Fluent Essays

Reflection paper What are some of the stable themes of your life? How do you think these themes will be expressed 20 years from now? This paper is about you and your Journey into Adulthood, based on the reading from Chapter 1. Be sure to keep notes from your discussion your paper should be easy to write. Be sure to reference the textbook on your reference page. The Journey of Adulthood Eighth Edition Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Barbara R. Bjorklund Wilkes Honors College of Florida Atlantic University 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 10: 0-205-97075-3 ISBN 13: 978-0-205-97075-9 Senior Acquisitions Editor: Erin Mitchell Editorial Assistant: Sarah Henrich Senior Managing Editor: Linda Behrens Project Manager: Sherry Lewis Program Manager: Annemarie Franklin Procurement Specialist: Diane Peirano Cover Designer: John Christiana Cover Image: My Good Images/Shutterstock Full-Service Project Management: Laserwords Maine Printer/Binder: Edwards Brothers Malloy State St Cover Printer: Edwards Brothers Malloy State St Text Font: Adobe Garamond Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page of appearance and on pages 419–421. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bjorklund, Barbara R. The Journey of Adulthood / Barbara R. Bjorklund, Florida Atlantic University.—Eighth edition. pages cm ISBN-13: 978-0-205-97075-9 ISBN-10: 0-205-97075-3 1. Adulthood—Psychological aspects. 2. Aging—Psychological aspects. 3. Adulthood. 4. Aging. I. Title. BF724.5.B44 2015 155.6—dc23 2013045246 For Lily Pearl Zeman, my ninth grandchild, whose arrival was every bit as glorious as my first! This page intentionally left blank Contents v Preface ix 1 Introduction to Adult Development 3 Basic Concepts in Adult Development 4 Sources of Change 7 Normative Age-Graded Influences 7 Normative History-Graded Influences 8 Nonnormative Life Events 10 Sources of Stability 10 Genetics 12 Environment 12 Interactionist View 13 A Word About “Age” 14 Setting the Course: Some Guiding Perspectives 15 Life-Span Developmental Psychology Approach 15 Bioecological Model of Development 15 Developmental Research 17 Methods 18 Measures 23 Analyses 24 Designs 27 A Final Word 30 Summary 30 Key Terms 32 Suggested Reading 32 2 Physical Changes 35 Theories of Primary Aging 36 Oxidative Damage 36 Genetic Limits 37 Caloric Restriction 38 A Word on Theories of Primary Aging 39 Physical Changes During Adulthood 39 Outward Appearance 39 The Senses 44 Bones and Muscles 48 Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems 51 Brain and Nervous System 52 Immune System 53 Hormonal System 54 Changes in Physical Behavior 56 Athletic Abilities 56 Stamina, Dexterity, and Balance 57 Sleep 58 Sexual Activity 60 Individual Differences in Primary Aging 63 Genetics 64 Lifestyle 64 Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Group 65 Can We “Turn Back the Clock” of Primary Aging? 66 An Overview of the Physical Changes in Adulthood 66 Summary 68 Key Terms 69 Suggested Reading 70 3 Health and Health Disorders 73 Mortality Rates and Causes of Death 74 Morbidity Rates, Disease, and Disability 74 Common Health Conditions 74 Disability 75 Self-Ratings of Health 76 Specifi c Diseases 77 Cardiovascular Disease 77 Cancer 78 Diabetes 79 Alzheimer’s Disease 80 People Living with Age- Related Diseases and Disabilities 82 Contentsvi Mental Disorders 83 Anxiety Disorders 85 Mood Disorders 85 Impulse Control Disorders 87 Substance Abuse Disorders 87 Treatment of Mental Health Disorders 87 Nonmedical Solutions 88 Assistive Technology 88 Assistance Animals 89 Individual Differences in Health 89 Lifestyle 89 Gender 90 Socioeconomics, Race, and Ethnicity 91 Personality and Behavior Patterns 94 Genetics 95 Developmental Origins 96 The Road to Good Health 97 Summary 98 Key Terms 100 Suggested Reading 101 4 Cognitive Abilities 103 Intelligence 104 Age Changes in Overall Intelligence 104 Components of Intelligence 106 Reversing Declines in Intellectual Abilities 107 Memory 109 Short-Term and Working Memory 109 Declarative and Nondeclarative (Procedural) Memory 111 Prospective Memory 114 Slowing Declines in Memory Abilities 114 Memory in Context 115 Decision Making and Problem Solving 117 Individual Differences in Cognitive Change 120 Health 121 Genetics 122 Demographics and Sociobiographical History 123 Schooling 123 Intellectual Activity 124 Physical Exercise 125 Subjective Evaluation of Decline 126 Cognitive Assistance 126 Medication Adherence 126 Social Networking 127 E-Readers and Electronic Games 128 Safe Driving 129 Review of Cognitive Changes over the Adult Years and a Search for Balance 130 Summary 132 Key Terms 133 Suggested Reading 134 5 Social Roles 137 Social Roles and Transitions 138 Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes 139 Social Roles in Young Adulthood 140 Leaving (and Returning) Home 142 Becoming a Spouse or Partner 144 Becoming a Parent 148 Social Roles in Middle Adulthood 152 The Departure of the Children: The Empty Nest 152 Gender Roles at Midlife 153 Becoming a Grandparent 153 Caring for an Aging Parent 155 Social Roles in Late Adulthood 157 Living Alone 158 Becoming a Care Receiver 159 Social Roles in Atypical Families 160 Lifelong Singles 160 The Childless 161 Divorced (and Remarried) Adults 162 The Effect of Variations in Timing 163 Summary 165 Key Terms 166 Suggested Reading 167 6 Social Relationships 169 Theories of Social Relationships 170 Attachment Theory 170 The Convoy Model 172 Socioemotional Selectivity Theory 172 Evolutionary Psychology 173 Intimate Partnerships 174 Contents vii Establishing an Intimate Relationship 175 Successful Marriages 179 Cohabitation and Marriage 182 Same-Sex Partnerships 183 Relationships With Other Family Members 186 General Patterns of Family Interaction 186 Parent–Child Relationships in Adulthood 187 Grandparent– Grandchild Relationships 191 Relationships with Brothers and Sisters 195 Friendships in Adulthood 196 Friendship Networks 196 Pets as Friends 197 Facebook Friends 197 Summary 200 Key Terms 201 Suggested Reading 202 7 Work and Retirement 205 The Importance of Work in Adulthood 206 Super’s Theory of Career Development 206 Gender Differences in Career Patterns 207 Selecting a Career 209 Theories of Career Selection 209 The Effects of Gender 210 Family Influences 213 The Role of Genetics 214 Age Trends in Work Experience 215 Job Performance 215 Job Training and Retraining 216 Job Satisfaction 217 Work and Personal Life 218 Work and the Individual 218 Work and Marriage 220 Work and Parenthood 221 Work and Caregiving for Adult Family Members 223 Household Labor 224 Retirement 225 Preparation for Retirement 226 Timing of Retirement 226 Reasons for Retirement 227 Effects of Retirement 229 Alternatives to Full Retirement 233 A Concluding Note 235 Summary 236 Key Terms 238 Suggested Reading 238 8 Personality 241 Personality Structures 242 Personality Traits and Factors 242 Differential Continuity 244 Mean-Level Change 244 Intra-Individual Variability 245 Continuity, Change, and Variability Coexist 247 What Do Personality Traits Do? 247 Explanations of Continuity and Change 250 Genetics 250 Environmental Influences 251 Evolutionary Psychology Explanations 252 Cultural Differences 253 Summing Up Personality Structure 253 Theories of Personality Development 254 Psychosocial Development 254 Ego Development 259 Mature Adaptation 261 Gender Crossover 263 Positive Well-Being 264 Summary 267 Key Terms 269 Suggested Reading 270 9 The Quest for Meaning 273 Why a Chapter on the Quest for Meaning? 274 The Study of Age-Related Changes in Meaning Systems 276 Changes in the Quest for Meaning 277 Religion, Spirituality, and Health 279 Theories of Spiritual Development 281 Development of Moral Reasoning 281 Development of Faith 287 Contentsviii Integrating Meaning and Personality: A Preliminary Theoretical Synthesis 290 A Synthesizing Model 291 Stages of Mystical Experience 292 The Process of Transition 293 Commentary and Conclusions 295 Summary 297 Key Terms 299 Suggested Reading 299 10 Stress, Coping, and Resilience 301 Stress, Stressors, and Stress Reactions 302 Types of Stress 304 Effects of Stress 306 Physical Disease 306 Mental Health Disorders 307 Individual Differences in Stress-Related Disorders 309 Stress- Related Growth 313 Coping with Stress 315 Types of Coping Behaviors 315 Social Support 318 Personality Traits and Coping 320 Resilience 321 Reactions to Trauma 321 Individual Differences in Resilience 322 Resilience in Military Combat and Deployment 323 A Final Word on Stress and Resilience 324 Summary 324 Key Terms 326 Suggested Reading 326 11 Death and Bereavement 329 Achieving an Understanding of Death 330 Meanings of Death 330 Death Anxiety 331 Accepting the Reality of One’s Eventual Death 333 The Process of Death 333 Stages of Reactions to Death 334 The Importance of Farewells 335 Individual Adaptations to Dying 335 Choosing Where to Die 337 Choosing When to Die 340 After Death Occurs: Rituals and Grieving 342 Ritual Mourning: Funerals and Ceremonies 342 The Process of Grieving 345 Living and Dying: A Final Word 348 Summary 348 Key Terms 350 Suggested Reading 351 12 The Successful Journey 353 Themes of Adult Development 354 Emerging Adulthood (Ages 18 to 24) 357 Young Adulthood (Ages 25 to 39) 358 Middle Adulthood (Ages 40 to 64) 360 Older Adulthood (Ages 65 to 74) 364 Late Adulthood (Age 75 and Older) 365 Variations in Successful Development 367 Individual Differences in Quality of Life 368 Other Measures of Life Success 370 A Model of Adult Growth and Development: Trajectories and Pathways 373 Summary 379 Key Terms 380 Suggested Reading 381 References 383 Glossary 411 Credits 419 Author Index 422 Subject Index 431 Preface The Journey of Adulthood is now in its eighth edition, and it continues to capture the dynamic process of adult development from early adulthood to the end of life. Its core is made up of research findings from large-scale projects and major theories of adult development, but it also reflects smaller studies of diverse groups, showing the influences of gender, culture, ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic background on this journey. I have balanced new research with clas- sic studies from pioneers in the field of adult development. And I have sweetened this some- times medicinal taste with a spoonful of honey—a little personal warmth and humor. After all, I am now officially an older adult who is on this journey along with my husband, looking ahead at the examples our parents’ journeys gave us, and back toward our children, who are blazing their own trails. As of this edition, we have nine grandchildren—six of whom are beginning their own journeys of adulthood either as college students or starting their careers. New in This Edition • New information on electronics use: the proportion of people of different ages using the Internet, cell phones, e-readers, and e-games; the sleep-related problems related to using electronic “blue screen” devices before bedtime or during the night; the popularity of online dating services and some words of caution about their claims; and the relationship between early hearing loss and the use of MP3 players at top volume with earbuds. • Increased importance of animals in our lives: the use of dogs and monkeys as assistance animals for people with disabilities; the use of comfort animals for people in stressful situations or with mental health problems; and the social support people of all ages report receiving from their pets. • New research on veterans: the association between head injuries and PTSD; the asso- ciation between head injuries and dementia; the collaboration between researchers in positive psychology and the U.S. Army to boost resilience in combat troops. • More studies of the effects of discrimination and inequality: older people reminded of the “poor memory” stereotype score lower on memory tests; young girls of mothers who believe the “girls are not good at math” stereotype score lower on math tests; people in minority groups who perceive they are discriminated against have lower levels of health; African-American adults experience middle age differently than other groups; same-sex couples experience more violence and aggression, less fam- ily support, less openness about their relationships; the increase in neighborhoods designated “food deserts” because of scarcity of grocery stores and abundance of fast-food restaurants. • More research on a wider range of younger and older adults. More older people are in the workforce in the United States and some European countries; longitudinal studies of attachment between infancy and age 18; long-time married couples report being “very intensely in love”; social convoys of people from emerging adulthood to age 90; increase in sex without commitment, or “hookups” for young adults; survey results of sexuality from age 70 to 94. ix x Preface • New information on top age-related diseases, including heart disease, cancer, diabe- tes, and Alzheimer’s disease. Updated risk factors for common age-related conditions, including cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration, osteoporosis, and osteoarthritis. All the tables of risk factors contain information about what younger adults can do for prevention. New findings on genetic contributions to age-related diseases. The first chapter of the book contains the basics for the course—definitions, methods, and guiding perspectives for the study of adult development. The next seven chapters cover traditional developmental topics, featuring recent research, classic studies, current theories, new directions, and practical applications. The next three chapters cover top- ics not traditionally found in adult development texts, but which I feel are important to round out a student’s experience in this course—the quest for meaning; the inevitability of stress, coping, and resilience in adult life; and the way we face our own deaths and that of our loved ones. The final chapter takes a chronological look at adult development, in contrast to the topical themes in the earlier chapters, and also suggests a model of adult development that will pull the threads together and tie up loose ends. Changes in the Field of Adult Development The study of adult development is a fairly new field, and it expands exponentially from year to year. It began as a field of psychology, but more and more disciplines have shown interest in the changes that take place over the adult years. This book includes information from researchers who identify themselves as psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, epidemiologists, behavior geneticists, cellular biologists, biogerontolo- gists, and many other types of scientists. The terminology and methods in these fields have become more and more similar, and many researchers publish in the journals of a variety of fields. This edition of The Journey of Adulthood reflects the wonderful collaboration going on and the richness of a number of multidisciplinary projects. It is an exciting time in developmental science, and this book reflects that energy. Some of the projects that have been tapped for this textbook are the Midlife in the United States Study (MIDUS), the Berlin Study of Aging, the Grant Study of Harvard Men, the National Comorbidity Study, the Nun Study of the School Sisters of Notre Dame, the Victoria Longitudinal Study, the Swedish Twin Study, the National Survey of Sexual and Health Behavior, The Women’s Health Study, and the National Longitudinal Mortality Study. To emphasize these collaborations, I have identified each major researcher or theorist with his or her field of study. Two editions ago I was struck with the diversity of scien- tific fields contributing to the adult development literature. I want this book to reflect that diversity. When I discuss some particular work in detail, I give the full names of the researchers and how they identify their field of study. I hope that the students who are interested in adult development will take note and consider these areas when they declare their majors or make plans for graduate school. As professors, we need to remember that we not only teach the content of the courses, but also guide our students in career decisions. Another change in the field of adult development is that increasingly more research projects reported in major journals are done by international groups of researchers in set- tings all over the developed world. We no longer are limited to information on adults in the United States; we also have research being done by Swedish, Japanese, and Egyptian scientists using Swedish, Japanese, and Egyptian participants. When the findings are similar to studies done in the United States, we can be more confident that the develop- mental phenomenon being studied is an integral part of the human experience and not something particular to people in the United States. When the findings are different from studies done in the United States, we can investigate these differences and find their roots. xiPreface I have identified these international research teams and the nationalities of their partici- pants. I hope this accentuates the global aspects of our academic community, and as a seasoned traveler myself, I hope it inspires students to consider “study abroad” programs. I include full names of major researchers and theorists when I discuss their work in detail. Seeing the first and last names makes the researchers more real to the students than conventional citations of “last names, comma, date.” Full names also reflect the diversity of scientists–often their gender and their national or ethnic backgrounds. Our students represent a wide range of races and ethnicities, and the time of science being the sole domain of an elite group most of us cannot identify with is gone. One of the most exciting changes in the field of adult development has been its expan- sion to emphasize a wider and wider range of age groups. When I first began writing in this area, the focus of interest was older adults. The last two editions of this book have featured more and more studies of young adults, middle-aged adults, and emerging adults. This edition has added more research on the opposite end of the age spectrum—those who are 75, 80, 90 years of age and older. Although having people in this age group is nothing new, the growing numbers of them have made it important (and relatively easy) to include them in studies of adult development. Clearly the study of adult development is no longer the study of certain specific age groups; it is now truly a study of every aspect of adulthood. I have tried to capture this inclusion by choosing topics, examples, opening stories, photos, suggested reading, and critical thinking questions that represent the entire adult life span. Changes in the World Around Us Since the last edition of this book, there have been many changes in the world around us. As I write this preface, we seem to be recovering from the financial setbacks that began in 2008. Unemployment and underemployment are a still a problem for many, and almost every family has been touched by financial setbacks of one sort or another. Troops are coming back from Iraq, but many have war-related disabilities that include posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Single-parent families and dual- earner families in the United States (and in many other developed countries) are having a rough time; they receive little cooperation from the government, the workplace, or the community to assist them in caring for both job and family. Many older women, especially those who live alone, are living below the poverty line. The United States has the highest rates of mental disorders of any developed country, and most of the people experiencing these symptoms do not get adequate treatment. Unhealthy lifestyles are resulting in increased health problems for many adults in the developing world, and the ages of those affected are extending to both the younger and older end of the spectrum. Although I try to maintain a positive tone in this book, these aspects of adult life are realities, and I have included them in the topics discussed in The Journey of Adulthood . Other changes in the world around us are more positive. Health awareness is increasing at all ages, advances are being made in many areas of disease prevention, detection, and treatment, and a greater percentage of people in developed countries are living into old age. The rate of cancer deaths continues to decline as advances are made in early detection and treatment. Although there is still no treatment for aging and no sign of a way to increase the existing maximum life span, people are increasing the number of healthy years in their lives. Programs such as hospice are making it possible for an growing number of people to choose to have “a good death” when that time comes. Women are making great strides in professional careers and in their positive adjustment to children leaving home and wid- owhood. Communication technology has made it easier for families to stay in touch and for older adults to live independently. The average age of people using social media, cell phones, and e-games is increasing. These are also among the topics selected for this book. xii Preface Changes in the Classroom Courses in adult development are offered in all major colleges and universities in the United States and are becoming popular around the world. It is safe to say that gradu- ates in almost all majors will be working in fields that deal with the changes that occur during adulthood. It is also safe to say that students in all majors will be dealing with the topic on a personal level, both their own progress through adulthood and that of their parents. My students at Florida Atlantic University this semester are majoring in psy- chology, counseling, nursing, criminal justice, premedical sciences, prelaw, social work, occupational therapy, sociology, and education. About one half are bilingual, and about one third speak English as a second language. The majority will be the first in their families to graduate from college. I no longer assume that they have the same academic backgrounds as students a decade ago. For these reasons, I include basic definitions of key terms in the text of each chapter, clear explanations of relevant statistical methods, and basic details of major theories. I meet the readers knowing that the “typical student” is an outdated stereotype, but I meet them with respect for their intelligence and moti- vation. I firmly believe that it is possible to explain complex ideas clearly and connect with students from a variety of backgrounds and experiences. I do it every week in my lectures, and I do it in this book. Highlights of Chapters in This Edition Chapter 1 serves as an introduction to the study of adult development, beginning with the concept of development being both stable and changing. I use my own journey of adulthood as an example of these concepts and invite students to think of their own lives in these terms. Two guiding perspectives are introduced, Baltes’s life-span developmental approach and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model. Hopefully students will feel com- fortable with those straightforward theories and move smoothly into the next section on developmental research. I don’t assume that all students have taken a research methods class, so I limit the methods, measures, analyses, and designs to those that are used in later chapters. In fact, I use some of these later studies as examples, hoping that students will feel comfortable with them when they encounter them later in the book. New in this chapter: • Current events added to table of normative history-graded influences. • The role of methylation in epigenetic inheritance. The theme of Chapter 2 is primary aging , the physical changes that take place pre- dictably in most of us when we reach certain milestones in our journeys of adulthood. Again, I begin with some basic theories, including Harmon’s theory of oxidative damage, Hayflick’s theory of genetic limits, and the theory of caloric restriction. Then I cover age-related physical changes, including outward appearance, the senses, the bones and muscles, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the brain and nervous system, the immune system, and the hormonal system. Most of the age-related changes in these sys- tems are gradual, but much can be done to avoid premature aging (and much of that can be done in early adulthood, such as avoiding excessive exposure to sunlight and tobacco use). Next I cover four areas of more complex functioning—(a) athletic abilities; (b) stam- ina, dexterity, and balance; (c) sleep; and (d) sexual activity, all of which decline gradually with age. I cover some of the ways these declines can be slowed, but end the chapter with the caution that so far, we have no proven way to “turn back the clock” of time. xiiiPreface New in this chapter: • Research on noise exposure levels for MP3 players. • Evidence that high levels of sports participation in adolescents is a risk factor for osteoarthritis in young and middle adulthood. • Studies of master athletes (up to age 90) and their oxygen uptake abilities. • The connection between blue screens (smart phones, tablets, e-games) and insomnia. • The prevalence of hookups —casual sex without commitment—among emerging adults. • The concept of food deserts— neighborhoods with a high number of fast-food restau- rants and a low number of stores selling … The Journey of Adulthood Eighth Edition Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Barbara R. Bjorklund Wilkes Honors College of Florida Atlantic University 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 10: 0-205-97075-3 ISBN 13: 978-0-205-97075-9 Senior Acquisitions Editor: Erin Mitchell Editorial Assistant: Sarah Henrich Senior Managing Editor: Linda Behrens Project Manager: Sherry Lewis Program Manager: Annemarie Franklin Procurement Specialist: Diane Peirano Cover Designer: John Christiana Cover Image: My Good Images/Shutterstock Full-Service Project Management: Laserwords Maine Printer/Binder: Edwards Brothers Malloy State St Cover Printer: Edwards Brothers Malloy State St Text Font: Adobe Garamond Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page of appearance and on pages 419–421. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bjorklund, Barbara R. The Journey of Adulthood / Barbara R. Bjorklund, Florida Atlantic University.—Eighth edition. pages cm ISBN-13: 978-0-205-97075-9 ISBN-10: 0-205-97075-3 1. Adulthood—Psychological aspects. 2. Aging—Psychological aspects. 3. Adulthood. 4. Aging. I. Title. BF724.5.B44 2015 155.6—dc23 2013045246 For Lily Pearl Zeman, my ninth grandchild, whose arrival was every bit as glorious as my first! This page intentionally left blank Contents v Preface ix 1 Introduction to Adult Development 3 Basic Concepts in Adult Development 4 Sources of Change 7 Normative Age-Graded Influences 7 Normative History-Graded Influences 8 Nonnormative Life Events 10 Sources of Stability 10 Genetics 12 Environment 12 Interactionist View 13 A Word About “Age” 14 Setting the Course: Some Guiding Perspectives 15 Life-Span Developmental Psychology Approach 15 Bioecological Model of Development 15 Developmental Research 17 Methods 18 Measures 23 Analyses 24 Designs 27 A Final Word 30 Summary 30 Key Terms 32 Suggested Reading 32 2 Physical Changes 35 Theories of Primary Aging 36 Oxidative Damage 36 Genetic Limits 37 Caloric Restriction 38 A Word on Theories of Primary Aging 39 Physical Changes During Adulthood 39 Outward Appearance 39 The Senses 44 Bones and Muscles 48 Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems 51 Brain and Nervous System 52 Immune System 53 Hormonal System 54 Changes in Physical Behavior 56 Athletic Abilities 56 Stamina, Dexterity, and Balance 57 Sleep 58 Sexual Activity 60 Individual Differences in Primary Aging 63 Genetics 64 Lifestyle 64 Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Group 65 Can We “Turn Back the Clock” of Primary Aging? 66 An Overview of the Physical Changes in Adulthood 66 Summary 68 Key Terms 69 Suggested Reading 70 3 Health and Health Disorders 73 Mortality Rates and Causes of Death 74 Morbidity Rates, Disease, and Disability 74 Common Health Conditions 74 Disability 75 Self-Ratings of Health 76 Specifi c Diseases 77 Cardiovascular Disease 77 Cancer 78 Diabetes 79 Alzheimer’s Disease 80 People Living with Age- Related Diseases and Disabilities 82 Contentsvi Mental Disorders 83 Anxiety Disorders 85 Mood Disorders 85 Impulse Control Disorders 87 Substance Abuse Disorders 87 Treatment of Mental Health Disorders 87 Nonmedical Solutions 88 Assistive Technology 88 Assistance Animals 89 Individual Differences in Health 89 Lifestyle 89 Gender 90 Socioeconomics, Race, and Ethnicity 91 Personality and Behavior Patterns 94 Genetics 95 Developmental Origins 96 The Road to Good Health 97 Summary 98 Key Terms 100 Suggested Reading 101 4 Cognitive Abilities 103 Intelligence 104 Age Changes in Overall Intelligence 104 Components of Intelligence 106 Reversing Declines in Intellectual Abilities 107 Memory 109 Short-Term and Working Memory 109 Declarative and Nondeclarative (Procedural) Memory 111 Prospective Memory 114 Slowing Declines in Memory Abilities 114 Memory in Context 115 Decision Making and Problem Solving 117 Individual Differences in Cognitive Change 120 Health 121 Genetics 122 Demographics and Sociobiographical History 123 Schooling 123 Intellectual Activity 124 Physical Exercise 125 Subjective Evaluation of Decline 126 Cognitive Assistance 126 Medication Adherence 126 Social Networking 127 E-Readers and Electronic Games 128 Safe Driving 129 Review of Cognitive Changes over the Adult Years and a Search for Balance 130 Summary 132 Key Terms 133 Suggested Reading 134 5 Social Roles 137 Social Roles and Transitions 138 Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes 139 Social Roles in Young Adulthood 140 Leaving (and Returning) Home 142 Becoming a Spouse or Partner 144 Becoming a Parent 148 Social Roles in Middle Adulthood 152 The Departure of the Children: The Empty Nest 152 Gender Roles at Midlife 153 Becoming a Grandparent 153 Caring for an Aging Parent 155 Social Roles in Late Adulthood 157 Living Alone 158 Becoming a Care Receiver 159 Social Roles in Atypical Families 160 Lifelong Singles 160 The Childless 161 Divorced (and Remarried) Adults 162 The Effect of Variations in Timing 163 Summary 165 Key Terms 166 Suggested Reading 167 6 Social Relationships 169 Theories of Social Relationships 170 Attachment Theory 170 The Convoy Model 172 Socioemotional Selectivity Theory 172 Evolutionary Psychology 173 Intimate Partnerships 174 Contents vii Establishing an Intimate Relationship 175 Successful Marriages 179 Cohabitation and Marriage 182 Same-Sex Partnerships 183 Relationships With Other Family Members 186 General Patterns of Family Interaction 186 Parent–Child Relationships in Adulthood 187 Grandparent– Grandchild Relationships 191 Relationships with Brothers and Sisters 195 Friendships in Adulthood 196 Friendship Networks 196 Pets as Friends 197 Facebook Friends 197 Summary 200 Key Terms 201 Suggested Reading 202 7 Work and Retirement 205 The Importance of Work in Adulthood 206 Super’s Theory of Career Development 206 Gender Differences in Career Patterns 207 Selecting a Career 209 Theories of Career Selection 209 The Effects of Gender 210 Family Influences 213 The Role of Genetics 214 Age Trends in Work Experience 215 Job Performance 215 Job Training and Retraining 216 Job Satisfaction 217 Work and Personal Life 218 Work and the Individual 218 Work and Marriage 220 Work and Parenthood 221 Work and Caregiving for Adult Family Members 223 Household Labor 224 Retirement 225 Preparation for Retirement 226 Timing of Retirement 226 Reasons for Retirement 227 Effects of Retirement 229 Alternatives to Full Retirement 233 A Concluding Note 235 Summary 236 Key Terms 238 Suggested Reading 238 8 Personality 241 Personality Structures 242 Personality Traits and Factors 242 Differential Continuity 244 Mean-Level Change 244 Intra-Individual Variability 245 Continuity, Change, and Variability Coexist 247 What Do Personality Traits Do? 247 Explanations of Continuity and Change 250 Genetics 250 Environmental Influences 251 Evolutionary Psychology Explanations 252 Cultural Differences 253 Summing Up Personality Structure 253 Theories of Personality Development 254 Psychosocial Development 254 Ego Development 259 Mature Adaptation 261 Gender Crossover 263 Positive Well-Being 264 Summary 267 Key Terms 269 Suggested Reading 270 9 The Quest for Meaning 273 Why a Chapter on the Quest for Meaning? 274 The Study of Age-Related Changes in Meaning Systems 276 Changes in the Quest for Meaning 277 Religion, Spirituality, and Health 279 Theories of Spiritual Development 281 Development of Moral Reasoning 281 Development of Faith 287 Contentsviii Integrating Meaning and Personality: A Preliminary Theoretical Synthesis 290 A Synthesizing Model 291 Stages of Mystical Experience 292 The Process of Transition 293 Commentary and Conclusions 295 Summary 297 Key Terms 299 Suggested Reading 299 10 Stress, Coping, and Resilience 301 Stress, Stressors, and Stress Reactions 302 Types of Stress 304 Effects of Stress 306 Physical Disease 306 Mental Health Disorders 307 Individual Differences in Stress-Related Disorders 309 Stress- Related Growth 313 Coping with Stress 315 Types of Coping Behaviors 315 Social Support 318 Personality Traits and Coping 320 Resilience 321 Reactions to Trauma 321 Individual Differences in Resilience 322 Resilience in Military Combat and Deployment 323 A Final Word on Stress and Resilience 324 Summary 324 Key Terms 326 Suggested Reading 326 11 Death and Bereavement 329 Achieving an Understanding of Death 330 Meanings of Death 330 Death Anxiety 331 Accepting the Reality of One’s Eventual Death 333 The Process of Death 333 Stages of Reactions to Death 334 The Importance of Farewells 335 Individual Adaptations to Dying 335 Choosing Where to Die 337 Choosing When to Die 340 After Death Occurs: Rituals and Grieving 342 Ritual Mourning: Funerals and Ceremonies 342 The Process of Grieving 345 Living and Dying: A Final Word 348 Summary 348 Key Terms 350 Suggested Reading 351 12 The Successful Journey 353 Themes of Adult Development 354 Emerging Adulthood (Ages 18 to 24) 357 Young Adulthood (Ages 25 to 39) 358 Middle Adulthood (Ages 40 to 64) 360 Older Adulthood (Ages 65 to 74) 364 Late Adulthood (Age 75 and Older) 365 Variations in Successful Development 367 Individual Differences in Quality of Life 368 Other Measures of Life Success 370 A Model of Adult Growth and Development: Trajectories and Pathways 373 Summary 379 Key Terms 380 Suggested Reading 381 References 383 Glossary 411 Credits 419 Author Index 422 Subject Index 431 Preface The Journey of Adulthood is now in its eighth edition, and it continues to capture the dynamic process of adult development from early adulthood to the end of life. Its core is made up of research findings from large-scale projects and major theories of adult development, but it also reflects smaller studies of diverse groups, showing the influences of gender, culture, ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic background on this journey. I have balanced new research with clas- sic studies from pioneers in the field of adult development. And I have sweetened this some- times medicinal taste with a spoonful of honey—a little personal warmth and humor. After all, I am now officially an older adult who is on this journey along with my husband, looking ahead at the examples our parents’ journeys gave us, and back toward our children, who are blazing their own trails. As of this edition, we have nine grandchildren—six of whom are beginning their own journeys of adulthood either as college students or starting their careers. New in This Edition • New information on electronics use: the proportion of people of different ages using the Internet, cell phones, e-readers, and e-games; the sleep-related problems related to using electronic “blue screen” devices before bedtime or during the night; the popularity of online dating services and some words of caution about their claims; and the relationship between early hearing loss and the use of MP3 players at top volume with earbuds. • Increased importance of animals in our lives: the use of dogs and monkeys as assistance animals for people with disabilities; the use of comfort animals for people in stressful situations or with mental health problems; and the social support people of all ages report receiving from their pets. • New research on veterans: the association between head injuries and PTSD; the asso- ciation between head injuries and dementia; the collaboration between researchers in positive psychology and the U.S. Army to boost resilience in combat troops. • More studies of the effects of discrimination and inequality: older people reminded of the “poor memory” stereotype score lower on memory tests; young girls of mothers who believe the “girls are not good at math” stereotype score lower on math tests; people in minority groups who perceive they are discriminated against have lower levels of health; African-American adults experience middle age differently than other groups; same-sex couples experience more violence and aggression, less fam- ily support, less openness about their relationships; the increase in neighborhoods designated “food deserts” because of scarcity of grocery stores and abundance of fast-food restaurants. • More research on a wider range of younger and older adults. More older people are in the workforce in the United States and some European countries; longitudinal studies of attachment between infancy and age 18; long-time married couples report being “very intensely in love”; social convoys of people from emerging adulthood to age 90; increase in sex without commitment, or “hookups” for young adults; survey results of sexuality from age 70 to 94. ix x Preface • New information on top age-related diseases, including heart disease, cancer, diabe- tes, and Alzheimer’s disease. Updated risk factors for common age-related conditions, including cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration, osteoporosis, and osteoarthritis. All the tables of risk factors contain information about what younger adults can do for prevention. New findings on genetic contributions to age-related diseases. The first chapter of the book contains the basics for the course—definitions, methods, and guiding perspectives for the study of adult development. The next seven chapters cover traditional developmental topics, featuring recent research, classic studies, current theories, new directions, and practical applications. The next three chapters cover top- ics not traditionally found in adult development texts, but which I feel are important to round out a student’s experience in this course—the quest for meaning; the inevitability of stress, coping, and resilience in adult life; and the way we face our own deaths and that of our loved ones. The final chapter takes a chronological look at adult development, in contrast to the topical themes in the earlier chapters, and also suggests a model of adult development that will pull the threads together and tie up loose ends. Changes in the Field of Adult Development The study of adult development is a fairly new field, and it expands exponentially from year to year. It began as a field of psychology, but more and more disciplines have shown interest in the changes that take place over the adult years. This book includes information from researchers who identify themselves as psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, epidemiologists, behavior geneticists, cellular biologists, biogerontolo- gists, and many other types of scientists. The terminology and methods in these fields have become more and more similar, and many researchers publish in the journals of a variety of fields. This edition of The Journey of Adulthood reflects the wonderful collaboration going on and the richness of a number of multidisciplinary projects. It is an exciting time in developmental science, and this book reflects that energy. Some of the projects that have been tapped for this textbook are the Midlife in the United States Study (MIDUS), the Berlin Study of Aging, the Grant Study of Harvard Men, the National Comorbidity Study, the Nun Study of the School Sisters of Notre Dame, the Victoria Longitudinal Study, the Swedish Twin Study, the National Survey of Sexual and Health Behavior, The Women’s Health Study, and the National Longitudinal Mortality Study. To emphasize these collaborations, I have identified each major researcher or theorist with his or her field of study. Two editions ago I was struck with the diversity of scien- tific fields contributing to the adult development literature. I want this book to reflect that diversity. When I discuss some particular work in detail, I give the full names of the researchers and how they identify their field of study. I hope that the students who are interested in adult development will take note and consider these areas when they declare their majors or make plans for graduate school. As professors, we need to remember that we not only teach the content of the courses, but also guide our students in career decisions. Another change in the field of adult development is that increasingly more research projects reported in major journals are done by international groups of researchers in set- tings all over the developed world. We no longer are limited to information on adults in the United States; we also have research being done by Swedish, Japanese, and Egyptian scientists using Swedish, Japanese, and Egyptian participants. When the findings are similar to studies done in the United States, we can be more confident that the develop- mental phenomenon being studied is an integral part of the human experience and not something particular to people in the United States. When the findings are different from studies done in the United States, we can investigate these differences and find their roots. xiPreface I have identified these international research teams and the nationalities of their partici- pants. I hope this accentuates the global aspects of our academic community, and as a seasoned traveler myself, I hope it inspires students to consider “study abroad” programs. I include full names of major researchers and theorists when I discuss their work in detail. Seeing the first and last names makes the researchers more real to the students than conventional citations of “last names, comma, date.” Full names also reflect the diversity of scientists–often their gender and their national or ethnic backgrounds. Our students represent a wide range of races and ethnicities, and the time of science being the sole domain of an elite group most of us cannot identify with is gone. One of the most exciting changes in the field of adult development has been its expan- sion to emphasize a wider and wider range of age groups. When I first began writing in this area, the focus of interest was older adults. The last two editions of this book have featured more and more studies of young adults, middle-aged adults, and emerging adults. This edition has added more research on the opposite end of the age spectrum—those who are 75, 80, 90 years of age and older. Although having people in this age group is nothing new, the growing numbers of them have made it important (and relatively easy) to include them in studies of adult development. Clearly the study of adult development is no longer the study of certain specific age groups; it is now truly a study of every aspect of adulthood. I have tried to capture this inclusion by choosing topics, examples, opening stories, photos, suggested reading, and critical thinking questions that represent the entire adult life span. Changes in the World Around Us Since the last edition of this book, there have been many changes in the world around us. As I write this preface, we seem to be recovering from the financial setbacks that began in 2008. Unemployment and underemployment are a still a problem for many, and almost every family has been touched by financial setbacks of one sort or another. Troops are coming back from Iraq, but many have war-related disabilities that include posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Single-parent families and dual- earner families in the United States (and in many other developed countries) are having a rough time; they receive little cooperation from the government, the workplace, or the community to assist them in caring for both job and family. Many older women, especially those who live alone, are living below the poverty line. The United States has the highest rates of mental disorders of any developed country, and most of the people experiencing these symptoms do not get adequate treatment. Unhealthy lifestyles are resulting in increased health problems for many adults in the developing world, and the ages of those affected are extending to both the younger and older end of the spectrum. Although I try to maintain a positive tone in this book, these aspects of adult life are realities, and I have included them in the topics discussed in The Journey of Adulthood . Other changes in the world around us are more positive. Health awareness is increasing at all ages, advances are being made in many areas of disease prevention, detection, and treatment, and a greater percentage of people in developed countries are living into old age. The rate of cancer deaths continues to decline as advances are made in early detection and treatment. Although there is still no treatment for aging and no sign of a way to increase the existing maximum life span, people are increasing the number of healthy years in their lives. Programs such as hospice are making it possible for an growing number of people to choose to have “a good death” when that time comes. Women are making great strides in professional careers and in their positive adjustment to children leaving home and wid- owhood. Communication technology has made it easier for families to stay in touch and for older adults to live independently. The average age of people using social media, cell phones, and e-games is increasing. These are also among the topics selected for this book. xii Preface Changes in the Classroom Courses in adult development are offered in all major colleges and universities in the United States and are becoming popular around the world. It is safe to say that gradu- ates in almost all majors will be working in fields that deal with the changes that occur during adulthood. It is also safe to say that students in all majors will be dealing with the topic on a personal level, both their own progress through adulthood and that of their parents. My students at Florida Atlantic University this semester are majoring in psy- chology, counseling, nursing, criminal justice, premedical sciences, prelaw, social work, occupational therapy, sociology, and education. About one half are bilingual, and about one third speak English as a second language. The majority will be the first in their families to graduate from college. I no longer assume that they have the same academic backgrounds as students a decade ago. For these reasons, I include basic definitions of key terms in the text of each chapter, clear explanations of relevant statistical methods, and basic details of major theories. I meet the readers knowing that the “typical student” is an outdated stereotype, but I meet them with respect for their intelligence and moti- vation. I firmly believe that it is possible to explain complex ideas clearly and connect with students from a variety of backgrounds and experiences. I do it every week in my lectures, and I do it in this book. Highlights of Chapters in This Edition Chapter 1 serves as an introduction to the study of adult development, beginning with the concept of development being both stable and changing. I use my own journey of adulthood as an example of these concepts and invite students to think of their own lives in these terms. Two guiding perspectives are introduced, Baltes’s life-span developmental approach and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model. Hopefully students will feel com- fortable with those straightforward theories and move smoothly into the next section on developmental research. I don’t assume that all students have taken a research methods class, so I limit the methods, measures, analyses, and designs to those that are used in later chapters. In fact, I use some of these later studies as examples, hoping that students will feel comfortable with them when they encounter them later in the book. New in this chapter: • Current events added to table of normative history-graded influences. • The role of methylation in epigenetic inheritance. The theme of Chapter 2 is primary aging , the physical changes that take place pre- dictably in most of us when we reach certain milestones in our journeys of adulthood. Again, I begin with some basic theories, including Harmon’s theory of oxidative damage, Hayflick’s theory of genetic limits, and the theory of caloric restriction. Then I cover age-related physical changes, including outward appearance, the senses, the bones and muscles, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the brain and nervous system, the immune system, and the hormonal system. Most of the age-related changes in these sys- tems are gradual, but much can be done to avoid premature aging (and much of that can be done in early adulthood, such as avoiding excessive exposure to sunlight and tobacco use). Next I cover four areas of more complex functioning—(a) athletic abilities; (b) stam- ina, dexterity, and balance; (c) sleep; and (d) sexual activity, all of which decline gradually with age. I cover some of the ways these declines can be slowed, but end the chapter with the caution that so far, we have no proven way to “turn back the clock” of time. xiiiPreface New in this chapter: • Research on noise exposure levels for MP3 players. • Evidence that high levels of sports participation in adolescents is a risk factor for osteoarthritis in young and middle adulthood. • Studies of master athletes (up to age 90) and their oxygen uptake abilities. • The connection between blue screens (smart phones, tablets, e-games) and insomnia. • The prevalence of hookups —casual sex without commitment—among emerging adults. • The concept of food deserts— neighborhoods with a high number of fast-food restau- rants and a low number of stores selling …