Week 4 - Operations Management
3
OVERVIEW OF AIRLINE ECONOMICS, MARKETS AND
DEMAND
Peter P. Belobaba
The provision of air transportation service is driven primarily by the demand for air
travel, as well as the demand for the shipment of goods by air. Virtually all of the
interrelated decisions of the many stakeholders in the airline industry stem from the
need to accommodate the historically growing demand for air transportation. And,
many of the activities of governments, airlines, airports, and aircraft manufacturers
are determined by the interaction of supply and demand in a variety of different
markets associated with the airline industry. This chapter provides a foundation for
the discussion of the many facets of the airline industry addressed in the remainder of
this book by introducing some basic airline terminology and definitions, along with the
concepts of air transportation markets and the demand for air travel.
3.1 Airline Terminology and Definitions
In the airline industry, there exist standard measures of passenger traffic and airline
output, which are also combined to generate several common measures of airline
performance. As we shall see later in this section, some of these performance
measures are not particularly useful on their own, and in fact are often misinterpreted.
At this point, we introduce the measures and their definitions.
Airline Traffic and Revenue
Measures of “airline traffic” quantify the amount of airline output that is actually
consumed or sold. Traffic carried by airlines consists of both passengers and cargo,
which can include air freight, mail, and passenger baggage. All-cargo airlines
transport primarily air freight, whereas passenger or “combination” airlines transport a
mix of traffic that can include all four types of traffic mentioned. Combination carriers
can operate a mix of all-cargo (freighter) and passenger aircraft, but even the
passenger aircraft can carry one or more types of cargo in their belly compartments.
In the following paragraphs, the definitions and examples focus on passenger airlines,
although there is a parallel terminology for cargo airlines.
For passenger airlines, “traffic” refers to passengers carried or enplaned passengers,
as opposed to “demand,” which includes both those who boarded the flight(s) and
those who had a desire to travel but could not be accommodated due to insufficient
capacity. Thus, at a given price level (or set of prices), there exists a total potential
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
demand for air transportation between cities. Given a limited total capacity (available
seats) offered by airlines, this potential total demand includes both passengers
carried (traffic) and passengers unable to find seats, also known as “rejected
demand” or “spill.”
Passenger airline traffic can be measured in terms of the number of passengers
transported, but the most common measure of airline traffic is a revenue passenger
kilometer (RPK) or, alternatively, a revenue passenger mile (RPM). In the following
examples, we use kilometers. One RPK is defined as one paying passenger
transported 1 km. For example, a flight carrying 140 passengers over a distance of
1000 km generates 140 000 RPK of airline traffic.
The fare paid by passengers to travel by air varies by distance, season, and
conditions and characteristics of the fare product purchased (e.g., business class or
advance purchase excursion fares). Yield is a measure of the average fare paid by all
passengers per kilometer (or mile) flown, in a market, on a set of routes, or a region
of operation for an airline. Yield is calculated by dividing the total passenger revenues
collected by the RPK carried. In our example, if the flight that carried 140 000 RPK
generates $16 000 of total passenger revenue, its yield would be $0.114 per RPK
(i.e., $16 000/140 000).
Airline Output and Operating Expense
As we shall see later in this book, the output of a passenger airline can be
represented in a variety of ways, including the number of flight departures operated
and number of seats flown. Similar to RPKs, the most common measure of airline
output is an available seat kilometer (ASK) or available seat mile (ASM). One ASK is
defined as one available seat flown 1 km. In our example, if the flight operates over a
distance of 1000 km with a 200-seat aircraft, it generates 200 000 ASK of airline
output.
In generating its output, the airline incurs a variety of operating expenses, as will be
detailed in Chapter 6. The average operating expense per unit of output (ASK) is the
unit cost of the airline, an important measure of cost efficiency, which can be
compared both over time and across airlines. Unit cost is defined as the total
operating expense divided by the ASK produced by an airline, for a route, region, or
total network. If the airline incurs $15 000 of expense to operate our example flight,
the unit cost for this flight would be $0.075 per ASK (i.e., $15 000/200 000).
Load Factor
Load factor refers to the ratio of traffic to airline output, representing the proportion
of airline output that is sold or consumed. For a single flight leg (i.e., a nonstop
operation), its load factor can simply be defined as number of passengers divided by
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
the number of seats on the flight. For our example flight, the load factor can be
calculated as passengers carried divided by available seats, or 70\% (140/200).
Because most airlines operate many flights, each with different distances flown, the
proportion of output consumed is better represented by an average load factor,
defined as the ratio of RPK to ASK (or RPM/ASM). Our example flights load factor
can thus also be calculated as 140 000 RPK divided by 200 000 ASK, or 70\%.
Now, assume that the same airline operates another flight leg using the same 200-
seat aircraft over a distance of 2000 km, and this second flight carries 170
passengers. The load factor of this second flight leg is
What is the total average load factor of this small “network” of two flights? There are
two different (and correct) answers:
The average leg load factor is the simple mean of the load factors of the two flight
legs:
The average network or system load factor is the ratio of total RPK to ASK, as
defined earlier:
Both measures of load factor are correct, but are used in different ways. The
average leg load factor is more appropriate for analysis of demand to capacity or
passenger service levels on a series of flight leg departures (on a particular route
over a month, for example). The average network load factor is the more common
measure and is used in most financial and traffic reports of system-wide airline
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
(3.1)
performance.
These five measures – traffic (RPK), yield, capacity (ASK), unit cost, and load factor
– are the most common measures of passenger airline performance and will be
referred to throughout the rest of this book. Of course, there are numerous other
measures of cost efficiency, productivity, and financial performance, which will be
introduced in the relevant chapters. And, although we have defined these measures
for a passenger airline, there are parallel and very similar measures that apply to
cargo air transportation. For example, cargo traffic carried is measured in revenue
tonne kilometers (RTK) or (revenue ton miles (RTM), meaning 1 t of cargo
transported 1 km. Cargo airlines provide output in available tonne kilometers (ATK),
and make use of both yield and unit cost measures in analyzing their performance.
3.1.1 Basic Airline Profit Equation
As for any industry, operating profit for an airline is defined as total revenues minus
total operating expense. For passenger airlines, the revenue and expense terms can
be broken down into the measures of output and sales defined above, as follows:
This basic airline profit equation illustrates how the use of any of the individual terms
defined above to measure airline performance can be misleading. For example, high
yield is often (incorrectly) used as an indicator of airline success and even profitability.
A high yield is clearly not desirable if only a few passengers pay a very high fare and
leave a large proportion of seats unused, resulting in a low average load factor (ALF)
and total revenues that do not cover total operating expenses. As a general rule, yield
is a poor indicator of airline profitability by itself.
Low unit costs are also often mentioned as a measure of airline success. Although
low costs of production provide a competitive advantage in any industry, low unit
costs alone are of little value to an airline if yields and/or load factors are low, with
total revenues falling short of covering total operating expenses. Even ALF on its own
tells us little about profitability, as high ALF could be the result of selling a large
proportion of seats at extremely low fares (yields). A high ALF does not guarantee
operating profit, as many high-cost airlines have realized in the recent past.
Given this basic profit equation, the obvious airline profit maximizing strategy is to
increase revenues and/or decrease costs. However, there exist important interactions
among the terms in the equation, so that no single term can be varied without
affecting other terms and, in turn, overall operating profit. For example, a strategy
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
designed to increase revenues requires the airline to increase its traffic carried (RPK)
and/or increase its average fares charged (yield). Either tactic can have unintended
and potentially negative impacts on other terms in the airline profit equation, as
explained below.
In order to increase traffic, an airline may decide to cut fares (average yields) to
stimulate demand, but the revenue impact of such a price cut depends on the
elasticity of demand for air travel. For revenues to increase, the price cut must
generate a disproportionate increase in total demand (i.e., “elastic demand”).
Alternatively, the volume of traffic carried (RPK) can be increased if the airline
increases its frequency of flights or improves its passenger service quality to attract
passengers, but both of these actions will also increase operating costs. Increases in
flight frequency, all else being equal, will increase total ASK and, in turn, total
operating expenses. Improvements in passenger service quality will increase unit
costs.
Increasing total revenues by simply increasing fares (yields) is another option.
However, economic theory tells us any price increase will inevitably lead to a traffic
decrease. A price increase can still be revenue positive if demand is “inelastic” (i.e.,
the percent decrease in passengers is less than the percent increase in price).
Airline efforts to improve profitability by reducing operating expenses include tactics
that reduce unit costs (cost per ASK) and those that reduce the airlines output
(ASK). Both strategies can lead to lower total operating expenses but, once again,
there can be negative impacts on other terms in the airline profit equation. A common
airline tactic is to reduce unit costs by cutting back on passenger service quality, for
example, eliminating meals, pillows, and extra flight attendants. However, excessive
cuts of this type can affect consumers perceptions of the airlines product, leading to
a reduced market share and, in turn, RPK. A tactic for reducing unit costs indirectly is
to actually increase ASK by flying more flights and/or larger airplanes, which can
lower unit costs by spreading fixed costs over a larger volume of output. But, such an
approach will still lead to higher total operating costs and potentially lower load
factors and reduced profitability.
Finally, an airline might decide to reduce its total operating expenses by decreasing
its level of output (ASK). Cutting back on the number of flights operated will clearly
reduce total operating costs, but lower frequencies might lead to market share losses
(lower RPK and lower revenues). At the same time, reduced frequencies and/or use
of smaller aircraft can lower ASK and total operating expenses, but can also lead to
higher unit costs, as the airlines fixed costs are now spread over fewer ASK.
The basic airline profit equation introduced here incorporates the five most common
measures of passenger airline performance introduced above, and illustrates the
interdependence among these measures in airline management decisions. Perhaps
more important, it provides preliminary insights into the difficulties of finding strategies
to improve and sustain airline profitability.
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
3.2 Air Transportation Markets
The second section of this chapter is devoted to the description of markets in air
transportation. The discussion begins with a description of a typical air passenger
trip, followed by alternative definitions of markets for air travel, focusing on scheduled
air services for passengers. The objective is to establish geographic or spatial
definitions of air transport markets, taking into account the characteristics of a typical
trip by passengers that use scheduled air transportation services.
3.2.1 Typical Air Passenger Trip
The spatial definitions of air transportation markets involving consumers and air
carriers (or “airlines”), as well as much of the economic modeling of demand and
supply in these markets depend on the characterization of a typical trip by an air
passenger. This characterization was originally proposed by Simpson (1995), and
provides the basis for our definitions here.
As shown in Figure 3.1, a typical air passenger trip starts not from an airport, but
from an origin point such as a residence or place of business. The ground access
portion of the trip from the passengers origin point to the originating airport can
involve travel by private car, taxi, or public transport. The origination airport region
containing the origin points of all travelers departing from an airport can have a radius
ranging from a few kilometers to several hundred kilometers. Travel times for ground
egress can therefore range from minutes to several hours.
Figure 3.1 Representation of a typical air passenger trip
Enplanement processing consists of purchasing tickets (if this has not been done in
advance), obtaining boarding passes, checking baggage, undergoing security
inspection, and boarding the aircraft. In short-haul domestic markets, this portion of
the total trip time can be as short as 15–20 minutes at some small airports. However,
heightened security requirements in the recent past have increased enplanement
processing times at most airports around the world, and especially in the United
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
States, to 1 hour or more in many cases. For long-haul international services,
enplanement processing can take even longer, as airlines can require minimum check-
in times of 2–3 hours before flight departure.
The aircraft portion of the outbound air trip lasts for 1 hour or more and covers
distances of 200–14 000 km (125–9000 miles) or more. From 2004 to 2013,
Singapore Airlines operated the longest nonstop flight offered in scheduled passenger
service between New York (Newark) and Singapore, covering 15 283 km (9524
miles) in a scheduled time (gate-to-gate or “block time”) of about 19 hours (Official
Airline Guides, 2008). Other “ultra-long haul” flights still being operated include
Johannesburg–Atlanta (Delta) and Dubai–Los Angeles (Emirates), both of which have
scheduled times over 16.5 hours. The average length of a typical airline passenger
trip worldwide is approximately 1824 km (1140 miles) (Airline Business, 2005). In the
United States, about one-fifth (21.5\%) of all domestic air trips are shorter than 500
miles in length (Aviation Daily, October 11, 2004].
After the flight arrives at its destination airport, deplanement processing can take
from just a few minutes for the passenger to exit the airport terminal to over an hour
when baggage retrieval and immigration and customs inspection are required. The
trip then concludes with a ground egress portion involving travel from the airport to a
destination point in the destination airport region.
Each airline trip has a duration of stay at the destination point that can range from a
few hours to several months or more, before the passenger returns to the originating
airport or region and makes a final ground egress trip to a location in the travelers
origination airport region (e.g., home or place of business).
This description of a typical air passenger trip raises several points important to the
definition of scheduled passenger air transportation markets and demand. First, the
purpose of each air trip is to move from the “true” origin to the “true” destination of
the passenger, not simply to travel from one airport to another. The characteristics of
the total trip, including the time required for each of its components in addition to the
actual times spent on board the aircraft, will affect the total demand for air
transportation between two airports.
Second, there is typically an outbound and inbound portion of passenger air trips,
such that consumers in an air transport market start their trip in the origination airport
region and return there after a trip of varying duration. As a result, every air travel
market has an opposite market consisting of passengers who originate their trips
from the destination airport region of the market described above. This opposite
market is serviced by the same airline flights as the original market (Simpson, 1995).
That is, the outbound flights for the original market are at the same time the inbound
flights in the opposite market. As we will see later in the discussion, the supply of air
service is also shared by demand from many markets, as passengers use various
multi-stop or connecting itineraries in any given market.
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
3.2.2 Spatial Definitions of Airline Markets
Another way to define air transportation markets is through their spatial boundaries,
as shown in Figure 3.2. The origination region around airport A contains all the origin
points of travelers, also referred to as that airports catchment area. An airports
catchment area can extend for hundreds of kilometers and can vary with the
destination and trip purpose of the traveler. For example, a traveler flying a short
distance for a business trip with a short duration of stay is more likely to minimize the
travel distance and time of the ground egress portion to an airport. On the other
hand, a vacation traveler flying a much longer distance and staying at the destination
for several weeks is more likely to be willing to travel much further to an originating
airport, perhaps to take advantage of lower fares.
Figure 3.2 Distinct and separate O-D markets
Similarly, airport B has a destination region that contains the destination points for
passengers originating in region A. As was the case with the origination airport
region, the size of destination airport region B can vary with trip purpose. For
example, for London Heathrow Airport, the majority of destinations for non-resident
business travelers are in a relatively small business area in central London, whereas
the destination region for pleasure travelers, visitors, and residents of the surrounding
area is much larger.
In Figure 3.2, the market for air services from A to C and back is distinct and
separate from the market ABA (Simpson, 1995). Improvements in the quality of airline
service or changes in the fares charged in the market ACA should not affect the
demand for air travel in the ABA market. These are clearly two different markets,
although the potential passengers in both markets are residents of originating airport
region A. There are also two “opposite” markets shown in Figure 3.2. Market BAB
has origination region B for consumers wishing to travel to points in destination region
A, and who use the same air services as market ABA.
Opposite markets can have different characteristics. The volume of demand of
opposite markets can be different, but since nearly all air trips are eventually round
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
trips, the flow of traffic in each direction will be approximately equal over an extended
time period. It might also be the case that the prices are not equal in each opposite
market even though both markets use the same airline flights. This can occur when
the origins and destinations are in different countries and fares are determined in
different currencies, for example.
Airport regions can overlap when two or more airports provide alternative flight
options for travelers in origin or destination regions. Figure 3.3 illustrates a scenario in
which there exist flight options from airports A and D to airport B, while the only flights
airport C are provided from airport A. In this example, the airport catchment area for
market ACA is the total shaded area around A and D, while the airport catchment
areas for markets ABA and DBD overlap. Passengers making trips originating in the
overlap area must choose which airport they access in order to travel by air to B.
Figure 3.3 Parallel markets and overlapping airport regions
Markets ABA and DBD are called parallel markets, and the flight options serving
each parallel market are to some extent substitutes for each other within the larger
region. For example, if the availability or speed of ground access/egress to and from
airport A improves, the catchment area of airport A will expand. The pricing of air
services in parallel markets will also affect the volume of demand using each market.
With competitive pricing by airlines, passengers have the option to increase the
ground egress portion of their trip to take advantage of lower fares in a parallel
market. For example, if the fares available to a European destination are much lower
from Montreals Trudeau Airport, then at least some passengers from the Ottawa
region (160 km away) can be expected to drive to Montreal rather than flying out of
Ottawa Airport.
As shown in Figure 3.4, a traveler in market A–B can connect between the flights
being provided in markets A–C and C–B. The flight from A to B is thus providing a
shared supply to both the A–B and A–C markets at the same time (as well as many
other markets, depending on the extent of the airlines network). It is possible that the
fares for travel A to B via C are lower than the nonstop AB fare. If service via C is
cheaper, it will affect nonstop demand in market ABA. It is also possible to find
examples where the fares from A to B via C are actually lower than the published AC
fares. This is an outcome of the fact that AB and AC are economically distinct and
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:12:44.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
separate markets, in which prices for air travel are determined by the demand and
competitive characteristics of the different markets, not necessarily the distances
traveled. These and other airline pricing implications of the nature of air transportation
markets are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
Figure 3.4 Nonstop versus connecting service from A to B
These spatial definitions of air travel markets suggest that there can be multiple, even
overlapping geographical delineations of origination and destination regions for air
travel. The most common representation of origin–destination (O-D) demand is with
reference to a city-pair market – for example, the potential number of passengers per
day wishing to travel between Boston and Chicago. However, because Chicago is
served by two airports, the city-pair demand can be disaggregated to two (parallel)
airport-pair markets – between Bostons Logan Airport and Chicagos OHare and
Midway Airports, respectively. There is also a broader market for air travel between
the larger Boston metropolitan region and Chicago metropolitan region, which can
include additional airport-pairs such as Providence (Rhode Island)–Midway,
Providence–OHare, Manchester (New Hampshire)–Midway, and Manchester–
OHare. This broader region-pair market thus includes six airport-pair markets, all of
which are parallel and interrelated.
In summary, the spatial definitions of origin–destination markets presented here are
based on consideration of the total trip characteristics for a typical airline passenger.
Demand for air transportation is generated for a particular origin–destination market.
However, with the existence of overlapping airport regions, parallel markets, and the
sharing of scheduled airline supply on connecting flights, even “distinct and separate”
O-D markets are interrelated.
…
4
AIRLINE PRICING THEORY AND PRACTICE
Peter P. Belobaba
Few facets of the airline business generate as much discussion and confusion, among
industry observers and consumers alike, as airline pricing and revenue management
practices. “Pricing” refers to the process of determining the fare levels, along with
various service amenities and restrictions, for a set of fare products in an origin–
destination (O-D) market. “Revenue management” is the subsequent process of
determining how many seats to make available at each fare level. Together, airline
pricing and revenue management interact to create what can be a bewildering array
of fare quotes for a consumer who simply wants to know how much it will cost to
travel by air from one point to another.
In this chapter, we build on the concepts of origin–destination demand, elasticities,
and demand segmentation introduced in Chapter 3 to provide an overview of the
economic rationale behind airline pricing practices. The chapter begins with a brief
discussion of airline pricing concepts and definitions of relevant terms, including
product differentiation and price discrimination. The theory and practice of airline
differential pricing is then explored, using several examples of airline fare structures.
The introduction of “simplified” and less restricted fare structures by some low-cost
carriers (LCCs) is then described, followed by a discussion of more recent airline
pricing trends that include “fare families” and increasing use of “unbundling” to
generate ancillary revenues. The chapter concludes with an overview of the factors
that affect fare structures in an O-D market in practice, as well as airlines
competitive fare matching strategies.
4.1 Airline Prices and O-D Markets
As was the case with air travel demand, airline fares are defined for an O-D market,
not for an airline flight leg. That is, airline prices are established for travel between
origination point A and destination point C, where A–C (or C–A) is the relevant
market. Given the “dichotomy of supply and demand” described in Chapter 3,
travelers in the A–C market are able to choose from many itinerary (or path) options
that can involve nonstop, one-stop, or connecting flights. At the same time, a single
flight leg serves many different O-D markets, each with its own set of prices.
The fact that airline prices are defined for each O-D market gives rise to the following
additional observations about airline pricing. Airline prices for travel A–C depend
primarily on the volume and characteristics of the O-D market demand for travel
between A and C (e.g., trip purpose and price elasticity of demand), as well as the
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
nature of airline supply between A and C (frequency and path quality of flights) and
the competitive characteristics in that market (number and type of airline
competitors).
There is therefore no inherent theoretical reason for prices in market A–C to be
related to prices in another distinct and separate market A–D with a similar distance
to be traveled (even though this was more likely to be the case under previously
regulated airline pricing regimes). The distance to be traveled is certainly an important
contributor to the cost of providing airline service and is thus reflected in price
differences between markets in many cases. However, because the other market
characteristics mentioned (demand elasticity, airline supply, and nature of
competition) all affect airline prices, it could well be the case that prices for travel A–
C are actually lower than prices for travel A–D, even though A–C involves a greater
travel distance. As defined in Chapter 3, these are distinct and separate markets with
different demand characteristics, which might just happen to share the joint supply of
seats on a flight leg.
4.1.1 Regulated versus Liberalized Pricing
Under historical conditions of airline regulation, prices were subject to controls by a
government agency. In the United States, the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) used a
mileage-based formula to ensure equal prices for equal distances. A passenger
wishing to fly on a nonstop flight from Boston to Seattle ( 4000 km or 2500 miles)
would pay the same price as a passenger traveling on a double-connection service
from Boise, Idaho to Miami, Florida, covering about the same distance. Airlines were
required to charge the same price for either passenger, despite the fact that the
Boise–Miami O-D market is substantially smaller, and the costs to the airline of
providing double connection service on smaller aircraft are substantially higher on a
per passenger basis. In terms of different price levels, airlines were allowed to offer
only first class and unrestricted economy fare (coach or “tourist” class) products,
both of which were tied to the mileage-based fare formula.
With deregulated or liberalized airline pricing in the United States and in many
countries across the world, this strict relationship between airline fares and distance
traveled has become less typical. Different O-D markets can have prices not related
to distance traveled, or even the airlines operating costs, as airlines match low-fare
competitors to maintain market presence and share of traffic. It is also possible that
low-volume O-D markets that are more costly to serve on a per passenger basis will
see higher prices than high-density O-D markets, even if similar distances are
involved.
The relationship between O-D markets and airline prices is illustrated by the example
shown in Figure 4.1. There are two distinct and separate O-D markets shown: New
York (NYC) to Dubai (DXB) and NYC to Mumbai (BOM). As described in Chapter 3,
distinct and separate markets have different demand volumes, different travelers with
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
different price and time elasticities, and perhaps even different trip purposes and
currency valuations. The lowest one-way economy class prices shown in Figure 4.1
were in effect in July 2014 for travel in each O-D market: $1007 one-way for travel
on Emirates Airline from NYC to DXB, and $794 one-way for travel on the same
airline from NYC to BOM (with a connection in DXB). The comparable fare in the
NYC–BOM was substantially lower than for NYC–DXB, despite the substantially
greater distance between NYC and BOM.
Figure 4.1 Example of O-D market price differences. (Data source:
www.itasofware.com.)
This type of apparent inconsistency in airline prices occurs because the two markets
are distinct and separate, with different demand characteristics, as mentioned.
Moreover, competition can also explain many such inconsistencies – if a nonstop
competitor offers a $794 fare for NYC–BOM, then Emirates is likely to match that
fare to retain its market share of the NYC–BOM demand, even if the fare is lower
than what the airline charges for the shorter distance market NYC–DXB. In economic
terms, such pricing is entirely reasonable – different markets with different demand
characteristics and competitive environments are priced differently. For passengers,
however, it can be perplexing, given that the NYC–BOM passenger makes use of the
same NYC–DXB flight and can sit next to a passenger who paid much more in the
shorter O-D market. This is another vivid illustration of the dichotomy of demand and
supply in air transportation networks.
4.1.2 Theoretical Pricing Strategies
The different theoretical bases that an airline might use for establishing prices for air
transportation services are introduced in this section. In theoretical terms, for
determining the prices to charge in an O-D market, airlines can utilize one of the
following economic principles (Simpson and Belobaba, 1992):
Cost-based pricing
Demand-based pricing
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
http://www.itasofware.com
Service-based pricing
In practice, most airline pricing strategies reflect a mix of these theoretical principles.
As mentioned, prices are also highly affected by the nature of competition in each O-
D market. The presence of a low-fare airline in an O-D market is perhaps one of the
most important determinants of average fare levels.
4.1.2.1 Cost-Based Airline Pricing
Microeconomics textbooks make reference to the practice of “marginal cost pricing,”
in which the producer sets prices equal to the marginal cost of producing an
incremental unit of output. This practice is one of the theoretically optimal conditions
of “perfectly competitive” markets, which do not exist in the real world. Moreover, the
marginal costs to an airline of selling an incremental seat and carrying an incremental
passenger are very low.
In the short run, the costs to an airline of operating a schedule of flights are
effectively fixed. The commitment to operate a scheduled service irrespective of the
number of passengers on board means that not only aircraft ownership costs but also
crew costs and even fuel costs can be considered as fixed for a planned set of
flights. The marginal costs of carrying an incremental passenger are therefore very
low – essentially the cost of an additional meal and a very small amount of
incremental fuel. Therefore, airlines could not possibly cover their total operating
costs under a strict marginal pricing scheme in which marginal costs are attributed to
an incremental passenger carried on a flight.
An alternative approach to cost-based pricing is that of average-cost pricing. Under
this pricing principle, an airline would set its prices in all O-D markets based on
system-wide operating cost averages per flight or per available seat kilometer (ASK).
This is in fact the pricing principle used under regulated airline regimes, as already
described, so its use is feasible in airline markets, but its shortcomings are what led
to the deregulation of airline pricing in the first place.
Average cost pricing ignores airline cost differences in providing services to different
O-D markets. It allows smaller markets to benefit (with artificially low prices) at the
expense of higher density markets that airlines can serve more efficiently (e.g., with
larger aircraft). Some have argued that average cost pricing ensures “equity” if we
believe that making air travel available to all passengers at equal prices per kilometer
traveled represents a form of air transportation equity.
4.1.2.2 Demand-Based Pricing
The principle of “demand-based” pricing is based on consumers “willingness to pay”
(WTP), as defined by the price–demand curve in each O-D market. The underlying
assumption is that there are some consumers who are “willing” to pay a very high
price for the convenience of air travel, while others will only fly at substantially lower
prices. Under this approach, airlines charge different prices to different consumers
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
with different price sensitivity. The price elasticities of different demand segments and
different O-D markets reflect their sensitivity to the prices of air travel, and the airline
sets different prices for each segment in an attempt to maximize its total revenues.
Demand-based pricing results in different prices for different O-D markets as well as
for different demand segments within the same market. These price differences are
not related to cost differences experienced by the airline in providing services to the
different demand segments, but only to the differences in price sensitivity, demand
elasticity, and “willingness to pay.” This practice is referred to as strict “price
discrimination” by economists.
4.1.2.3 Service-Based Pricing
The third theoretical pricing principle uses differences in the quality of services (and,
in turn, in the cost of providing these services) as a basis for pricing. Even under US
regulation of airline prices, some service distinctions were allowed in airline pricing
structures (i.e., first class versus economy class) due to the different costs to the
airlines of providing them. In theory (and in practice), the notion of fare product
differentiation can be extended beyond this simple first versus economy class
distinction.
Unlike demand-based pricing, service-based pricing has a differential cost basis for
the airline. Because higher quality services generally cost the airline more to produce,
this approach cannot be considered strictly “price discrimination.” Even if the onboard
product (i.e., economy seat and meal service) is the same, lower fares with advance
purchase requirements actually represent an opportunity for cost savings to the
airline, as the airline is better able to reduce uncertainty about loads on future
departures and reduce the risk of lost revenue potential from empty seats.
4.1.3 Price Discrimination versus Product Differentiation
In the preceding discussion of theoretical airline pricing principles, references were
made to both “price discrimination” and “product differentiation.” It is important to
recognize the differences between these terms, as the discussion moves toward
understanding how airlines apply these principles in practice.
Price discrimination is the practice of charging different prices for the same (or very
similar) products that have the same costs of production, based solely on different
consumers “willingness to pay” (Tirole, 1988). On the other hand, product
differentiation involves charging different prices for products with different quality of
service characteristics and therefore different costs of production (Botimer and
Belobaba, 1999).
Most airline fare structures reflect both of these strategies. Product differentiation is
clearly evident in the variety of fare products offered by airlines in the same O-D
market. Fare product differentiation by airlines involves not only differences in tangible
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
quality of services (e.g., first versus economy class) but also differences in the
purchase and travel conditions associated with different fare products, most notably
those with the lowest price levels.
At the same time, the large differences in price levels charged for different fare
products offered by many airlines within the economy class of service cannot be
explained by product differentiation principles alone. The substantially higher prices
that airlines charge for unrestricted fare products targeted at business travelers are
also based on their greater willingness to pay, suggesting that price discrimination is
a component of these pricing strategies. The term “differential pricing” will be used
throughout the remainder of this discussion to refer to current airline pricing practices,
which reflect both product differentiation and price discrimination principles.
4.2 Differential Pricing
The use of differential pricing by airlines in an O-D market is designed to present a
range of fare product options to consumers, who must make a trade-off between the
inconvenience of fare restrictions associated with lower fares and the higher prices of
unrestricted fares. In microeconomic terms, airline fare structures allow each
consumer to maximize his or her utility (or minimize disutility) subject to a budget
constraint.
Business travelers are assumed to be willing to pay higher fares in return for more
convenience and fewer restrictions on the purchase and use of tickets, meaning price
is less important to them than the disutility of these restrictions. Leisure travelers are
less willing to pay higher prices, but accept the disutility “costs” of restrictions on low-
fare products, longer travel times associated with connecting flights, and a lower
quality of onboard service.
The economic concept of willingness to pay is defined by the theoretical price–
demand curve in an O-D market. The price–demand curve can be interpreted as the
maximum price that any given number of consumers will all pay for a specified
product or service. The use of differential pricing principles by airlines is an attempt to
make those with higher WTP purchase the less restricted higher priced fare product
options.
In Figure 4.2, a simple price–demand curve for an O-D market is illustrated. If the
airline offers an unrestricted fare P1 to those consumers with higher WTP, we would
expect that Q1 consumers will purchase this fare because they have a WTP equal to
P1 or greater. If the airline also offers a lower or “discount” fare P2 to those
consumers with a lower WTP, then Q2 − Q1 additional consumers would be expected
to purchase this lower fare, as they have a WTP greater than P2 but less than P1.
This simple model assumes that the airline has a perfect ability to segment demand
according to WTP such that all consumers with high WTP purchase the higher fare
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
P1.
Figure 4.2 Differential pricing model
Assuming for the moment that the airline does have the perfect ability to segment its
market demand by WTP as shown in Figure 4.2, the advantages of differential pricing
for both the airline and consumers can be identified. For the airline, offering two
different fares instead of a single fare for all passengers (which would be set at P* to
maximize revenues) allows it to increase total flight revenues with little impact on total
operating costs. Incremental revenue will clearly be generated by the (Q2 − Q*)
discount fare passengers who otherwise would not fly at the single fare P*.
Incremental revenue will also be generated from the high-fare passengers willing to
pay P1, which is more than P* (i.e., what the airline would charge under a single-price
strategy). At a single fare level, many “legacy” airlines with high costs would be
unable to attract enough passengers (and revenue) to cover the total operating costs
of their flights.
Consumers can also benefit from the airlines use of differential pricing. Obviously, the
(Q2 − Q*) discount fare passengers paying P2 who otherwise would not fly at the
single fare level P* benefit from the practice. Note that the (Q* − Q1) passengers who
might have been willing to pay P* also benefit from paying P2 in this example. While it
is true that the high-fare passengers paying P1 are paying more than they would if the
airline offered a single price level at P*, it is also conceivable that these high-fare
passengers actually end up paying less and/or enjoy more frequency of flights given
the presence of low-fare passengers. This argument is based on the premise that,
without low-fare passengers to contribute incremental revenue to the operating costs
of the airline, high-fare passengers would have to pay even higher fares and/or have
a reduced set of flight departure options.
The above discussion is the basis of much disagreement among consumers and even
some government regulators, as the common perception is that the airline practice of
charging business travelers substantially more than leisure travelers is blatantly unfair
to business travelers. It is important, however, to recognize that economic theory
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
supports and helps to explain these pricing practices.
4.2.1 Market Segmentation
The successful use of differential pricing principles depends on the airlines ability to
identify different demand groups or segments. In theory, total revenue in an O-D
market (or even on a single flight) is maximized when each customer pays a different
price equal to his WTP. In the context of the price–demand curve shown in Figure 4.2,
the entire triangular area under the curve represents the total potential revenue
available in a market. If the airline could charge a different price for each consumer
based on his or her maximum willingness to pay, its revenues would be close to this
theoretical maximum total potential revenue. In practice, such a theoretical
segmentation is clearly impossible to achieve as airlines cannot determine each
individuals WTP for a given trip, nor can they publish different fares available only to
specific individuals.
Instead, airlines identify segments of the total market demand with similar
characteristics, in terms of trip purpose, price sensitivity, and time sensitivity.
Business and leisure travelers are the two traditional segments targeted by airlines in
their differential pricing efforts. Even with recent shifts in demand patterns and the
decreasing proportion of business versus leisure passengers, this is still the most
important distinction made between air travel demand segments for pricing purposes.
It is possible for the airline to further increase revenues with more prices and
products targeted at additional demand segments, but it becomes more difficult to
identify differences in purchase and travel behaviors between these additional
segments.
To achieve demand segmentation in practice, airlines can physically differentiate their
fare products by offering clearly identifiable products with different quality of service
such as first class and business class in addition to economy (or coach) class. On the
other hand, restrictions on the advance purchase, use, and refundability of lower
priced fare products within the economy class cabin, although not physical product
differentiators, are designed to reduce the attractiveness (increase the disutility) of
these fare products, particularly to business travelers.
The combination of greater service amenities and lack of restrictions on the so-called
“full coach fares” makes these fare products more attractive to business travelers,
relative to the more restricted discount fare products. For example, even though
travelers on full coach fares typically receive the same quality of onboard service as
those paying reduced fares, some airlines offer priority seat assignment and special
check-in services for full-fare travelers, increasing the attractiveness of the
unrestricted full-fare product. At the same time, the complete absence of restrictions
on the full-fare product is in itself a differentiating factor (compared to the lower,
restricted fares) that is highly valued by some business travelers.
The overall goals for an airline establishing a differentiated fare structure in any O-D
Belobaba, P., Odoni, A., & Barnhart, C. (Eds.). (2015). The global airline industry. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open(http://ebookcentral.proquest.com,_blank)
href=http://ebookcentral.proquest.com target=_blank style=cursor: pointer;>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a>
Created from erau on 2021-08-22 19:13:41.
C
o
p
yr
ig
h
t
©
2
0
1
5
.
Jo
h
n
W
ile
y
&
S
o
n
s,
I
n
co
rp
o
ra
te
d
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
market can be summarized as follows. A wide enough range of fare product options
at different price levels should be offered to capture as much of the revenue potential
from the market price–demand curve as possible, while ensuring that each fare
product can be targeted at specific demand segments with different levels of
willingness to pay. At the high end of the fare structure, the airline should offer
enhanced service amenities that improve the attractiveness of the fare products to
travelers who are not price sensitive and willing to pay for these amenities. And, at
the low end of the fare structure, prices low enough to stimulate new demand for
low-fare travel should be offered to fill empty seats that would otherwise remain
empty.
The most difficult goal is to find mechanisms to prevent the diversion of consumers
with higher WTP (who were expected to buy the higher fare products) to the lower
fare products, given that they were planning to fly anyway and that they could well be
aware of the lower priced options.
4.2.2 Fare Product Restrictions
As introduced earlier, the application of progressively more severe restrictions on
low-fare products has traditionally been the primary mechanism used by airlines to
prevent diversion, as differences in service amenities are generally not enough to
prevent many high-WTP travelers from buying lower fares. The types of restrictions
applied to the lower fares in most O-D markets are familiar to most air travelers. The
lowest fares can have advance purchase and minimum stay requirements as well as
cancellation and change fees. These restrictions increase the inconvenience or
“disutility cost” of low fares to travelers with high WTP, causing them to choose higher
fares when they minimize their own disutility of air travel. Studies have shown that the
“Saturday night minimum stay” condition is among the most effective in keeping
business travelers from purchasing low fares (Boeing, 1988). Longer minimum stay
conditions (e.g., 7 days) are more common in longer haul international markets, as
the Saturday night minimum stay restriction is not sufficient to prevent diversion of
business passengers to lower fares on longer haul trips.
Even with the use of a variety of fare restrictions, it is impossible to achieve the
perfect segmentation of demand implied by the model in Figure 4.2. Some proportion
of travelers with high WTP will be able to meet even the most severe restrictions, or
alternatively will replan their trips in order to meet these restrictions. Airline data show
that some business travelers have long been able to purchase restricted fares by
rearranging their travel plans. This practice became even more common as the price
differences between the highest unrestricted full coach fares and the lowest available
restricted fares increased, and as business travelers became less willing to pay the
highest fare levels.
…
9. Airfield Design
The geometric design of an airfield should provide for operational efficiency, flexibility, and potential for future growth. It should
also comply with an extensive set of design standards and recommended practices, developed over the years by international
and national civil aviation organizations and intended to promote a maximum level of safety.
The two most influential sets of design standards are those of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the U.S.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). They are based on similar, but not identical, coding systems that classify airfields
according to the most demanding type of aircraft they are designed to serve. Once the reference code of an airfield or runway
has been specified, design standards can be obtained from the relevant manuals and other supporting documents.
Airfields typically account for 80 to 95 percent of the total land area occupied by an airport and affect in critical ways every
facet of airport operations. The principal determinants of the size of the airfield include the number and orientation of the
runways; the geometric configuration of the runway system; the dimensional standards to which the airfield has been designed;
and the land area set aside to provide for future growth and/or environmental mitigation. This chapter discusses these topics
in varying levels of detail.
The chapter reviews the characteristics and some advantages and disadvantages of a broad set of common airport layouts.
These range from single runways, to a pair of parallel runways, to intersecting pairs of runways, to systems of three, four, or
more runways. Several airports in the United States use complex, multirunway layouts to serve very large volumes of
nonhomogeneous traffic.
Four common mistakes in planning and designing airfields are the following:
Failure to provide flexibility for future expansion
Overbuilding the airfield in its initial phases
Lack of integration and coordination of the planning process
Insufficient appreciation of the economic consequences of some design choices
The implications of these mistakes for the capital and operating costs of airports and their users can be serious.
The chapter also reviews many of the FAA and ICAO technical and dimensional standards for the various elements of the
airfield. These include coverage for crosswinds, runway length, other runway geometric standards and obstacle clearance
requirements, separation of runways from adjacent facilities and from static or moving objects, taxiway geometric standards
and separation requirements, apron layouts and separation requirements, and obstacle limitation surfaces (or imaginary
surfaces) in the airspace in the vicinity of airports. The objective is to provide a summary overview of the standards and
recommended practices, outline their rationale, and indicate where readers can find further information in the detailed relevant
documents.
9.1. Introduction
The geometric design of an airfield critically affects every aspect of airport operations. This includes landside facilities and
services, as the layout of the runway system largely dictates the general placement of the passenger, cargo, and other buildings,
as well as the interfacing of airside and landside operations.
Because of the overwhelming importance of safety for aviation operations, airfield design must comply with a voluminous set
of detailed standards and recommended practices developed over the years by national and international civil aviation
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
authorities and organizations. The ICAO plays a central role in this respect. Its Annex 14 to the International Convention on Civil
Aviation specifies the standards and recommended practices that have been adopted by its nearly 200 Member States (formally
Contracting States) over the years. An ICAO standard is
any specification for physical characteristics, configuration, material, performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform
application of which is recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of international air navigation and to which
Contracting States will conform (ICAO, 2009).
By comparison, a recommended practice is
any specification … the uniform application of which is recognized as desirable … and to which Contracting States will
endeavor to conform.
Note that a standard is necessary for safety, while a recommended practice is desirable (endeavor to conform). In practice,
the design standards and practices of national civil aviation agencies everywhere are largely based on or, in most cases,
identical to those specified in the ICAOs Annex 14. Member States that, for any reason, are unable to comply with an Annex 14
standard—and adopt a different one—must notify promptly the ICAO to this effect. This is referred to as filing a difference. The
ICAO publishes these differences for the information of all its Member States.
The United States has historically filed the largest number of differences. The FAA has developed and applies a set of airport
design standards and recommended practices, which are similar to those of the ICAO, but also differ in some important
respects. This chapter cites examples later on. For practical purposes, the FAA plays almost as important a role as the ICAO in
setting airport design specifications. One reason is that the United States is still the most important air travel market in the
world, with the largest volume of air traffic and with most of the busiest airports (see Chaps. 1 and 2 and Sec. 9.2). Second, the
FAA and the U.S. government have traditionally invested heavily in research on aviation, including airports and air traffic
management (ATM). As a result, the design standards that the FAA has adopted or updated have often preceded the ICAO
adoption of identical or very similar standards.
Airport professionals should therefore be cognizant of both the ICAOs and the FAAs sets of design standards and
recommendations. Annex 14 (ICAO, 2009) was first published in 1951 and has since been amended many times, usually
following reports and studies by committees and panels of experts. A large number of related ICAO publications amplify on
aspects of the Annex 14 and provide more detailed guidance. Important examples are three multivolume manuals, the
Aerodrome Design Manual (ICAO, current-a), the Airport Services Manual (ICAO, current-c), and the Airport Planning Manual
(ICAO, current-b), all of which are updated at irregular intervals. Of special relevance to this chapter are the Aerodrome Design
Manual—Runways (ICAO, 2006), the Aerodrome Design Manual—Taxiways, Aprons, and Holding Bays (ICAO, 2005), and the
Airport Planning Manual—Master Planning (ICAO, 1987). The principal document on the FAA side is the Airport Design Advisory
Circular (FAA, 2012). This also references numerous other related advisory circulars and federal aviation regulations (FAR),
some of which are cited later in this chapter. A few commercial vendors increasingly provide specialized computer-aided-
design (CAD) software to support the planning and design of airfields.
Despite such support and extensive sets of guidelines, airport planners must still exercise a great deal of judgment in making
critical design choices. Subject to the environmental, political, and economic constraints at each site, they must address such
fundamental issues as the following:
How much land should be acquired or reserved for a new airport?
What should be the overall geometric layout of runways, taxiways, and aprons?
What size of aircraft should the airfield be designed for?
How should the construction of airside facilities be phased?
Variants of these questions must also be addressed when modifying or expanding the airfields of existing airports. Modification
and expansion projects have, in fact, become the most common, by far, context for airport planning and design in view of the
[1]
[2]
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/mhe-lookup/atom-id/6455a16f56ea6bf3
https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/mhe-lookup/atom-id/2716e44c79cba8b3
small number of entirely new major airports currently being built or planned anywhere in the world. Expansion and modification
projects are often as complex as the design of new airports—and sometimes more so. One of the biggest challenges in this
respect is developing a schedule of construction activities and a transition plan that will allow the airport to continue operations
during the period of airport reconfiguration.
Four generic types of mistakes are common in planning and designing airfields:
Failure to provide flexibility for responding to future developments
Overbuilding for the initial stages of an airports operation
Adopting a hierarchical, nonintegrated approach to design that does not consider adequately the interactions among the
various elements of the airport
Insufficient appreciation of the economic implications of design choices
The first of these applies to long-range planning. Too many airports face today severe, sometimes insuperable, constraints
because their original designers and planners failed to anticipate the eventual land area requirements of the airfield (see Sec.
9.4). Another example of failure to plan for flexibility is the selection and construction of airside layouts (runways, taxiways, and
aprons) that make it impossible to accommodate new, larger types of aircraft without either making very expensive changes to
existing facilities or having to rebuild them from scratch (see Secs. 9.5–9.8).
The second type of mistake, that is, the tendency to overbuild the airfield in the initial stages of airport operations, is in some
ways the reverse of the first. For example, an airport in its early phases of development may not need the full system of runways
and taxiways it has been planned for, or the eventual full length of one or more of its runways. Only part of the planned system
may be sufficient for the initial phase of operations. This may mean, for instance, building only one full-length taxiway running
parallel to a main runway, instead of the two parallel taxiways that may be necessary when the airport reaches full development.
Failure to adopt an integrated approach to planning for the various parts of the airfield is a third weakness encountered in
practice. Airports tend to be planned and designed hierarchically, often without fully considering the interactions among their
various subsystems (runways, taxiways, aprons, passenger and cargo buildings, service areas, etc.). On the airside for
example, the highest level of the design process typically focuses on settling the configuration of the runway system, with
limited analysis of what this implies for the other components of the airfield. Similarly, on the landside, passenger buildings are
often designed with inadequate understanding of how they interface with the apron areas, taxilanes, and taxiways. Because of
such absence of a systems viewpoint, taxiway and apron systems, in particular, are often inefficient and sometimes include
parts that are obvious candidates to become congestion points (hot spots) for air traffic (see Secs. 16.2 and 16.3). Airfield
design also needs to consider safety-related criteria such as minimizing the number of runway crossings and reducing the
likelihood of runway incursions. This can be achieved only through an integrated approach to planning and design.
Finally, the economic implications of some design choices are often not fully appreciated and analyzed. Sometimes planners
make design choices that save some capital costs but greatly increase the operating costs of airport users—for example, by
increasing taxiing times on the airfield. This is because planners often do not have a good grasp of the cumulative economic
value of their design choices. For example, saving an average of 2 minutes of taxiing time per landing and/or takeoff may be
worth tens of millions of dollars per year to aircraft operators at a busy airport with hundreds of thousands of annual operations
(see Secs. 9.7 and 14.3).
This chapter both reviews the most important airfield design standards and recommended practices and provides a
perspective on how these are, or should be, applied. The ICAO and the FAA use simple classification schemes to develop two-
element reference codes for airports. These reference codes determine the design standards to be used at each airport.
Section 9.2 explains the airport reference codes (ARCs), discusses their application, and provides relevant background and
terminology for the chapter. Section 9.3 reviews wind coverage requirements that determine whether it is necessary to
construct runways in more than one orientation at an airport. Section 9.4 offers a brief tour through progressively more
complex airfield configurations, using a few important airports as examples. It shows how the requirements for separations
between runways largely dictate the overall layout of the airport. It also points to some important systemic differences between
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/mhe-lookup/atom-id/b9aeeb0da945361b#ch16lev1sec02
https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/mhe-lookup/atom-id/b9aeeb0da945361b#ch16lev1sec03
https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/mhe-lookup/atom-id/2948e6ee48d41153#ch14lev1sec03
airport traffic characteristics in different regions of the world. Section 9.5 provides an overview of the topic of runway length.
The emphasis is on explaining the fundamental concepts and the meaning of various technical terms without going into much
technical detail. Section 9.6 summarizes some of the most important design standards for runways, as they apply to major
airports. Sections 9.7 and 9.8 do the same for taxiways, elements of taxiway systems, such as high-speed exits and taxilanes,
and apron stands. In all cases, the principal concern centers on the practical implications for busy airports serving large
commercial airplanes. Section 9.9 goes beyond airport boundaries to compare the standards that the ICAO and the FAA have
developed for protecting the airspace in the immediate vicinity of airports from natural or man-made obstructions that may
pause a threat to the safety of runway operations. The section describes the various obstacle limitation surfaces (or imaginary
surfaces) that form the basis for these standards.
It should be noted that the review of design standards in Secs. 9.6 through 9.9 is far from exhaustive, as it omits several topics
altogether—such as the design of taxiway turns and fillets, visual aids and marks, and emergency and rescue services—and
leaves out numerous details on others. Such coverage is beyond the scope of this text. Those engaged in the detailed design of
airfield facilities are familiar with the voluminous materials referenced earlier and other related documents. These
professionals also consult regularly with the competent government organizations and regulators, are typically employed by
engineering consulting firms, and work with special-purpose airfield design software.
9.2. Airport Classification Codes and Design Standards
9.2.1. Reference Codes for Aircraft Classification
Both the ICAO and the FAA use simple classification schemes to develop a two-element reference code for each type of
aircraft. The ICAO reference code (ICAO, 2009) consists of two elements, a code number and a code letter (Table 9.1). The
code number of any type of aircraft is determined by the airplane reference field length, the minimum field length that aircraft
requires for takeoff at maximum takeoff weight (MTOW), sea level, standard atmospheric conditions, no wind, and level
runway (see Sec. 9.5). The code letter is determined by two physical characteristics of the aircraft: its wingspan and the
distance (span) between the outside edges of the wheels of the aircrafts main gear. When the aircrafts wingspan and outer
main gear wheel span (OMG) correspond to different code letters, the aircraft is assigned the more demanding code letter. For
example, the Boeing 747-800 has an airplane reference field length of approximately 3000 m, which gives it code number 4, a
wingspan of 68.5 m (code letter F), and OMG of 12.7 m (code letter E). Thus, the ICAO reference code for the Boeing 747-800 is
4-F.
Table 9.1 ICAO Airport Reference Code
ICAO Code Element 1 ICAO Code Element 2
Code Number Airplane Reference Field Length (RFL) Code Letter Wingspan (WS) Outer Main Gear Wheel Span (OMG)
1 RFL < 800 m A WS < 15 m OMG < 4.5 m
2 800 m ≤ RFL < 1200 m B 15 m ≤ WS < 24 m 4.5 m ≤ OMG < 6 m
3 1200 m ≤ RFL < 1800 m C 24 m ≤ WS < 36 m 6 m ≤ OMG < 9 m
4 1800 m ≤ RFL D 36 m ≤ WS < 52 m 9 m ≤ OMG < 14 m
E 52 m ≤ WS < 65 m 9 m ≤ OMG < 14 m
F 65 m ≤ WS < 80 m 14 m ≤ OMG < 16 m
[3]
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Analogously, the FAA uses aircraft approach speed to determine the first element of its reference code, the aircraft approach
category, designated by a letter between A and E (Table 9.2). The aircraft approach speed is defined as 1.3 times the stall
speed in the aircrafts landing configuration at maximum landing weight (MLW). The second element is a Roman numeral (I
through VI) that specifies the design group to which the aircraft belongs. The design group is determined by the most
demanding of two of the physical characteristics of the aircraft: its wingspan and its tail height. For example, in the case of the
Boeing 737-800, the aircrafts approach speed is 142 knots (FAA approach category D); its wingspan of 34.3 m and tail height
of 12.6 m, both place it in design group III. Thus, the FAA reference code for the Boeing 737-800 is D-III.
Table 9.2 FAA Airport Reference Code
(FAA Code Element 1)
Aircraft Approach
Category
(FAA Code Element 1) Aircraft
Approach Speed (AS) (knots)
(FAA Code Element 2)
Airplane Design
Group
(FAA Code Element 2)
Aircraft Wingspan
(WS)
(FAA Code Element 2) Tail
Height (TH) Wheel Span
(OMG)
Source: FAA, 2012.
A AS < 91 I WS < 49 ft
(WS < 15 m)
TH < 20 ft
(TH < 6 m)
B 91 ≤ AS < 121 II 49 ft ≤ WS < 79 ft
(15 m ≤ WS < 24 m)
20 ft ≤ TH < 30 ft
(6 m ≤ TH < 9 m)
C 121 ≤ AS < 141 III 79 ft ≤ WS < 118 ft
(24 m ≤ WS < 36 m)
30 ft ≤ OMG < 45 ft
(9 m ≤ OMG < 13.5 m)
D 141 ≤ AS < 166 IV 118 ft ≤ WS < 171 ft
(36 m ≤ WS < 52 m)
45 ft ≤ OMG < 60 ft
(13.5 m ≤ OMG < 18.5 m)
E 166 ≤ AS V 171 ft ≤ WS < 214 ft
(52 m ≤ WS < 65 m)
60 ft ≤ OMG < 66 ft
(18.5 m ≤ OMG < 20 m)
VI 214 ft ≤ WS < 262 ft
(65 m ≤ WS < 80 m)
66 ft ≤ OMG < 80 ft
(20 m ≤ OMG < 24.5 m)
9.2.2. Airport Reference Code
The airport reference code (ARC) of an airfield is determined by the code of the most demanding type of aircraft (critical
aeroplane in ICAO terminology) that the airport is designed to serve. For instance, if the most demanding aircraft for some
airport is the Airbus 340-600, classified as a 4-E aircraft in the ICAOs scheme and as a D-V in the FAAs, the airports ARC would
be 4-E or D-V according to the ICAOs or the FAAs reference codes, respectively.
It is important to note that an airports most demanding aircraft—the type that determines an airports ARC—need not be an
aircraft that is currently using the airport. In other words, an airport can be designed to accommodate in the future aircraft types
that are more demanding than the ones that have been served there in the past.
At multirunway airports, individual runways may differ in their ability to serve different types of aircraft. For example, one
runway may be too short for handling takeoffs by long-range aircraft, whereas another may be sufficiently long for this purpose.
In such cases, different runway design codes (RDCs) will be associated with different runways. For example, the long runway
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
may have an FAA RDC of D-V, and the shorter runway an RDC of C-III. In such situations, the runway with the highest RDC
determines the overall ARC. Thus, in our example the ARC will be D-V—the most demanding of D-V and C-III.
9.2.3. Practical Implications
When it comes to the first element of the ICAO reference code, note that the most common narrow-body commercial aircraft,
such as the Airbus 320 and the Boeing 737, has a reference field length greater than 1800 m (Table 9.3b). This means that the
ARC of virtually all major commercial airports has an ICAO code number of 4. At the same time, for all practical purposes the
wingspan of the most demanding aircraft determines the second element of the ICAO reference code. This is because, for the
existing types of important commercial jets, the OMG almost never places these aircraft in a code letter category higher than
the one to which they would be assigned based on their wingspan. For example, no airplane assigned code letter D on the basis
of its wingspan would be assigned code letter E or F on the basis of its OMG. It follows from these two observations that the
ICAO reference code for major airports can only be 4-C (in the rather unusual case where aircraft like the Airbus 320 or the
Boeing 737 are the most demanding that the airport can serve) or, far more often, 4-D, 4-E, or 4-F.
Table 9.3a Characteristics of Common Wide-Body Turbofans
WS
(m)
Length
(m)
TH
(m)
OMG
(m)
MTOW
(tons)
Passenger
Seats
Range
(km)
TO Field Length
(m)
ICAO
RC
FAA
RC
FAA
TDG
Sources: Manufacturers data, FAA (2012), ICAO (2006).
Airbus
A300-
600R
44.9 54.1 16.6 10.9 171.7 220–266 7,540 2320 4-D C-IV 5
A310-
300
43.9 46.7 15.8 10.9 164.0 218–240 9,600 2260 4-D C-IV 5
A330-
200
60.3 58.8 17.4 12.6 233.0 253–293 13,430 2220 4-E C-V 6
A340-
300
60.3 63.6 16.9 12.6 276.5 295–375 13,700 3000 4-E D-V 6
A340-
600
63.5 75.3 17.3 12.6 368.0 380–440 14,350 3100 4-E D-V 6
A350-
900
64.8 66.9 17.1 12.9 268.0 315–366 15,000 n.a. 4-E D-V 6
A380 79.8 72.7 24.5 14.3 560.0 525–644 15,400 2900 4-F D-VI 7
Boeing
747-
200B
59.6 70.6 19.3 12.4 377.8 366–452 12,700 3190 4-E D-V 6
747-
400
64.4 70.6 19.4 12.6 396.9 416–524 13,450 3200 4-E D-V 6
747-8 68.5 76.3 19.4 12.7 448.0 467–605 14,800 3000 4-F D-VI 6
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
767-
200ER
47.6 48.5 16.1 10.9 179.2 181–224 11,825 2740 4-D D-IV 5
767-
300ER
47.6 54.9 16.0 10.9 186.9 218–269 11,065 2540 4-D D-IV 5
777-
200ER
60.9 63.7 18.5 12.9 297.6 301–400 14,300 3570 4-E C-V 6
777-
300ER
64.8 73.1 18.5 12.9 351.5 365–451 14,690 3200 4-E D-V 6
787-8 60.2 56.7 16.9 11.7 228.0 242–264 15,200 2850 4-E D-V 6
787-9 60.2 62.8 17.0 11.7 251.0 250–290 15,700 n.a. 4-E D-V 6
WS
(m)
Length
(m)
TH
(m)
OMG
(m)
MTOW
(tons)
Passenger
Seats
Range
(km)
TO Field Length
(m)
ICAO
RC
FAA
RC
FAA
TDG
Table 9.3b Characteristics of Common Narrow-Body Turbofans
WS
(m)
Length
(m)
TH
(m)
OMG
(m)
MTOW
(tons)
Passenger
Seats
Range
(km)
TO Field Length
(m)
ICAO
RC
FAA
RC
FAA
TDG
*Boeing/Douglas airplane.
Sources: Manufacturers data, FAA (2012), ICAO (2006).
Airbus
A318 34.1 31.4 12.6 8.7 68.0 107–117 5700 1828 4-C C-III 3
A319-
100
34.1 33.8 11.8 8.7 75.5 124–134 6700 2164 4-C C-III 3
A320-
200
34.1 37.6 12.1 8.7 77.0 150–164 5900 2090 4-C C-III 3
A321-
200
35.8 44.5 11.8 9.1 93.0 185–199 5950 2560 4-C C-III 5
Boeing
717-
200
28.5 37.8 8.9 5.4 54.9 106–117 3800 1800 4-C C-III 3
737-
200
28.4 30.5 11.2 6.4 58.1 102–136 4300 2090 4-C C-III 5
737-
300
28.9 33.4 11.1 6.4 62.8 128–140 4200 2300 4-C C-III 3
737-
400
28.9 36.5 11.1 6.4 68.0 146–159 4200 2540 4-C C-III 3
737-
500
28.9 31 11.1 6.4 60.6 108–122 4450 2470 4-C C-III 3
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
737-
600
34.3 31.2 12.6 7.0 66.0 108–123 5650 1750 4-C C-III 3
737-
700
34.3 33.6 12.5 7.0 70.1 128–140 6230 2100 4-C C-III 3
737-
800
34.3 39.5 12.5 7.0 79.0 160–175 5670 2400 4-C D-III 3
737-
900
35.7 42.1 12.5 7.0 85.1 174–204 5000 3000 4-C D-III 3
757-
200
38.1 47.3 13.6 8.6 115.7 200–239 7200 2910 4-D C-IV 5
MD-
81*
32.8 45.0 9.0 6.2 63.5 155–172 2910 1870 4-C C-III 3
MD-
87*
32.8 39.7 9.3 6.2 63.5 130–139 4400 1860 4-C C-III 3
WS
(m)
Length
(m)
TH
(m)
OMG
(m)
MTOW
(tons)
Passenger
Seats
Range
(km)
TO Field Length
(m)
ICAO
RC
FAA
RC
FAA
TDG
Turning to the FAA ARC, it is again true that the wingspan of the most demanding aircraft determines the airplane design group
for all practical purposes (see Table 9.3). This is because the tail height never places an aircraft in a design category higher
than the one to which it would have been assigned based solely on its wingspan. Note also that the wingspan thresholds that
separate FAA airplane Groups I through VI from one another are exactly the same as the ICAO thresholds. For example, FAA
Group IV aircraft have wingspans between 36 and 52 m, exactly the same as ICAO code letter D aircraft. This means that the
second elements of the FAA and the ICAO reference codes for all types of aircraft correspond perfectly. The only difference is
that the FAA uses Roman numerals and the ICAO uses capital letters to designate that second element. An airport with an ARC
in Group V per the FAA will have code letter E per the ICAO and vice versa—certainly a desirable circumstance for airfield
designers. This is pointed out in Fig. 9.1, which plots the length and wingspan of many of the most common types of current
commercial jet airplanes and identifies on the right vertical axis the second code element to which they belong.
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Figure 9.1 Length and wingspan of current types of commercial jet transport airplanes. The
corresponding ICAO and FAA reference codes are indicated along the vertical axis on the right.
[Sources: Manufacturer specifications, FAA (2012), ICAO (2006).]
The second code element largely determines many of the geometric design standards at airports, such as the required
separation between a runway and a parallel taxiway or between two parallel taxiways. This is because wingspan reflects well
the physical size of aircraft, especially when it comes to selecting airfield dimensions that will ensure safe operations. It follows
that it makes little difference, in most instances, whether an airport is designed to FAA or ICAO standards because (1) these
agencies will classify any airport in the same way, on the basis of wingspan, and (2) their dimensional standards for different
wingspan categories are usually either identical or very similar. There are, however, a few significant exceptions to this
statement (see Secs. 9.6–9.9).
The choice of ARC is obviously a critical decision for airport planners and operators. Building for a more demanding aircraft
than necessary means incurring unnecessary capital and maintenance costs: the dimensions of runways, taxiways, and aprons
and the separations between them will be larger than necessary. On the other hand, it may be even costlier to under-design the
airport. If, at some future time, an airline wishes to initiate service with a type of aircraft that the airport is not designed to
handle, this service must either be denied, or arrangements must be made to accept the aircraft under some special handling
provisions, or the airports facilities must be modified to make them compatible with the aircraft. The first two choices are
unattractive in the long run, especially if the popularity of the aircraft in question increases over time. The third choice can be
very expensive and disruptive if adequate provisions were not made at the outset for the possibility of future redimensioning of
airfield facilities, as Examples 9.1 and 9.2 suggest.
Example 9.1 The Airbus 380, with a wingspan of 79.8 m, was the first nonmilitary airplane with an ICAO reference letter
F (or FAA Group VI) designation to be widely introduced at commercial airports. Before its entry into service, Airbus
Industrie surveyed 81 leading airports around the world, considered the top candidates to receive A380 service, in order to
identify potential airport/aircraft compatibility problems. The survey found that the three principal problems were runway
and …
AB_CS Aviation Open skies 0715 Publisher Proof Reader
Creation date 10/12/14 Editor Production Manager
Modification date June 26, 2015 9:13 PM Art Director Advertising Manager
Output date 06/26/15 Subeditor Picture Editor
38 African Business July 2015
COVER�STORY
T
he potential contribution of the avia-
tion industry to Africa’s growth and
development is irrefutable.
Air travel links African countries
and regions with each other and with
the world. It increases efficiency and
connectivity. And it creates new opportunities for
trade, business and tourism.
According to a report by the Air Transport Action
Group, aviation in 2012 created 428,000 direct jobs,
supported 6.9m jobs, and generated $80.5bn in GDP
on the African continent. Meanwhile, the African
Development Bank reported that international traf-
fic in Africa grew 6.1\% over 2010–15, compared to the
global average of 5.8\%.
Driven by a growing middle class, an expanding
population of 1bn spread across a vast continent, and
rapidly developing economies, the potential for future
growth is similarly significant. And its current low
Above:�Boarding�a�
flight�–�but�only�10\%�of�
Africans�travel�by�air.
development represents a huge opportunity. The Air
Transport Action Group estimates that jobs supported
by aviation and tourism will grow to some 10.5m by
2032, while its contribution to GDP could more than
double over that same period. However, this fate is not
necessarily assured. It must be created, but for too long
the aviation industry has conspicuously been missing
in regional integration discussions, which have typi-
cally been dominated by talk of trade policy, telecom-
munications, ICTs, roads and railways.
One reason for this neglect could be the policies
most African countries adopted post-independence
– policies focused on developing international routes
mostly to and from their former colonisers – while
another could be low demand; only 10\% of Africans
travel by air.
But regardless of these factors, air transport on
the continent can and will play a vital role in Africa’s
future – so long as the right policies are implemented.
Skies and Seas
Open skies will allow
Africa to take off
A boosted aviation industry could hugely benefit
Africa’s trade, business and tourism. But for this to
happen, governments need to liberalise the skies and
move the sector up its list of priorities.
Tel: (+27) 011 784 0085 Cell: +27 (0) 827814178, +27 (0) 83 780 2107
e-mail: [email protected] , w w w.timeaviation.co.za M a n d e l a S q u a re , We s t To w e r, 4 t h F l o o r,
C / O A f r i c a n A s i a n Ca p i t a l , M a u d e St , S a n d t o n , J o h a n n e s b u rg , S A
The exclusive representative for Bombadier Business aircraft in Africa
Airframe Total Time:
3708hrs
Year of Manufacture:
2000
$2,5mil
Airframe Total Time:
3928hrs
Fresh 8C Inspection & Avionics Upgrade
Year of Manufacture:
2002
$14,950mil
Airframe Total Time:
3500hrs
FANS 1A Equipped
Year of Manufacture:
2003
$14,9mil
Airframe Total Time:
510hrs
Year of Manufacture:
2012
POA
Airframe Total Time:
25hrs
Year of Manufacture:
2014
$47,9mil
SN5797, 2009, $13,9mil
SN5842, 2010, $13,6mil
SN5852, 2010, $13,8mil
SN5845, 2010, $14,9mil
LearJet45 Global Express
Global 6000 Challenger 605
Global Express Global 5000
DSJ-1742 Time Aviation A4 Ad.indd 1 2015/06/17 8:18 AM
AB0715.indb 38 26/06/2015 21:16
AB_CS Aviation Open skies 0715 Publisher Proof Reader
Creation date 10/12/14 Editor Production Manager
Modification date June 26, 2015 9:13 PM Art Director Advertising Manager
Output date 06/26/15 Subeditor Picture Editor
40 African Business July 2015
COVER�STORY
Opening the skies
The main impediments to the growth of African
aviation currently are the regulations that restrict open
competition. These barriers help governments support
their own national carriers, but make it difficult for
foreign airlines to access certain routes.
T h e Ya m o u s s o u k r o D e c l a r a t i o n o f 19 9 9
recommended the liberalisation of the sector and
called for the establishment of a single African market,
but it has never been fully implemented. If it were,
it could see Africa reap many benefits including
more affordable fares, increased flight routes and
frequencies, and lower travel times.
There are plenty of examples of this happening
already. In Europe, for instance, the creation of a single
EU aviation market greatly increased competition,
resulting in many more new routes and a 34\% decline
in discount fares, according to the International Air
Transport Association.
An agreement for a more liberal air market between
South Africa and Kenya in the early 2000s led to a
69\% rise in passenger traffic. And the 2006 Morocco-
EU Open Sky Treaty led to 160\% rise in traffic as
the number of routes between the EU and Morocco
increased from 83 in 2005 to 309 in 2013.
Et hiopia’s pursuit of more libera l bi latera l
agreements meanwhile has contributed to Ethiopian
Airlines becoming one of the largest and most
Above:�Ethiopian�
Airlines�has�liberalised�
its�operations�and�
reaped�the�benefits.
profitable in Africa. It is reported that on intra-African
routes with more liberal set-ups, Ethiopians benefit
from 10-21\% lower fares and 35-38\% higher frequencies
compared to restricted intra-Africa routes.
The potential for Africa under an open-skies
agreement is thus immense. According to the
International Air Transport Association, open skies
in just 12 African countries could encourage tourism,
help create more than 150,000 jobs and add $1.3bn to
GDP.
Taking off
Howe ver, i mplement i ng t he Ya mou s s ou k ro
Declaration will not solve all Africa’s aviation
problems, and many additional, though connected,
challenges remain.
One leading concern is air safety, which needs
to be made a key priority going forwards. In 2011,
the average number of air traffic accidents was nine
times higher in Africa than the global average. High
frequency of accidents is often due to inconsistent
implementation and enforcement of international
safety standards and practices. To remedy this,
African governments must foster greater oversight.
Africa also lags significantly behind other regions
in terms of its soft and hard infrastructure. This
includes poor airport facilities, a lack of physical and
human resources, and insufficient transit networks.
It is critical, therefore, that African countries invest
in building and upgrading the infrastructure that
underpins the industry.
Finally, aviation still features too low down on
most African governments’ list of priorities and few
are pursuing the necessary policies to nurture the
development of the industry.
Besides implementing the Yamoussoukro decision,
national policies are also needed. Among many other
possibilities, these could include a waiver of airport
taxes and fees for regional airlines or the relaxation
of transit visa requirement among African nationals.
If African governments can get all this right and
truly recognise the vast potential for connectivity,
trade and economic development that a boosted
aviation sector promises, the sky is truly the limit.
�
Dr Richard Munang is Coordinator, Africa Regional
Climate Change Programme, at United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
Robert Mgendi is an ecosystem-based adaptation
policy expert at the Africa Climate Change Programme.
The views expressed do not necessarily represent
those of the institution with which they are affiliated.�
Skies and Seas
Open�skies�in�just�12�
African�countries�could�
encourage�tourism�and�
help�create�more�than�
150,000�jobs. 150,000
O U R S I G H T S
A R E S E T
H I G H E R
B U S I N E S S A I R C R A F T . B O M B A R D I E R . C O M
Bombardier, Learjet, Challenger, Global and The Evolution of Mobility are trademarks of Bombardier Inc. or its subsidiaries.
©
2015 Bombardier Inc. All rights reserved.
10858-BBA-AfricanBusinessAD-210x270.indd 1 11/06/2015 14:57AB0715.indb 40 26/06/2015 21:16
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.
The International Aviation Business Environment
Research Paper Topic Selection
Post a summary of your research paper problem statement. With a research topic in hand, a carefully constructed problem statement will set the stage for the smooth development of a research paper. The research problem statement should include keywords such as; ‘purpose,’ ‘intent,’ or ‘objective’ to ensure the research has a direction and can adequately present a conclusion or solution. Check that the topic and problem statement have a narrow concept so that one idea can be explored, and the research paper stays on topic. The research problem statement should also include verbs, such as ‘describe,’ ‘understand,’ ‘develop,’ ‘examine,’ ‘discover,’ to indicate what the audience can expect from the research. Lastly, show how the research will be conducted using a word such as ‘collect,’ ‘synthesize,’ and ‘analyze.’Post a summary of your research paper problem statement.
In Week 9, You will submit an 8-10 page research paper on a contemporary international aviation industry issue. Please remember that the nature of the class is to investigate international aviation management and its three elements: the nature of international aviation business, working in a foreign environment, and managing in an international environment. The focus of the paper should revolve around this theme. Your goal is to design a course of action to solve a research problem using appropriate, multidisciplinary approaches. The most critical step in preparing your research paper is topic selection. Identify an interesting topic that is practical, useful, and relevant to the course goals. The topic needs to be researchable, meaning it is not too broad, not too narrow. A key component of the research paper is to address ethical and social issues relevant to the topic.
Requirements:
· Define and articulate a problem statement.
· Design a course of action to solve the research problem using appropriate, multidisciplinary approaches.
· Address any ethical or social issues relevant to your research topic.
· Reach decisions or conclusions based on the analysis and synthesis of evidence.
Case Study: Transforming Intra-African Air Connectivity
Read the resources attached (Open skies will allow Africa to take off) and the webpage provided below. Prepare a 2-3 page case study that explains the information provided, identifies the benefits and drawbacks of liberalization, summarizes the case study of your choice from
https://www.iata.org/contentassets/44c1166a6e10411a982b2624047e118c/intervistas_africaliberalisation_finalreport_july2014.pdf
and presents your thoughts. Include an assessment of socioeconomic and ethical forces relevant to your case study and provide possible solutions for those issues. Be sure to include additional research and resources to support your case study. The assignment should be written according to the APA format. This includes a title page, header, page numbers, restatement of the title on the top line above the introduction, conclusion, a reference page (at least three references), and all in-text and reference citations.
Data Analysis
You were asked to research international round trip flights in Week 1. As you recall, the requirements were to plan eight international flights from the closest international airport and return two weeks later to the same airport. Now a month has passed. Compare and analyze the fare changes.
Destination
Airlines
Depart: Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (SEA)
Return
Round Trip Airfare
Honolulu, Hawaii
Alaska Airlines
Mon, Nov 8 8:42 AM (SEA) Travel time: 6 hr 28 min
1:10 PM Daniel K. Inouye International Airport (HNL)
Mon, Nov 22 1:15 PM Daniel K. Inouye International Airport (HNL) Travel time: 6 hr 4 min
9:19 PM Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (SEA)
$456
Tokyo, Japan
Delta Airlines
Mon, Nov 8 11:25 AM (SEA) Travel time: 10 hr 45 min
3:10 PM+1 Haneda Airport (HND)
Mon, Nov 22 5:20 PM Haneda Airport (HND) Travel time: 9 hr 20 min
9:40 AM Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (SEA)
$1560
Ontario, Canada
Air Canada
Mon, Nov 8 07:20 AM (SEA) Travel time: 4 hr 37 min
2:57 PM Toronto Pearson International Airport (YYZ)
Mon, Nov 22 6:25 PM Toronto Pearson International Airport (YYZ) Travel time: 5 hr 21 min
8:46 PM Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (SEA)
$409
Reykjavík, Iceland
Icelandair
Mon, Nov 8 2:50 PM (SEA) Travel time: 7 hr 25 min
6:15 AM+1 Keflavík Airport (KEF)
Mon, Nov 22 5:05 PM Keflavík Airport (KEF) Travel time: 7 hr 50 min
4:55 PM Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (SEA)
$605
Malé, Maldives
Singapore Airlines
Mon, Nov 8 8:45 AM (SEA) Travel time: 16 hr 40 min
5:25 PM+1 Singapore Changi Airport (SIN)
3 hr 10 min layover
8:35 PM+1 Singapore Changi Airport (SIN)
10:10 PM+1 Velana International Airport (MLE)
Mon, Nov 22 11:40 PM Velana International Airport (MLE) Travel time: 4 hr 35 min
7:15 AM+1 Singapore Changi Airport (SIN)
2 hr 10 min layover
9:25 AM+1 Singapore Changi Airport (SIN)
7:25 AM+1 (SEA)
$1125
Hong Kong
United Airlines
Mon, Nov 8 9:39 AM (SEA) Travel time: 2 hr 19 min
11:58 AM San Francisco International Airport (SFO)
1 hr 17 min layover
1:15 PM San Francisco International Airport (SFO)
8:20 PM+1 Hong Kong International Airport (HKG)
Mon, Nov 22 10:30 PM Hong Kong International Airport (HKG) Travel time: 12 hr 20 min
6:50 PM San Francisco International Airport (SFO)
1 hr 50 min layover
8:40 PMSan Francisco International Airport (SFO)
10:39 PM (SEA)
$656
London, United Kingdom
Virgin Atlantic
Mon, Nov 8 3:40 PM (SEA) Travel time: 9 hr 20 min
9:00 AM+1Heathrow Airport (LHR)
Mon, Nov 22 11:35 AM Heathrow Airport (LHR) Travel time: 9 hr 45 min
1:20 PM (SEA)
$901
Paris, France
AirFrance
Mon, Nov 8 4:30 PM (SEA) Travel time: 9 hr 45 min
11:15 AM+1 Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport (CDG)
Mon, Nov 22 1:15 PMParis Charles de Gaulle Airport (CDG) Travel time: 10 hr 15 min
2:30 PM (SEA)
$884
1. Use the same dates of travel, the same destinations, and the same search engine you did in Week 1. Determine how the fares have changed.
2. Use a spreadsheet and a graphing tool of your choice (Excel® is preferred) to illustrate the trend by city and continent. This is useful information, but the information is not knowledge until analyzed.
3. Now use your critical thinking skills to analyze your graph and find reasons the fares have changed. The readings this week discussed these reasons:
· Competition with other airlines.
· Some routes operate without earning enough money to justify the operating costs.
· Ticket prices will drop and rise very regularly for internal reasons such as:
· The route is typically used by business or leisure travelers. If the route is used frequently by business travelers, airlines might start by selling tickets at lower prices to tempt leisure travelers to fill the plane. They may then raise prices as the flight date nears because business travelers usually book at the last minute (and on their corporate credit card).
· How booked up the flight is. If a flight is not getting booked, the airline might be tempted to sell more seats at lower prices to fill up the plane. Higher fares for last-minute flyers are reserved for those people who need to be on that flight, no matter the price.
· Real-time bookings and cancellations. Airlines use planning applications to adjust their prices, to respond to supply and demand in real-time. If some bookings get canceled, the software might automatically offer those seats at a meager price.
· When the booking is made. For international flights, booking as far ahead as possible usually gets you the best price. For domestic flights, the sweet spot is between three and six weeks out. In some situations, tickets are cheaper when purchased in the afternoon than in the morning.
· Supply and demand
· Testing a fare change. Airlines might test a fare change to measure the effect on a route.
· Ticket prices will drop and rise very regularly for external reasons such as:
· A competing carrier goes in or out of business or leaves that market.
· A competitor changes prices, and the increase or decrease is matched.
· A major sporting event or conference changes location.
· The currency exchange rate fluctuates.
What can help you identify potential factors? Remember the resources provided in Week 3? These social media sites can be very useful. Submit the spreadsheet, graph, and analysis.
Airport Operations for Large Aircraft
Discuss and debate one adaptation you must consider as an airport planner if a New Large Aircraft (NLA) such as the Airbus 380 was in service at your airport. You may refer to the following
http://www.tc.faa.gov/its/worldpac/techrpt/ar97-26.pdf
Runway Headings and Lengths
For airport planners, what is the most important aspect of airport design? When surveyed, most individuals concluded that the runway, its configuration, and length were most important. Planning and designing an airport requires an understanding of the aircraft that will use the airport. You will have the opportunity in Week 8 for your term project to create a runway specifically for a large jet.
In this activity, you will learn how to determine runway headings and lengths. Throughout your readings, runway designation, classification, and wind coverage are explored. A planner must provide adequate runway coverage for crosswinds. The FAA recommends the number and orientation of runways should be fashioned in such a manner that the crosswind coverage is at least 95\%. Specifically, if the prevailing winds were from the East (090 degrees), your #1 design for a runway would be 09/27. If you cannot build this runway for some reason, you will have to build an airport with at least two runways. In addition, each aircraft has different characteristics. A planner must know which aircraft will be using the airfield. Once orientation is determined, the length of the runway is critical. This is based on an Aircraft Classification Reference Code and an Airport Reference Code. These codes, along with Table 9.3 a, b, and c will help you determine runway length.
In addition, each aircraft has different characteristics. A planner must know which aircraft will be using the airfield. Once orientation is determined, the length of the runway is critical. This is based on an Aircraft Classification Reference Code and an Airport Reference Code. These codes, along with Table 9.3 a, b, and c will help you determine runway length.
Consider the relationship that the following have on runway development:
· temperature
· surface wind
· runway gradient
· altitude
· the condition of the runway surface
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of:
· parallel
· intersecting
· open/closed V runways
Using your chapter readings and the Internet, prepare a minimum of a 2-page research paper (with accompanying diagrams and not including the reference page) exploring the criteria used to determine runway orientation and length. Explain aircraft reference codes, airport reference codes, single, parallel, open V, and intersecting runways. Lastly, what criteria should a planner use in determining runway length? Include in your report a diagram of the four types of runway mentioned above with correct runway orientation for each runway presented.
Cite all sources in the current APA format. Your paper will automatically be evaluated through Turnitin when you submit your assignment so ensure that you have not plagiarized any material!
FINANCE
Interest Rates and Bond Valuation - The Bond Market
Now that you are taking Corporate Finance, your relatives are asking you for financial advice on their investments. They are curious about bonds.
Aunt Mary (age 65) is interested in the U.S. Treasury market. She thinks that Treasury Inflation Protected Securities (TIPS) may be good for her. What would you tell her? Be specific.
Your mom and dad will be retiring in five (5) years or so and feel that they shouldn’t be totally invested in the stock market. They ask you for advice on how to start transitioning to less risky investments, such as Treasurys and blue-chip corporate bonds. What would you tell them? Are there any funds out there you can suggest for them to consider? Be specific.
Long Term Financing and Leasing - Buying versus Leasing
We cover long term finance and leasing this week. Most, if not all, of you, either own or lease a vehicle. Please answer the following questions as completely as possible.
· If you own, did you consider leasing? If yes, why did you choose a purchase over a lease?
· If you lease, why did you go with a lease? List the specific advantages you feel you gained by leasing.
· If you were to advise a classmate on buying vs leasing, what would be the key factors that you would like them to consider?
CATEGORIES
Economics
Nursing
Applied Sciences
Psychology
Science
Management
Computer Science
Human Resource Management
Accounting
Information Systems
English
Anatomy
Operations Management
Sociology
Literature
Education
Business & Finance
Marketing
Engineering
Statistics
Biology
Political Science
Reading
History
Financial markets
Philosophy
Mathematics
Law
Criminal
Architecture and Design
Government
Social Science
World history
Chemistry
Humanities
Business Finance
Writing
Programming
Telecommunications Engineering
Geography
Physics
Spanish
ach
e. Embedded Entrepreneurship
f. Three Social Entrepreneurship Models
g. Social-Founder Identity
h. Micros-enterprise Development
Outcomes
Subset 2. Indigenous Entrepreneurship Approaches (Outside of Canada)
a. Indigenous Australian Entrepreneurs Exami
Calculus
(people influence of
others) processes that you perceived occurs in this specific Institution Select one of the forms of stratification highlighted (focus on inter the intersectionalities
of these three) to reflect and analyze the potential ways these (
American history
Pharmacology
Ancient history
. Also
Numerical analysis
Environmental science
Electrical Engineering
Precalculus
Physiology
Civil Engineering
Electronic Engineering
ness Horizons
Algebra
Geology
Physical chemistry
nt
When considering both O
lassrooms
Civil
Probability
ions
Identify a specific consumer product that you or your family have used for quite some time. This might be a branded smartphone (if you have used several versions over the years)
or the court to consider in its deliberations. Locard’s exchange principle argues that during the commission of a crime
Chemical Engineering
Ecology
aragraphs (meaning 25 sentences or more). Your assignment may be more than 5 paragraphs but not less.
INSTRUCTIONS:
To access the FNU Online Library for journals and articles you can go the FNU library link here:
https://www.fnu.edu/library/
In order to
n that draws upon the theoretical reading to explain and contextualize the design choices. Be sure to directly quote or paraphrase the reading
ce to the vaccine. Your campaign must educate and inform the audience on the benefits but also create for safe and open dialogue. A key metric of your campaign will be the direct increase in numbers.
Key outcomes: The approach that you take must be clear
Mechanical Engineering
Organic chemistry
Geometry
nment
Topic
You will need to pick one topic for your project (5 pts)
Literature search
You will need to perform a literature search for your topic
Geophysics
you been involved with a company doing a redesign of business processes
Communication on Customer Relations. Discuss how two-way communication on social media channels impacts businesses both positively and negatively. Provide any personal examples from your experience
od pressure and hypertension via a community-wide intervention that targets the problem across the lifespan (i.e. includes all ages).
Develop a community-wide intervention to reduce elevated blood pressure and hypertension in the State of Alabama that in
in body of the report
Conclusions
References (8 References Minimum)
*** Words count = 2000 words.
*** In-Text Citations and References using Harvard style.
*** In Task section I’ve chose (Economic issues in overseas contracting)"
Electromagnetism
w or quality improvement; it was just all part of good nursing care. The goal for quality improvement is to monitor patient outcomes using statistics for comparison to standards of care for different diseases
e a 1 to 2 slide Microsoft PowerPoint presentation on the different models of case management. Include speaker notes... .....Describe three different models of case management.
visual representations of information. They can include numbers
SSAY
ame workbook for all 3 milestones. You do not need to download a new copy for Milestones 2 or 3. When you submit Milestone 3
pages):
Provide a description of an existing intervention in Canada
making the appropriate buying decisions in an ethical and professional manner.
Topic: Purchasing and Technology
You read about blockchain ledger technology. Now do some additional research out on the Internet and share your URL with the rest of the class
be aware of which features their competitors are opting to include so the product development teams can design similar or enhanced features to attract more of the market. The more unique
low (The Top Health Industry Trends to Watch in 2015) to assist you with this discussion.
https://youtu.be/fRym_jyuBc0
Next year the $2.8 trillion U.S. healthcare industry will finally begin to look and feel more like the rest of the business wo
evidence-based primary care curriculum. Throughout your nurse practitioner program
Vignette
Understanding Gender Fluidity
Providing Inclusive Quality Care
Affirming Clinical Encounters
Conclusion
References
Nurse Practitioner Knowledge
Mechanics
and word limit is unit as a guide only.
The assessment may be re-attempted on two further occasions (maximum three attempts in total). All assessments must be resubmitted 3 days within receiving your unsatisfactory grade. You must clearly indicate “Re-su
Trigonometry
Article writing
Other
5. June 29
After the components sending to the manufacturing house
1. In 1972 the Furman v. Georgia case resulted in a decision that would put action into motion. Furman was originally sentenced to death because of a murder he committed in Georgia but the court debated whether or not this was a violation of his 8th amend
One of the first conflicts that would need to be investigated would be whether the human service professional followed the responsibility to client ethical standard. While developing a relationship with client it is important to clarify that if danger or
Ethical behavior is a critical topic in the workplace because the impact of it can make or break a business
No matter which type of health care organization
With a direct sale
During the pandemic
Computers are being used to monitor the spread of outbreaks in different areas of the world and with this record
3. Furman v. Georgia is a U.S Supreme Court case that resolves around the Eighth Amendments ban on cruel and unsual punishment in death penalty cases. The Furman v. Georgia case was based on Furman being convicted of murder in Georgia. Furman was caught i
One major ethical conflict that may arise in my investigation is the Responsibility to Client in both Standard 3 and Standard 4 of the Ethical Standards for Human Service Professionals (2015). Making sure we do not disclose information without consent ev
4. Identify two examples of real world problems that you have observed in your personal
Summary & Evaluation: Reference & 188. Academic Search Ultimate
Ethics
We can mention at least one example of how the violation of ethical standards can be prevented. Many organizations promote ethical self-regulation by creating moral codes to help direct their business activities
*DDB is used for the first three years
For example
The inbound logistics for William Instrument refer to purchase components from various electronic firms. During the purchase process William need to consider the quality and price of the components. In this case
4. A U.S. Supreme Court case known as Furman v. Georgia (1972) is a landmark case that involved Eighth Amendment’s ban of unusual and cruel punishment in death penalty cases (Furman v. Georgia (1972)
With covid coming into place
In my opinion
with
Not necessarily all home buyers are the same! When you choose to work with we buy ugly houses Baltimore & nationwide USA
The ability to view ourselves from an unbiased perspective allows us to critically assess our personal strengths and weaknesses. This is an important step in the process of finding the right resources for our personal learning style. Ego and pride can be
· By Day 1 of this week
While you must form your answers to the questions below from our assigned reading material
CliftonLarsonAllen LLP (2013)
5 The family dynamic is awkward at first since the most outgoing and straight forward person in the family in Linda
Urien
The most important benefit of my statistical analysis would be the accuracy with which I interpret the data. The greatest obstacle
From a similar but larger point of view
4 In order to get the entire family to come back for another session I would suggest coming in on a day the restaurant is not open
When seeking to identify a patient’s health condition
After viewing the you tube videos on prayer
Your paper must be at least two pages in length (not counting the title and reference pages)
The word assimilate is negative to me. I believe everyone should learn about a country that they are going to live in. It doesnt mean that they have to believe that everything in America is better than where they came from. It means that they care enough
Data collection
Single Subject Chris is a social worker in a geriatric case management program located in a midsize Northeastern town. She has an MSW and is part of a team of case managers that likes to continuously improve on its practice. The team is currently using an
I would start off with Linda on repeating her options for the child and going over what she is feeling with each option. I would want to find out what she is afraid of. I would avoid asking her any “why” questions because I want her to be in the here an
Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using an Internet site as means of collecting data for psychological research (Comp 2.1) 25.0\% Summarization of the advantages and disadvantages of using an Internet site as means of collecting data for psych
Identify the type of research used in a chosen study
Compose a 1
Optics
effect relationship becomes more difficult—as the researcher cannot enact total control of another person even in an experimental environment. Social workers serve clients in highly complex real-world environments. Clients often implement recommended inte
I think knowing more about you will allow you to be able to choose the right resources
Be 4 pages in length
soft MB-920 dumps review and documentation and high-quality listing pdf MB-920 braindumps also recommended and approved by Microsoft experts. The practical test
g
One thing you will need to do in college is learn how to find and use references. References support your ideas. College-level work must be supported by research. You are expected to do that for this paper. You will research
Elaborate on any potential confounds or ethical concerns while participating in the psychological study 20.0\% Elaboration on any potential confounds or ethical concerns while participating in the psychological study is missing. Elaboration on any potenti
3 The first thing I would do in the family’s first session is develop a genogram of the family to get an idea of all the individuals who play a major role in Linda’s life. After establishing where each member is in relation to the family
A Health in All Policies approach
Note: The requirements outlined below correspond to the grading criteria in the scoring guide. At a minimum
Chen
Read Connecting Communities and Complexity: A Case Study in Creating the Conditions for Transformational Change
Read Reflections on Cultural Humility
Read A Basic Guide to ABCD Community Organizing
Use the bolded black section and sub-section titles below to organize your paper. For each section
Losinski forwarded the article on a priority basis to Mary Scott
Losinksi wanted details on use of the ED at CGH. He asked the administrative resident