based on his therapy with troubled adults. He emphasized that a childs personality is formed by the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives. 13 Psychoanalytic Theories: Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Personality has 3 parts There are 5 stages of psychosexual development Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same-sex parent Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a stage of development Phallic Stage Child’s pleasure focuses on genitals Figure 2.1 Latency Stage Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills Anal Stage Child’s pleasure focuses on anus Genital Stage A time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside of the family Oral Stage Infant’s pleasure centers on mouth Freudian Stages 6 yrs to puberty Birth to 1½ yrs 1½ to 3 yrs Puberty onward 3 to 6 years Erik Erikson Psychosocial Theory Expanded on Freuds theories. Believed that development is life-long. Emphasized that at each stage, the child acquires attitudes and skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict. 16 Life is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each stage. The way in which a person handles each of these stages affects the person’s identity and self-concept. These psychosocial stages are: Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year) Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years) Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years) Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years) Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years) Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood) Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood) Psychosocial Theory of Human Development – Erik Erikson Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Trust vs. Mistrust Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Ego Integrity vs. Despair Generativity vs. Stagnation Critique of Erik Erikson Supporters of this Eriksonian theory, suggest that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence. On the other hand, Eriksons theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. 19 Most empirical research into Erikson has stemmed around his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by James E. Marcia.[1] Marcias work has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory, in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence. On the other hand, Eriksons theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. Cognitive Theories Beliefs that describe how children learn 20 The behavior of children and the development of their thinking can only be explained by the interaction of nature (intrinsic development) and nurture (extrinsic environmental factors). Jean Piaget - 1896-1980 Goal of cognitive development – Biological survival Cognitive development as biological adaptation – Adaptation of mental constructs from experiences – Learner as ‘the little scientist’ Knowledge originates from the environment – Assimilation + accommodation lead to equilibrium – Cognitive development involves active selection, interpretation, and construction of knowledge Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Cognitive Development Theory Two processes are essential for development: Assimilation Learning to understand events or objects, based on existing structure. Accommodation Expanding understanding, based on new information. 22 Piaget Children pass through specific stages as they develop their Cognitive Development skills: Sensorimotor – birth - 2 years – infants develop their intellect Preoperational – 2-7 years – children begin to think symbolically and imaginatively Concrete operational – 7-12 years – children learn to think logically Formal operational – 12 years – adulthood – adults develop critical thinking skills Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934 Main points Development is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance. The cultures in which children are raised and the ways in which they interact with people influence their intellectual development. From their cultural environments, children learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will eventually pass on to their own children. Through cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the rules of their cultures. Learning is an active process. Learning is constructed. What is Zone of Proximal Development? It is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner. There is a zone of proximal development for each task. When learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the teacher’s assistance. Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in their ability to benefit from instructions. What is: Scaffolding Assistance that allows students to complete tasks that they are not able to complete independently. Effective scaffolding is responsive to students’ needs. In classroom, teachers’ provide scaffolding by: Breaking content into manageable pieces Modeling skills Provide practice and examples with prompts Letting go when students are ready Biological Theories Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth 29 Maturationists: G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell Believed there is a predetermined biological timetable. Hall and Gesell were proponents of the normative approach to child study: using age-related averages of childrens growth and behaviors to define what is normal. 30 Ethology Examines how behavior is determined by a species need for survival. Has its roots in Charles Darwins research. Describes a critical period or sensitive period,” for learning 31 Konrad Lorenz Ethologist, known for his research on imprinting. 32 Attachment Theory John Bowlby applied ethological principles to his theory of attachment. Attachment between an infant and her caregiver can insure the infant’s survival. 33 Behavioral and Social Learning Theories Beliefs that describe the importance of the environment and nurturing in the growth of a child 34 John Watson Early 20th century, Father of American Behaviorist theory.” Based his work on Pavlovs experiments on the digestive system of dogs. Researched classical conditioning Children are passive beings who can be molded by controlling the stimulus-response associations. 35 B. F. Skinner Proposed that children operate on their environment, operational conditioning. Believed that learning could be broken down into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate rewards for accomplishments would stimulate further learning. 36 Theory of Behaviorism- B.F Skinner & others Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea, Skinner theorized that a child is an “empty organism” --- that is, an empty vessel --- waiting to be filled through learning experiences. Any behavior can be changed through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Behaviorism is based on cause-and-effect relationships. 37 Classical Conditioning Pavlovs Dogs 38 In a now classic experiment, Pavlov first performed a minor operation on a dog to relocate its salivary duct to the outside of its cheek, so that drops of saliva could be more easily measured. The dog, which was food deprived, was then harnessed in an apparatus to keep it steady in order to collect saliva. Periodically, a bell was rang, followed shortly thereafter by meat being placed in the hungry dogs mouth. Meat causes a hungry dog …